Chapter XIX, showing the reduction in lumber cost coming from using the

same material over a second or third time, should be studied in this connection. The leading firms of engineering-contractors which both design and construct reinforced concrete buildings fully realize these opportunities and take advantage of them, but the general practitioner, particularly if he be an architect, does not do so. The authors have personal knowledge of one building in which a slight change in spacing and dimensions of beams--a change that would have been of no architectural or structural significance--would have reduced the successful contractor's bid for the work by $10,000. The designing engineer should hold it as a cardinal point in design that form work, and we will add here reinforcement also, should so far as possible be made interchangeable from bay to bay and from floor to floor. ~KIND OF LUMBER.~--The local market and the character of the work generally determine the kind of lumber to be used for forms. The hardwoods are out of the question for form construction because they cost too much and are too hard to work. Among the soft woods white pine costs too much for general use and hemlock is unreliable when exposed to the weather. This reduces the list generally available to spruce, Norway pine and the southern pines. Neither green nor kiln-dried lumber is so good as partially dry stuff, since the kiln-dried lumber swells and crushes or bulges the joints and green lumber does not swell enough to close the joints. Forms have to withstand, temporarily, very heavy loads, therefore, knots, shakes and rot must be watched after. The choosing of good lumber is a simple process and the contractor who wants to be able to rely on his forms will look after it carefully, without going to extremes which the work does not warrant. ~FINISH AND DIMENSIONS OF LUMBER.~--Dressing the lumber serves four important purposes: It permits the forms to be constructed more nearly true to line and surface; it permits tighter joint construction; it gives a smoother surface finish to the concrete, and it facilitates the removal and cleaning of the forms. Undressed lumber may be used for the backs of walls and abutments, for work below ground and wherever a smooth and true surface is unimportant; there are some contractors, however, who prefer lumber dressed on one side even for these purposes because of the smaller cost of cleaning. For floor and wall forms the lumber should always be dressed on one side; where the work is very particular both sides should be dressed, and in special cases the sides of the joists or studs against which the lagging lies may be dressed. For ordinary work a square edge finish does well enough but for fine face work a tongue and groove or bevel edge finish is preferable. The tongue and groove finish gives a somewhat tighter joint on first laying but it does not take up swelling or resist wear so well as the bevel edge finish. When ordering new lumber for forms the contractor will save much future work and waste if he does it from plans. Timber cut to length and width to go directly into the forms reduces both mill and carpenter work on the site, and in many cases it can be so ordered if ordered from plans. Waste is another item that is reduced by ordering from plans; with lumber costing its present prices crop ends run into money very rapidly. When old lumber from a previous job is to be used the contractor can only make the best of his stock, but even here form plans will result in saving. Sort and pile the old lumber according to sizes and make a schedule of the quantity of each size on hand; this schedule in the hands of the man who designs the forms and of the head carpenter will materially reduce waste and carpenter work. It is often possible especially in making concrete foundations for frame buildings to use lumber for forms which is subsequently used for floor beams, etc., in the building. Contractors differ greatly in their ideas of the proper thickness of lumber to use for various parts of form work. Generally speaking 1¼ to 2-in. stuff is used for wall lagging held by studding and 1-in. stuff when built into panels; for floor lagging 1-in stuff with joists spaced up to 24 ins. or when built into panels; for column lagging 1¼ to 2-in. stuff; for sides of girders 1, 1¼, 1½ and 2-in. stuff are all used; and for bottoms of girders, 1½ and 2-in. stuff. These figures are by no means invariable as a study of the numerous examples of actual form work given throughout this book will show. ~COMPUTATION OF FORMS.~--If the minimum amount of lumber consistent with a given deflection is to be used in form work the sizes and spacing of the supporting members must be actually computed for the loading. As a practical matter of fact the amount of material used and the arrangement of the supports are often subject to requirements of unit construction, clearance, staging, etc., which supersede the matter of economical adaptation of material to loading. The designing of form work is at best, therefore, a compromise between rules of thumb and scientific calculation. In wall work empirical methods are nearly always followed. In girder and floor slab work, on the other hand, design is commonly based on computation. In the matter of loads the general practice is to assume the weight of concrete as a liquid at some amount which it is considered will also cover the weight of men, barrows, runways and current construction materials. The assumed weights vary. One prominent engineering firm assumes the load to be the dead weight of concrete as a liquid and the load due to