CHAPTER XXXIV

MARBOD, BISHOP OF RENNES, 1035—1123 Career of Marbod—Relation of his _Liber lapidum_ to the prose _Evax_—Problem of Marbod’s sources—Influence of the _Liber lapidum_—Occult virtue of gems—_Liber lapidum_ meant seriously—_De fato et genesi_. “_Nec dubium cuiquam debet falsumque videri Quin sua sit gemmis divinitus insita virtus; Ingens est herbis virtus data, maxima gemmis._” —_Marbod, Liber lapidum._ [Sidenote: Career of Marbod.] Of medieval Latin Lapidaries the earliest and what also seems to have been the classic on the subject of the marvelous properties of stones is the _Liber lapidum seu de gemmis_ by Marbod, bishop of Rennes,[3063] who lived from 1035 to 1123 and so had very likely completed this work before the close of the eleventh century. Indeed one manuscript of it seems to date from that century[3064] and there are numerous twelfth century manuscripts. These early manuscripts bear his name and the style is the same as in his other writings. Born in the county of Anjou, Marbod attended the church school there, became the schoolmaster himself from 1067 to 1081, during which time he probably composed the _Liber lapidum_, then served as archdeacon under three successive bishops, and finally himself became a bishop in 1096. He attended church councils in 1103 and 1104 and died in September, 1123, in an Angevin monastery, whose monks issued a eulogistic encyclical letter on that occasion, while two archdeacons celebrated his integrity, learning, and eloquence in admiring verse. Marbod’s own productions are also in poetical form. It is interesting to note that despite his early date he was eulogized not as a lone man of letters in an uncultured age but as “the king of orators, although at that time all Gaul resounded with varied studies.” [Sidenote: Relation of the _Liber lapidum_ to the prose _Evax_.] The _Liber lapidum_ is a Latin poem of 734 hexameters describing sixty stones. In the opening lines Marbod writes: “Evax, king of the Arabs, is said to have written to Nero, Who after Augustus ruled next in the city.[3065] How many the species of stones, what names, and what colors, From what regions they came, and how great the power of each one.” Making use of this worthy book, Marbod has decided to compose a briefer account for himself and a few friends only, believing that he who popularizes mysteries lessens their majesty. As a result of this opening line and the fact that in some manuscripts Marbod’s own name is not given, his poem is sometimes listed in the catalogues as the work of Evax.[3066] There is also, however, extant a work in Latin prose which opens, “Evax, king of Arabia, to the emperor Tiberius greeting.”[3067] But as this prose work is not much longer than Marbod’s poem, and seems to be known only from a single manuscript of the fourteenth century, it is doubtful if it is the work which he professed to abbreviate. This prose work is also ascribed to Amigeron or Damigeron,[3068] to whom we have already seen that the author of _Lithica_ was supposed to be indebted and whose name was regarded as that of a famous magician. After alluding to the magnificent gifts which the emperor had sent to Evax by the centurion Lucinius Fronto and offering this book in return, the author of the prose version lists seven stones appropriate, not, strangely enough, to the seven planets, but to seven of the signs of the zodiac.[3069] Fifty chapters are then devoted to as many stones, beginning with _Aetites_, which is twenty-fifth in Marbod’s list, and ending with _Sardo_, while _Sardius_ comes tenth in Marbod’s poem. Marbod’s own order, however, sometimes varies in the manuscripts.[3070] [Sidenote: Problem of Marbod’s sources.] King, and Rose after him, asserted[3071] that despite Marbod’s professed abridgement of a work which Evax was supposed to have presented to Tiberius, he drew largely from Isidore of Seville’s _Etymologies_. Rose thought that some of the descriptions of stones were from Solinus, the rest from Isidore, but that the account of their virtues was from Evax. King also noted occasional extracts from the Orphic work, _Lithica_, which is not surprising in view of the fact that both Evax and the _Lithica_ seem based on Damigeron. This question of sources and ultimate origins is, however, as usual of relatively little moment to our investigation. My own impression would be that in antiquity and the middle age there exists a sort of common fund of information and stock of beliefs concerning gems which naturally is drawn upon and appears in every individual treatise upon them. But the number of gems discussed and the order in which they are considered or classified varies with each new author, and there is apt to be a similar variation in the number of statements made concerning any particular stone and the way in which these are arranged. In fine, all ancient and medieval accounts of the natures and virtues of stones bear a general resemblance to one another which is more impressive than is the similarity between any two given accounts, and testify to a consensus of opinion and to a common learned tradition concerning gems which is more significant than the possible borrowings of individual authors from one another. [Sidenote: Influence of the _Liber lapidum_.] However, there seems to be little doubt that the poem of Marbod is itself an outstanding work among medieval accounts of precious stones, first because of the early date of its authorship, and second because of its late persistence and popularity, which is indicated by the fourteen editions that appeared after the invention of printing.[3072] Its convenient form perhaps accounts to a considerable extent for its popularity. At any rate the manuscripts of it are numerous, and it was much used by subsequent writers of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, although citations of _Lapidarius_ cannot always be assumed to refer to Marbod. But at least the notions concerning gems which we find in his poem are a fair sample of what we should find in any Latin treatment of the same subject for several centuries to come. It is found also in a medieval French version. [Sidenote: Occult virtue of gems.] It does not make much difference where we begin or what stones we select from Marbod’s list as examples, since the same sort of marvelous powers are ascribed to all of them. In his prologue Marbod describes the occult virtues of gems as those “whose hidden cause gives manifest effects.” No one should doubt them or think them false, “since the virtue in gems is divinely implanted. Enormous virtue is given to herbs, but the greatest to gems.” Adamant, hard as it is, cracks when heated with goat’s blood. It counteracts the action of the magnet. It is used in the magic arts and makes its bearer indomitable. It drives off nocturnal specters and idle dreams. It routs black venom, heals quarrels and contentions, cures the insane, and repels fierce foes. Allectory, found inside cocks, slakes thirst. Milo overcame other athletes, and kings have won battles by its aid. It restores promptly those who have been banished, enables orators to speak with a flow of language, makes one welcome on every occasion, and endears a wife to her husband. It is advised to carry it concealed in the mouth. The sapphire nourishes the body and preserves the limbs whole. Its bearer, who should be most chaste, cannot be harmed by fraud or envy and is unmoved by any terror. It leads those in bonds from prison. It placates God and makes Him favorable to prayers. It is good for peace-making and reconciliation. It is preferred to other gems in hydromancy, since prophetic responses can be obtained by it. As for medicinal qualities, it cools internal heat, checks perspiration, powdered and applied with milk it heals ulcers, cleanses the eyes, stops headache, and cures diseases of the tongue. Gagates, worn as an amulet, benefits dropsy; diluted with water, it prevents loose teeth from falling out; fumigation with it is good for epileptics and it is thought to be hostile to demons; it remedies indigestion and constipation and overcomes magical illusions (_praestigia_) and evil incantations. Also _Per suffumigium mulieri menstrua reddit_ * * * * * _Et solet, ut perhibent, deprehendere virginitatem. Praegnans potest aquam triduo qua mersus habetur Quo vexabatur partum cito libera fundit._ Gagates burns when washed with water; is extinguished by anointing it with olive oil. The magnet is especially used in the illusions of magic. The great Deendor is said to have first used it, realizing that there was no more potent force in magic, and after him the famous witch Circe employed it. Among the Medes experience revealed still further virtues of the stone. It is used to test a wife’s chastity while she is sleeping; if she is unchaste, she will fall out of bed when the gem is applied to her head. A burglar can commit theft unmolested by sprinkling it over hot coals and so driving away all the occupants of the house. In the case of _Chelonitis_ Marbod’s account is very similar to that in Pliny’s _Natural History_,[3073] citing the Magi for the power of divination it bestows when carried under the tongue at certain times of the moon, according to whose phases its power varies. Of the gems hitherto described only in the case of adamant and gagates was there any resemblance between Marbod and Pliny and there only partial. Pliny also briefly states that the stone _diadochos_ resembles beryl, but does not have Marbod’s statements that it is employed in water divination to show varied images of demons, “nor is there other stone stronger to evoke shades.” But if by chance it comes in contact with a corpse, it loses its wonted force, since the stone is sacred and abhors dead bodies.[3074] [Sidenote: _Liber lapidum_ was meant to be taken seriously.] The vast powers, not only medicinal and physical, but of divination and magic, over the mind and affections, miraculous and supernatural, even over God, as in the statement that the sapphire can be employed to secure a more favorable answer to prayer, which Marbod assigns to gems without a sign of scruple or scepticism or disapproval on his part, have so shocked some moderns that suggestions have been made, in order to explain away the acceptance of talismanic powers of gems to such a degree by a Christian clergyman who became a bishop, that Marbod must have composed his poem when quite young and lived to repent it, or that he regarded it merely as a poetical flight and exercise, not as an exposition of scientific fact. But wherefore then was it not only widely read in the literary twelfth century but also widely cited as an authority in the scientific and equally Christian thirteenth century? No; everyone else took it precisely as Marbod meant it, as a serious statement of the marvelous powers which had been divinely implanted in gems. And why should not God be more easily reached through the instrumentality of gems, since He had endowed them with their marvelous virtues? Marbod affirms his own faith in the great virtues of gems not only at the beginning but the close of his poem, stating that while some have doubted the marvelous properties attributed to them, this has been due to the fact that so many imitation gems are made of glass, which deceive the unwary but of course lack the occult virtues of the genuine stones. If the stones are genuine and duly consecrated, the marvelous effects will without a doubt follow. [Sidenote: _De fato et genesi._] Marbod’s belief in the almost boundless talismanic virtues of gems is thrown into the higher relief by the fact that in another of his poems he makes an attack upon genethlialogy or the prediction of the entire life of the individual from the constellations at his birth. In _De fato et genesi_ he writes against “the common notion” (_opinio vulgi_) that all things are ruled by fate, that the hour of nativity controls man’s entire life, and the contention of the _mathematici_ that the seven planets control not only the external forces with which man comes in contact but also human character. He objects to such a doctrine as that, when Venus and Mars appear in certain relations