placing and specifies that the forms shall be designed to carry this load without deflection. Mr. W. J. Douglas, Engineer of Bridges, Washington, D. C, assumes for lateral thrust on wall forms that concrete is a liquid of half its own weight, or 75 lbs. per cu. ft. Mr. Sanford E. Thompson, Consulting Engineer, Newton Highlands, Mass., assumes for dead load, weight of concrete including reinforcement as 154 lbs. per cu. ft., and for live load, 75 lbs. per sq. ft. on slabs and 50 lbs. per sq. ft. in figuring beam and girder forms and struts. The assumed safe stresses in form work may be taken somewhat higher than is usual in timber construction, because of the temporary character of the load. In calculating beams the safe extreme fiber stress may be assumed at 750 lbs. per sq. in. The safe stress in pounds per square inch for struts or posts is shown by Table XV, compiled by Mr. Sanford E. Thompson. The sizes of struts given are those most commonly used in form work. TABLE XV.--SAFE STRENGTH OF TIMBER STRUTS FOR FRAME WORK. --Dimensions of Strut.-- Length Strut. 3×4-in. 4×4-in. 6×6-in. 8×8-in. Feet. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. 14 ..... 700 900 1,100 12 600 800 1,000 1,200 10 700 900 1,100 1,200 8 850 1,050 1,200 1,200 6 1,000 1,200 1,200 1,200 In using this table it must be borne in mind that bracing both ways reduces the length of a long strut. For example, if a strut 24 ft. long be divided into three panels by bracing the length of strut so far as the table is concerned is 8 ft. As stated above wall forms are rarely computed. Experience has shown that the maximum spans of various thicknesses of lagging between supports are: 1-in. boards, 24 ins.; 1½-in. plank, 4 ft., and 2-in. plank, 5 ft. Studding will vary in size from 2×4 to 4×6 ins., strutted and braced horizontally to meet conditions. Column forms, like wall forms, are rarely computed, yokes being spaced 2 ft. apart for 1¼-in. lagging up to 3 to 3½ ft. apart for 2-in. lagging. Floor forms, including girder and slab forms, are computed on the basis of a maximum deflection and not on the basis of strength. Sagging forms are liable to rupture the beam or slab. The amount of deflection considered allowable varies from no deflection up to 3/8 to ½ in. Assuming the deflection, permissible thickness of the timber necessary to carry the load is determined by the formulas: d = 5 W l³ ÷ 384 E I (1) and bh³ I = --- (2) 12 Formula (1) is the familiar one for computing deflection for a beam supported (not fixed) at the ends. Mr. Sanford F. Thompson suggests using the constant {3/384}, which is an approximate mean between {1/384} that for beams with fixed ends and {5/384} that for beams with ends supported. Formula (1) then becomes d = 3 W l³ ÷ 384 E I, in which as above: d = maximum deflection in inches. W = total load on plank or joist. l = length between supports in inches. E = modulus of elasticity of lumber. I = moment of inertia of cross-section. b = breadth of lumber. h = depth of lumber. The deflection, d, being assumed formula (1) is solved for I, moment of inertia. Substituting the value of I in formula (2) we can readily estimate the size of joist or thickness of plank to use.--For spruce, yellow pine and the other woods commonly used in form work E may be taken equal to 1,300,000 lbs. per sq. in. ~DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION.~--The main points to be kept in mind in the original design and construction of forms are: Economy in lumber, economy in carpenter work, and economy in taking down, carrying and re-erecting. Economy in lumber is not merely the matter of using the least amount of lumber that will serve the purpose considering the form as an isolated structure. It may be possible to build a column form, for example, of very light material which will serve to mold a single column, but it is evident that we could better afford to use twice this amount of lumber if by doing so we obtained a form which could be used over again to mold a second column; no more lumber per column would be used while the cost of erecting a form already framed is less than the cost of framing a new form. Economy in lumber in form construction involves, therefore, recognition of the economies to be gained by repeated use of the lumber. A certain amount of additional sturdiness is required in the shape of heavier form lumber and stronger framing to provide for the wear and tear of repeated use, and it is always economy to provide it when repeated use is possible. The thing can be overdone, however; there is an economical limit to repeated use, as we demonstrate further on. In the matter of economy in carpenter work, a certain amount of extra work put into framing the forms to withstand the stress of repeated use is economically justifiable. Also carpenter work put into framing which substitutes clamps and wedges for nails is sound economy; generally speaking a skillful form carpenter is recognized by the scarcity of nails he uses. The possibility of reducing carpenter work by ordering lumber to length and width from plans has already been mentioned. It is possible often to go a step further by having certain standard panels, boxes, etc., made in regular shops. Piece work is often possible and will frequently reduce framing costs. In designing for economy in taking down, carrying and re-erecting forms a cardinal point should be that the work be such that it can be executed by common laborers. This result can be very nearly approached by careful design, even for form work that is quite complex, if a special gang is devoted to the work and trained a little in the