to the sun, the babe born under that constellation will be destined to commit incest and adultery in later life. He objects that such beliefs destroy all the foundations of morality, law, and future reward or punishment; contends that there are certain races which never commit adultery or crime, yet have the same seven planets; and argues that since Jews are all circumcised on the eighth day, they should all have the same horoscope. These are familiar contentions, at least as old as Bardesanes. Marbod declares further that the astrological writer, Firmicus, employs “infirm arguments,” and that his own horoscope, taken according to Firmicus’ methods and interpreted likewise, turned out to be false, “as I proved when once I dabbled in that art.” This is interesting as showing that Gerard of York[3075] was not the only bishop of the eleventh century who was acquainted with the work of Julius Firmicus Maternus, and that even opponents of astrology are apt to have once been dabblers in it. Marbod concludes his poem with this neat turn: “I thought I ought to write these lines briefly against genethlialogy. Nevertheless, that I may not seem to repel fate and horoscope utterly, I assert that my fate is the Word of the supreme Father, By Whom should all things be ruled and all men confess; And I say that the computation of my constellation is innate in me And the liberty by which I can tend whither I will. Therefore, if my will shall be in conjunction with reason In the sign of the Balances with Christ regarding me, All things will turn out prosperously for me here and everywhere:— This is the favorable horoscope of all Christ’s followers.” GENERAL INDEX Names of men of learning will be found for the most part in the bibliographical index. Aaron, 357, 379, 464, 507 Abacus, 698, 704 Abbreviation, 135, 500, 624 Abdomen, diseases of, 577 Abimelech, 399 Abortion, 61, 94 Abraham the patriarch, astrology and science of 350, 353, 355, 411, 703; magic use of name of, 437, 449, 726 Abraxas, 371, 379 _Abrotonum_, an herb, 495 Abscess, 93 Abstinence from animal food, 295, 308, 314 Academy, the, 268, 270, 602 Accusation of magic against, Galen, 125, 165-7; alchemists, 194; Apuleius, 222, 232-40; Apollonius of Tyana, 246; the emperor Julian, 318; Jews, 337, 436-9; Christ and Christians, 337, 383, 395-6, 415, 424, 433, 436-9, 463, 465, 505; pagans, 415; philosophers, 416; heretics, 415, 424; Origen, 461; Priscillian, 380-1, 519-20; Libanius, 538; Bede, 635; Gerbert, 704-5; Constantinus Africanus, 744, 755; Dunstan, 773 Achilles, ghost of, 264; master of, 597 Aconite, 74, 171 Acorn, 740 Acoustics, 185 Acron, 56 Adalbert, bishop of Bremen, 773 Adam, first man, 681 Adamant, 81, 294, 636; swords of, 253, 258; breakable by goat’s blood, 56, 85, 511, 588, 779; by lead, 657 Adder, 279, 721 Adonai, 365, 367, 451, 583, 726 Adrianaion, 434 Adultery, discovery of, 364, 644 Advertising, 186 Aeetes, 329 Aegina, 86, 301 Aelian, a consul, 262 Aemilianus, 224 Aeon, 363-4, 378, 383, 411 Aerimancy or Aeromancy, 344, 629 Aesculapius, shrine of, 283, 329, 379; and see other index _Aetites_, a gem, 257, 329, 330, 581, 777 _Affroselinum_, 765 Agate, 294, 721 Agathodaemon, 173, 292, 379, 587, 661; and see other index Aglaides, 431 Aglaonice, 203 _Agnus castus_, an herb, 756 _Agnus Dei_, 737 Agricultural magic, 21, 70, 79-80, 93-4, 216, 219, 294, 604-5, 626 Ague, 536 Air, importance of pure, 142, 151; pressure of, 188; experiments with, 190-2; and continuity of universe, 206; star in, 478 Albicerius, 518 Alchemy, Egyptian, 12-3; Greek, 59, 131, 193-200, 320, 544-5, 764; Pliny, 81, 193; Arabic and Latin, chap. xxxiii, 368, 398, 649, 663-4, 669-70, 697, 757, 773 Alcmaeon, 324 Alcohol, 468, 765 Alcoholism, 253 Alexander the Great, chap. xxiv, 186, 496, 602; and see other index Alexander of Abonutichus, 277-8 Alexander V, pope, 106 Alexandria, as a center of ancient learning, 27, 39, 48, 105, 109, 123, 145, 187, 224, 291, 318, 348, 449, 541, 552, 763; dissection at, 147; measures of, 144; relations with India, 245; in the pseudo-Clementine _Homilies_, 404, 408 Alexandrina, golden, 739 Alexandrinus Olympius, 300 Alive, taken from, 580, 591; burned, see Crab Allectory, a gem, 779 Allegory and allegorical interpretation, in alchemy, 195-8; of the Bible, 350, 479, 484, 633; in zoology, 396, 500, 502; miscellaneous, 545, 626; and see Symbolism Almanac, 318 Almond, 78 Aloaeus, see Eloeus Alphabet in magic and divination, 197, 370, 380, 592, 664, 711; and see Vowel Alphabetical order, 166, 176, 606, 610 Alpheus, river, 102 Altar, 80, 239, 295, 378 Alum, 765 Amazons, 114, 564, 603 Ambassador, see Embassy Amber, 49, 213 American Indians, 16-17 _Amiantus_, a gem, 81, 213 Ammon, the god, 546, 553, 561-2 Ammon (or, Hammon), King of Egypt, 291 Ammonia, 571 Amnael, an angel, 195 _Amor aquae_, 764 Amulet, Egyptian, 10; in Pliny, 70, 77, 81, 85, 87, 89, 92; in Galen, 166, 172-3, 176; in Plutarch, 204, 294; Gnostic, 380; Aristotle represented as an adept in, 563; post-classical and early medieval medicine, 572, 580, 755; Arabic, 655-6; and see Ligatures and suspensions Amusements, ancient, 137, 486 Anaesthetics, 142, 626 Anastasius, Pope, 461 Anatomy, of Galen, 145-51; Empirics hostile to, 157; of Rasis, 668 Andrew, St., legend of, 435 Andronicus, the prefect, 542 Anemone, 65 Angel, see Spirit Angitia, 329 Anglo-Saxon, manuscripts, chap. xxix, 597, 612-3; medicine, chap. xxxi _Angobatae_, 188 Animal, incapable of magic, 4; in early Greek religion, 23; habits, intelligence, jealousy, and remedies employed by, 26, 57, 73-5, 217-8, 254, chap. xii, 460, 490, 574, 626; use of parts of, 11, 20, 67-70, 75-6, 87, 133, 167, 229, 587, 606, 721, 740, 755, 766; living in fire, 240; sacred, 311; minute, 275; in art, 502; breeding and horoscopes of, 516; and see Abstinence from animal food, Gods, Language, Sculpture, Transformation, and the names of individual animals Anise, 229 Annacus, king, 340 Annunciation, 263 Anonymity, 133, 728 Ant, 71-2, 75, 81, 98, 329, 331; Indian, 636 Anthemius of Tralles, 575 Anthropology, 300 _Anthropos_, Gnostic, 380 Antichrist, 417 Antidote, 130, 154, 253, 441, 494 Antimony, 735 Antioch, 254, 296, 404, 421, 428, 431, 472, 662, 747 Antipathy, 84, 173, 213, 217, 219, 239, 581, 605 Antiphon, an interpreter of omens, 562 Antipodes, 219, 480-1 _Antiscia_, 537 Anubion, 420 Ape, 148, 256; and see Cynocephalus Apelles the painter, 55 Apollo, 23, 93, 212, 253, 294, 317, 326, 371, 429, 735 Apollobeches, 58 Apollonius of Tyana, chap. viii, 165, 244, 288, 295, 390, 435, 465 Apoplexy, 536 Apothecary, 84, 129 Apparatus, magical, 28, 190; and see Magic, materials Apparition, 66, 68, 204, 208, 215, 437-8, 455, 496, 509-10, 779; and see Spirit Appion, 419-20; and see Apion in other index Appius, friend of Cicero, 270 Applied science, ancient, chap. v, 408; early medieval, chap. xxxiii Aquila, disciple of Peter, chap. xvii Aquileia, 124 Arab, Arabia, and Arabic, early poetry, 6; drugs and spices from, 84, 129, 765; Apollonius of Tyana in, 261, 295; magic of, 280; home of the Magi, 476; learning, 31, 159, 174, 189, 578, chaps. xxviii, xxx, xxxii; and see Middle Ages, Translations Arcadia, 214, 249, 283 _Archiater_, 125, 161, 536 Architecture, 122, chap. v Archon, see Spirit Arcturus, 331, 636 Arena, 133, 147; and see Gladiator Areobindus, a consul, 607 Arethusa, 102 _Argemon_, an herb, 79 _Ariolus_, 629 _Aristochia_, an herb, 615 Arithmetic, 126, 319, 619, 628, 704 Armenian, 351, 374, 497, 554 Arms and armor, 344 Aromatics, 311; and see Spice, Unguent Arrow, extracted, 756; poisoned, 767 Art and the Arts, magic and, 6, 28; standards of, 187, 407; early medieval, chap. xxxiii; and see Artisan and the names of various arts Artemis Tauropolos, 429 Artemisia, 89 Artery, 147 Artisan, 482, 486 _Aruspex_, see _Haruspex_ Asbestos, 213-4, 434 Ascension, of Romulus, 274; of Simon Magus, 422 Ascetic, see Monasticism Asclepius, a god, 253, 277, 546, 735; and see other index Ash, tree, 86 Ashes, reduced to, 68, 80, 91, 170, 571-4, 581, 586-8, 590, 721 Ashthroat, an herb, 722 Asp, 57, 85, 324, 494, 571, 580, 587, 626 Asparagus, 599 Asphalt, 132, 574 Asphodel, 88 Ass, 76, 88, 230, 