various operations. Design the forms so that they come apart in units by simply removing bolts, clamps and wedges. They can then be taken down, carried and erected by common laborers with a skilled man in charge to meet emergencies and to true and line up the work. In the matter of details the joints deserve particular attention. In column and girder forms, generally, joints will be square or butt joints, and to get them tight the lumber must be dressed true to edge. Tight joints are considered essential by many not only to avoid joint marks but for the more important reason that otherwise, with wet mixtures, a honeycombed concrete is produced by leakage. Where tight joints are desired tongue and groove stock or stock cut with one edge beveled and the other square give the best results. The authors believe that the best general satisfaction will be got from the bevel edge stock placed so that the bevel edge of one board comes against the square edge of the next board; undue swelling then results in the bevel edge cutting into the adjacent square edge without bulging. Tongues and grooves suffer badly from breakage. As a matter of fact square edged stock, if well dressed and sized and well filled with moisture, can be used and is used with entire success in nearly all kinds of work. The leakage will be very slight with ordinarily good butt joints and so far as surface appearance goes joint marks are more cheaply and more satisfactorily eliminated by other means than attempting to get cabinet work in form construction. Where girder forms join columns or beams connect with girders and at the angles of floor slabs with beams the edges or corners of the forms should be rounded. The edges of beams and column corners will appear better if beveled; a triangular strip in the corners of the forms will provide this bevel. Forms and mold construction for ornamental work call for and are given special consideration in Chapter XXIII. In conclusion, the reader should study the specific examples of form construction for different purposes that are given throughout the book for hints as to special practice and details. ~UNIT CONSTRUCTION OF FORMS.~--Unit construction has a somewhat variable meaning in form work. In wall and tank work and in some other kinds of work unit construction means the use of form units which are gradually moved ahead or upward as the concreting progresses or of form units which are used one after another in continuous succession as the concreting progresses. In column, girder and floor work unit construction means the division of the form work as a whole and also of the individual forms into independent structural units; thus in forms for a building the column forms may be independent of the girder forms and also each column and girder form be made up of several separate units. In all cases unit construction has for its purpose the use of the same form or at least the same form lumber over and over for molding purposes. Every time the use of the same form is repeated, the cost of form work per cubic yard of concrete placed is reduced. The theoretical limit of economical repetition is then the limit of endurance of the form, the practical limit, however, is something quite different. Most concrete work varies in form or dimensions often enough to prevent the use of the same forms more than a few times, and even if these variations did not exist the time element would enter to prevent the same form or form lumber being used more than a certain number of times. Unit construction to give repeated use of forming has, therefore, its economic limits. The significance of this conclusion does not lie in any novelty that it possesses but in the fact that for any piece of work it determines the labor that may profitably be expended in working out and constructing form units. ~LUBRICATION OF FORMS.~--All forms for concrete require a coating of some lubricant to prevent the concrete from adhering to the wood with which it comes in contact. Incidentally this coating tends to give a smoother surface to the concrete and to preserve the wood against damage by its alternate wetting and drying. The great value of lubrication is, however, that it reduces the cost of removing forms. The requisite of a good coating material is that it shall be thin enough to spread evenly and to fill the pores and grain of the wood. Crude oil or petroline makes one of the best coatings, but various other greasy substances will serve. Where the forms are not to be removed until the concrete has set hard a thorough wetting of the wood just before the concrete is placed is all the coating necessary. Any concrete adhering to forms should be thoroughly cleaned off before they are used again and the wood underneath given a special heavy coating. ~FALSEWORKS AND BRACING.~--The falseworks which support the forms proper and stagings for workmen, runways, material hoists, etc., do not call for any striking differences in construction and arrangement from such work elsewhere. For wall forms inclined props reaching from ground to studding are used for walls of moderate height such as retaining walls, wing walls, and abutments. For building walls of some height a gallows frame arrangement or the common braced staging used by masons and carpenters is used. In building construction, however, movable forms are commonly employed for walls more than one story high and should always be employed above one story to save staging timber. Column forms are seldom braced unless erected without connecting girder or floor forms at their tops, and then only by diagonal props to the floor or ground. Girder and floor supports usually consist of uprights set under the girder form at intervals and occasionally under floor slab forms. The spacing of props and uprights will be regulated by the judgment of the foreman and boss carpenter; no general rule is applicable, except that enough lumber must be used to hold the forms rigid and true to line and level. The various illustrations of actual formwork which follow are the best guides to good practice. ~TIME FOR AND METHOD OF REMOVING FORMS.