275, 326, 367, 734, 740 Assurbanipal, 15, 27 Assyria, magic of, 11, 15-20, 58, 295, 629; bibliography, 33-5 Astanphaeus, 365, 367 Asthma, 76 Astral theology, 15, 17, 360-1; and see Astrology, Star Astrolabe, 115, 501, 542, 559, chap. xxx, 728 Astrological medicine, 179, 575, 633, 738 Astrology, chaps, iii, ix, xi, xv, xxix, xxx; also, Egyptian, 13-4; Sumerian or Chaldean, 15-7, and see Chaldean; Greek, 22, 25-6; Pliny, 91, 94-7; popular Roman, 127, 285; Galen, 127, 166, 178; Greek philosophy and, 180-1; Vitruvius, 184-5, 187; Hero, 193; alchemy and, 197; Plutarch, 207, 209; Apuleius, 231, 239-40; Brahmans, 253; Lucian, 282-3; Nechepso, Petosiris, and Manetho, 292-3; Solinus, 330; Horapollo, 333; Hermes, 290-2; Enoch, 340-1; Philo Judaeus and Jewish, 353-6; Pseudo-Clement, 410-3; church fathers, 444, 455-8, 464, 466, 471-5, 492; Augustine, 513-21; Firmicus, 529-38; Pseudo-Quintilian, 540; Synesius, 543; Nectanebus, 560-3; Alexander of Tralles, 583; _Herbarium of Apuleius_, 598; _Geoponica_, 604-5; Boethius, 621-2; Isidore, 632-3; Arabic, 644-52, 661-6, 670; Salernitan, 738; Constantinus Africanus, 756; Marbod, 781-2; alchemy and, 763; magic and, 300, 432, 464, 538, 540; and see Christ, birth of; Image; Magi; Planet; Star Astronomy, of Egypt, 13, 542, 545, 559; Tigris-Euphrates, 15-6, 34; India, 31; Greek, 31-2; benefits of, 47, 96; of Ptolemy, 105, 107; and architecture, 122, 185; history of, 366, 707; miscellaneous, 219, 395, 520, 536, 663, 704 Atavism, 141 Atheism, 234 Athens, 28, 95, 142, 217, 230, 249, 429; as center of learning, 135, 200, 222, 242, 269, 277, 538, 541, 602 Athlete, 186, 248, 486 Atlas, Mt., 54 Atom, Atomic theory, Atomism, 140, 169, 178, 205, 408 Attalus, king of Pergamum, 135, 171 Attalus III, 236 Augury, in Assyria, 17; Rome, 95; Seneca, 103; Galen, 171; denied by Atomists, 178; accepted by Stoics, 180; Neo-Platonists, 315; Jews and early Christians on, 352, 458-9, 466, 511, 513, 534, 630; miscellaneous, 560, 629, 673, 705 Auspices, 430, 629 Authority and Authorities, attitude to, citation by, Pliny, 46, 49, 75; Ptolemy, 107; Galen, 118, 152-8, 167; Vitruvius, 186-7; Zosimus, 198; bogus, 215; Cicero, 270; Solinus, 327-8; Hippolytus, 469; Firmicus, 537; Aëtius, 570; Marcellus, 585-6; medieval freedom with, 611; Macer, 614; Isidore, 624-5; Petrocellus, 734; miscellaneous, 32, 215, 778 Automaton, 188, 192, 230, 440 Axle-grease, 92 Baal, priest of, 386 Babel, 453 Babylon and Babylonia, 11, 14-21, 23-4, 31, 33-5, 95, 97, 227, 239, 247-8, 266, 283, 360-1, 376, 383-4, 414, 527, 537, 652, 661, 744 Bagdad, 661-2, 667, 744, 762 Balaam, prophet or magician? 267, 352-3, 385, 445-8, 459; and the Magi, 385, 444, 474, 479, 519 Balach or Balak, 447 Baldness, 536 _Balis_, an herb, 75 Balsam, 392, 738 Baptism, 368, 373, 405, 408, 432 Barbarians, 148, 376, 445, 449, 619, 638 Barbarossa, see Frederick I Barber, 229 Barcelona, 699 Barefoot, 599 Barley, 88; water, 143 _Baroptenus_, a gem, 81 _Barrocus_, an herb, 615 Basilica at Fano, 187 Basilides, the heretic, 372 Basilisk, 67, 70, 75, 169, 494, 573, 603, 626, 636; and cock, 324, 771 Basilius the magician, 639 Basin, 560 Bat, 68-9, 159, 331, 587 Bath, 142-3, 281, 587, 676, 729; public, 140, 295, 434-5; sea, 231-2, 405 Battle predicted, 275 Bayeux Tapestry, 502, 675 Bean, 591 Bear, 75, 92, 219, 367, 490; licks cubs into shape, 168, 177, 331; constellation of the, 179 Beard, 416 Beast, name of the, 582 Beasts, wild, 216, 229, 564, 669; dealers in, 133 Beauty, 300, 486 Beaver, 502, 636; castration of, 231, 332, 574 Bed-bug, 68, 85, 89, 175 Bee, 76, 85, 219, 615, 636, 721; and see Honey Beech tree, 213 Beetle, 81, 219, 581 Behbit el-Hagar, 559 Behemoth, 346-7, 367 Bektanis, 559 Bell, church, 722 Bellerophon, 282 Bell’s palsy, 738 Belt, see Girdle Bemarchius, rival of Libanius, 538 Berenice, 463, 558 Beryl, 780 Bethlehem, star of, see Christ, birth of; Magi, who came to Christ child Betony, 77, 86, 737 Bibliography, of Pliny, 46, 215; Isidore, 623; Peter the Deacon, 746 Bile, 171, 177 Bird, 73, 78, 80, 201, 218, 236, 325, 460, 544; rite of strangling, 