~--No exact time schedule for removing forms is wise in concrete work. Concrete which is mixed wet sets slower than dry concrete and concrete sets slower in cold weather than it does in warm weather. Again the time of removal is influenced by the risk taken by too early removal, and also by the nature of the stresses in the member to be relieved of support. In all cases the forms should be removed as soon as possible so that they can be used over again and so that the concrete may be exposed to the air to hasten hardening. The following suggestions as to time of removal are general and must be followed with judgment. Using dry concrete in warm weather the forms for retaining walls, pedestals, isolated pillars, etc., can be removed in 12 hours; using wet or sloppy concrete the time will be increased to 24 hours. In cold weather the setting is further delayed and inspection is the only safe guide to follow. Very cold weather delays setting indefinitely. Forms for small arch work like sewers and culverts may be removed in 18 to 24 hours if dry concrete is used, and in 24 to 48 hours if wet concrete is used. The time for removing large arch centers should not be less than 14 days for spans up to 50 ft. if the arch is back-filled at once; when the center is not to be used again it is better to let it stand 28 days. For very large arches the problem becomes a special one and is considered in Chapter XVII. In building construction the following schedule is a common one. Remove the column forms in 7 days and the sides of the girder forms and the floor lagging in 14 days leaving the bottom boards of the girder forms and their supports in place for 21 days. As an example of individual practice the following requirements of a large firm of concrete contractors are given: Walls in mass work, 1 to 3 days, or until the concrete will bear pressure of the thumb without indentation. Thin walls, in summer, 2 days; in cold weather, 5 days. Slabs up to 6-ft. span, in summer, 6 days; in cold weather, 2 weeks. Beams and girders and long span slabs, in summer, 10 days or 2 weeks; in cold weather, 3 weeks to 1 month. If shores are left without disturbing them, the time of removal of the sheeting in summer may be reduced to 1 week. Column forms, in summer, 2 days; in cold weather, 4 days, provided girders are shored to prevent appreciable weight reaching columns. Conduits, 2 or 3 days, provided there is not a heavy fill upon them. Arches, of small size, 1 week; for large arches with heavy dead load, 1 month. The method of removing forms will vary in detail with the character of the structure. With proper design and lubrication of forms they will ordinarily come away from the concrete with a moderate amount of sledge and bar work. If the work will warrant it, have a special gang under a competent foreman for removing forms. The organization of this gang and the procedure it should follow will vary with the nature of the form work, and they are considered in succeeding chapters for each kind of work. ~ESTIMATING AND COST OF FORM WORK.~--It is common practice to record the cost of forms in cents per cubic yard of concrete, giving separately the cost of lumber and labor. This should be done, but the process of analysis should be carried further. The records should be so kept as to show the first cost per 1,000 ft. B. M. of lumber, the number of times the lumber is used, the labor cost of framing, the labor cost of erecting and the labor cost of taking down, all expressed in M. ft. B. M. In this way only is it possible to compare the cost of forms on different kinds of concrete work, and thus only can accurate predictions be made of the cost of forms for concrete work having dimensions differing from work previously done. It is well, also, to make a note of the number of square feet of exposed concrete surface to which the forms are applied. Some of the items mentioned demand brief explanation. Framing and erecting costs are kept separate for the reason that the framing is done only once, whereas the erecting occurs two or more times. The lumber cost, where the material is used more than once, can be computed in two ways. An example will illustrate the two modes of procedure. In one of the buildings described in Chapter XIX the lumber cost $30 per M. ft. B. M. and was used three times. As 34,000 ft. B. M. were required to encase the 200 cu. yds. of concrete in one floor, including columns, it would have required 34,000 ÷ 200 = 170 ft. B. M. of lumber at $30 per M. per cubic yard of concrete if it had been used only once. But since it was used three times we may call it 170 ft. B. M. at $10 per M. per cubic yard of concrete, or we may call it 170 ÷ 3 = 57 ft. B. M. at $30 per M. per cubic yard of concrete. The authors prefer the first method, due to the fact that it is 170 ft. B. M. that is handled and taken down each time and it is more consistent to have the lumber cost on the same basis thus: 170 ft. B. M. of lumber at $10 per M $1.70 170 ft. B. M. handled at $2 per M 0.34 170 ft. B. M. erected at $7 per M 1.19 ----- Total 170 ft. B. M. per cu. yd $3.23 Returning to our main thought, there are three ways of recording the cost of form work: (1) In cents per cubic yard of concrete; (2) in cents per square foot of concrete face to which forms are applied, and (3) in dollars per 1,000 ft. B. M. of lumber used. In all cases the cost of materials and of labor should be kept separate. It is well if it can be done to attach a sketch of the forms to the record. So much for the general method of recording costs in form work. In estimating the probable cost of forms for any job the following method will be found reliable: Having the total cubic yards of concrete in the work and the time limit within which the work must be completed determine the number of cubic yards that must be placed per day, making liberal allowances for delays. Next estimate the number of thousands of feet board measure of forms required to encase the concrete to be placed in a day. This will give the minimum amount of lumber required, for it is seldom permissible to remove the forms until the concrete has hardened over night. Now we come to the very important and puzzling question of the time element, particularly in work where it is possible to use the same forms or the same form lumber two or more times. It has already been pointed out that wet concrete sets more slowly than dry concrete; that all concrete sets more slowly in cold than in warm weather, and that the support of forms is necessary a longer time for pieces subject to bending stress like arches and girders. General suggestions as to specific times for removing forms have also been given. Where the specifications state the time of removal the contractor has a definite guide, but where they do not, as is most often the case, he must depend very largely on judgment and previous experience. Another matter which deserves consideration is the use of the forms as staging for runways or tracks. Such use may result in forms having to stand on work for sake of their service as trestles much longer than there is any necessity so far as supporting the concrete is concerned. A derrick or cableway may often prove cheaper than tieing up form lumber by trying to make it serve the double purpose of a trestle. The possibilities of repeated use of forms and of unit construction of forms have already been noted. This is the next point to be considered in estimating form lumber. At the expense of a little planning movable forms can be used to materially reduce the amount of lumber required. The reader is referred particularly to the chapters on retaining wall, conduit and building work for specific data on movable form work. Having estimated the amount of lumber required and the number of times it can be used the labor cost of framing, erecting and taking down can be figured. In ordinary retaining wall work forms will cost for framing and erection from $6 to $7 per M. ft. B. M. To tear down such forms carefully and to carry the lumber a short distance will cost some $1.50 to $2 per M. ft. B. M. We have then a cost of $7.50 to $9 per M. ft. B. M. for each time the forms are erected and torn down. Where movable panels are used and the forms not ripped apart and put together again each time there is of course only the cost of moving, which may run as low as 50 cts. per M. ft. B. M. Framing and erecting centers for piers will run about the same as for retaining wall. At this point it may be noted that in estimating the cost of forms for plain rectangular piers the following method will give very accurate results. Ascertain the surface area of the four sides of the pier. Multiply this area by 2, and the product will be the number of feet board measure of 2-in. plank required. Add 40 per cent. to this, and the total will be the number of feet board measure of 2-in. plank and of upright studs (4×6), spaced 2½ ft. centers. Sometimes 3×6-in. studs are used, and spaced 2 ft. centers, which requires practically the same percentage (40 per cent.) of timber for the studs as where 4×6-in. studs are used and spaced 2½ ft. centers. No allowance is made for timber to brace the studs, since, in pier work, it is customary to hold the forms together either with bolts or with ordinary No. 9 telegraph wire, which weighs 0.06 lb. per foot. The foregoing data can be condensed into a rule that is easily remembered: _Multiply the number of square feet surface area of the sides and ends of a concrete pier by 2.8, and the product will be the number of feet board measure required for sheet plank and studs for the forms._ If the form lumber can be used more than once, divide the number of feet board measure by the number of times that it can be used, to ascertain the amount to be charged to each pier. Forms can be erected and taken down for $8 per M. carpenters being paid $2.50 and laborers $1.50 a day. Since there are 2.8 ft. B. M. of forms per square foot of surface area of concrete to be sheeted, it costs 2¼ cts. for the labor of carpenters per square foot of surface area to be sheeted. If lumber is worth $24 per M., and is used three times, then the lumber itself also costs 2¼ cts. per sq. ft. of surface area of concrete. By dividing the total number of cubic yards of concrete into the total number of square feet of area of surface to be sheeted with forms, the area per cubic yard is obtained. Multiply this area by 4½ cts., and the product is the cost per cubic yard for material in the forms (assumed to be used three times) and the labor of erecting it and taking it down. The cost of framing and erection of forms for building work and of centers for large arches is a special problem in each case and is considered in the chapters devoted to those classes of work.