301; mechanical, 192, 266; and see Augury and the names of individual birds Birth-control, 94 Birth-mark, 713 Bishop, 542 Bishopwort, 722 Bitumen, 571, 574, 603 Bituminous trefoil, 175 Black, 68, 175, 582, 591 Bladder, 536, 599, 769 Bleeding, 75, 125, 141-2, 162, 177, 576, 676, 679, 681, 684-5, 688, 724, 728, 735, 737-8 Blind, 536, 590 Blood, miraculous, 231; human, use of, 61, 102, 175, 227, 581, 603, 629, 721; human, and the moon, 98, 146, 391; circulation of, 409, 430; of various animals used, 86-7, 89, 131, 159, 166, 175, 587, 590, 727, 729, 737, 766-7; and see Adamant, Bleeding, Hemorrhage Blotch, 640 Boar, 69, 92, 580, 599 Boëthus, 134 Boil, 88 Bones, stuck in throat, 71, 583; number in body, 372; prehistoric, 407; use of, 573, 583, 656 Book, trade in Roman empire, 134-5; magic, 432, 435, 472, 505, 705; loss of, 752 Bordeaux, 568 Borellus, duke, 704 Botany, 20, 65, 129, 343, 463; and see Herb Box, 229, 250 Boy, in divination and magic, 81, 239, 249, 416-9, 463; and peony, 173 Bracelet, 81, 89 Brahmans, 248-54, 258, 266, 376, 407, 410, 412, 450-1, 556, 564 Brain, center of nervous system, 145-6; cavities of, 659-60, 735; inflammation of, 536; of various animals used, see names of individual animals Bread, 89, 424; blessing and breaking, 727 Breastplate of high priest, 495 Breath and breathing, 134, 146, 207, 658 Brindisi, 764 Britain and Briton, 59, 141, 206-7, 376, 489 Bronze, 764 Buddha, 251 Bugloss, viper’s, an herb, 722 _Buglossa_, an herb, 615 Bull, 79, 86, 168, 261, 367, 599, 765-6; tamed by fig-tree, 77, 213, 332, 626 Bulrush, 92 _Buprestis_, 77, 494 Burial, magic, 69-70, 80, 88, 662, 666; alive, 421 Burned to death, 433, 571, 639 Business, 97, 107, 128, 248, 666; early Christian attitude to, 494 Butter, 154, 721-2 Byzantine, 189, 194-5, 323, 398, 482, 555, 569, 607, 732, 745, 761-2 Cabbage, 86, 175 Cabbala, 7, 365 Caesarea, 404-6 Cairo, 8 Calchas, 271 _Calculus_, 536 Calendar, 13-4, 327, 345, 676, 686, 712 Calf, 150, 571 Caligula, emperor, 193, 349 Caliph, 607, 653, 670, 745 _Camaleon_, 600; and see Chameleon Camel, 396, 636 Campus Martius, 424-5 Canal, Isthmian, 262 Candelabrum, 380 Candle, magic, 87, 380, 385, 469 Candlestick, seven-branched, 385, 676 Cannibal, 61-2, 573 Canute, king, 351 Carolingian, 616, 635 Carpenter, 393 _Carpesium_, a drug, 132 Carpocrates, a heretic, 371 Cart rut, 81, 88-91, 721 Carthage, 222, 269, 553, 744 Carton, 129 Carystus, 213 Cask, 767-8 Caspian Sea, 489 Castoria, 739 Cat, 68, 636 Cataract, in eye, 175, 729 Catarrh, 82, 88-9, 142, 176 Caterpillar, 80 Cathedral, 501-2, 761 _Catochites_, a gem, 330 Caul of an ox, 469 Cauldron, 468 Cauterization, 536, 723 Cecrops, 415 Cedar, 20 _Celidonius_, see Swallow-stone Celt and Celtic, 245, 567-8, 722, 732 Cemetery, 434 Cenchrea, 136 Centaur, 603; and see Chiron in other index Centipede, 76, 494, 587 Cerberus, 280 Ceremonial, Egypt, 10; Assyria, 18, 20; Pliny, 64, 69, 71, 77-82, 90; Apuleius, 230, 235; Orphic, 295; rite of strangling birds, 301; Gnostic, 378; Marcellus, 590-2; Arabic, 663; medieval medicine, 726; and see Herb, plucking of; Spirit, invocation of; etc. Chalcite, 132 Chaldean (mostly mere mentions of), 16-7, 98, 102, 185, 201, 230, 239, 250, 253, 272-4, 279, 281, 287, 316, 323, 353, 375-6, 380, 399, 430, 444, 456, 469, 476, 479, 519, 560, 632, 703, 711, 744 _Chalkydri_, 347 Cham, see Ham Chameleon, 62, 175, 581 Chance, experience, 36, 75, 156, 172, 754; and fate, 210 Chaplet, 295 Characters, magic use of, 229, 257, 314, 317, 512, 579, 592-3, 604, 630, 645, 654, 724-30 Charicles, 232 Chariot, 423 Charlatan, 668-9; and see Old-wives Charlemagne, 214, 556, 672, 764 Charon, 277 Chastisements, 204 Chastity, 78, 81, 83, 204, 216, 295, 308, 326, 564, 581, 588, 590, 599, 799-80; and see Virgin Cheese, 142, 325, 509 Chelidonia and Chelidonius, see Swallow-wort and Swallow-stone _Chelonitis_, a gem, 780 Chemical and Chemistry, 132-40, 467-9; and see Alchemy Chick, 76, 754, 771; Aristotle on embryology of, 30, 146 Chickpea, 88 Child-bearing and Child-birth, 76, 78, 84, 87, 92, 94, 102, 175, 177, 216, 253, 260, 295, 325, 496, 581, 685, 713, 726, 738, 740; formation of child in womb, 150, 545, 557, 757; child born after eight months dies, 181, 356, 757; monstrous birth, 627; and see Abortion, Birth-control Chimaera, 367 China and Chinese, 6-7, 214; and see Seres Chiromancy, 386 Chneph or Chnuphis, 379 Chrism, 738 Christ, 137-9, 243, 363, 379, 386, 404-5, 422, 510, 527, 529, 620, 674-5, 782; accused of magic, see Accusation; birth of, and astrology, 386, 438, 457, 464, 471-9, 703; birth, virgin, 460; child, chap. xvi, 390; power of name of, 434, 452, 466, 638-9, 725, 729-30 Christian and Christianity, Book II, _passim_; 137, 139, 207, 275-6, 285, 296, 298, 306, 312, 320, 327, 554, 568, 584, 602, chap. xxvii, 642, 715; and see Religion, Theology Christmas, 678 Chronology, 135, 209, 624, 711; and see Calendar Church fathers, Book II, _passim_, 180, 225, 241, 302, 618 Cicada, 169 _Cinaedia_, 590 Cinnabar, 626, 761, 764 Cinnamon, 129-30, 256 Circe, 21, 65, 324, 434, 509, 629 Circle, magic, 78, 86-7, 91, 197, 281, 366, 599; squaring the, 706; Cardan’s concentric, 769 Circumcision, 449, 475, 781 Circus, 295, 486 City, fortune of, predicted, 273, 283; ancient, 489, 504; ideal, 349-50, 460 Civilization, magic and origin of, 5-6; Pliny as source for history of, 43 Clairvoyance, 647; and see Divination, natural Clarus, 224 Classical heritage, 555, 618, 636; and see Middle Ages Classics, superstition in, 21-4 Claudia, 55 Clay, animals, 393, 769; and see Pottery Climate, 184 Cloak, virtue of, 397, 435 Clock, see Time Clothing, virtue in, 136, 295, 382, chap. xvi, 407, 441, 534, 598, 666; and see names of various articles of Clyster, 142 Cock, 168, 175, 320, 324-5, 766, 771, 779; cock-crow, 280, 405 Cog-wheel, 192 Cold, quality, 140, 161, 219; drink, 141; disease, 589 Colic, 87, 169, 579, 582, 590 Cologne, three kings of, 446, 477 _Colonus_, 638 Colony, Greek, 318 Color, discussed, 140, 486; changing, 216; in magic, 90, 367, 369, 590, 721; and see the names of individual colors Combustible compounds, see Candle Comedy, Greek, 22-4 Comet, 96, 115, 457, 543, 633, 635, 673 Commodus, emperor, 125, 129 Compass, points of, 91, 114, 378, 586, 591, 724 _Compotus_ or _Computus_, 536, 676-7, 728 Compound, magical or medicinal, 10, 83, 140, 152, 159-60, 172, 571, 586-7, 722, 734 Conception, 562, 656, 724, 740 _Condrion_, an herb, 74 Confederate, in magic fraud, 467 Conjunction, astrological, 104, 642, 648-9 Conjuration of an herb, 583; and see Incantation, Spirit, invocation of Consecration, of a painted grape, 80; of gems, 295, 781; and see Holy Constantine the Great, 525ff. Constantine Monomachos, 745 Constantine Porphyrygennetos, 604 Constantius, emperor, 525ff. Constans, emperor, 525ff. Constantinople, 472, 477, 494, 533, 541; and see Byzantine Constellation, 14, 114, 178, 304, 709 Constipation, 779 Consumption, 213, 373, 536, 588 Cook, 148 Copernican theory, 32 Copperas, 467 Coptic, 361, 377 Coral, 656 Cordova, 704, 762 Corinth, 123, 136, 230, 262, 280 Corn extracted, 71 Corpse, 147, 229, 309, 629, 780; and see Necromancy, Resurrection Cosmetics, 152, 668 Cotton, 252 Couch, 561 Cough, 88, 176 Counter-irritant, 723 Cow, 77, 79, 81, 85, 325, 769 Crab, and snake, 99; river, use of eye of, 68-9; burned alive, 80, 178; use of ash of, 170, 572; stone in head of, 737 Crane, sentinel, 217; windpipe of, used in magic, 278, 467 Craw-fish, 217 Creation, 16, 346, 408, chap. xxi, 504-5, 627-8; position of stars at, 711, 713 Credulity and scepticism, chap. ix; in Pliny, 50-1, 61-4, 67, 70, 77, 80-1, 88, 98; Galen and the Empirics, 157-8, 168-9, 175; Seneca, 102-3; Plutarch, 204, 212-3; other cases, 225, 244, 255, 388, 440, 491-2, 539, 573-4, 626, 637, 655, 671, 780 Crete, 129, 135, 249, 260 Cricket, 67, 737 Crime and criminal, 147, 167, 171, 207, 225, 581; and see Magic, evil and criminal; Sin Critical days, 158, 161, 164, 179-80, 356, 756 Crocodile, 74, 166, 218, 238, 280 Cropleek, 722 Cross, nail from, 280; in sky, 475; sign of, 432, 434, 466, 638-9, 722 Crow, 207, 314, 324, 409, 636, 655 Cruelty, 136, 225 Crystal, 294, 767 Cube, 184 Cuckoo, 81 Cummin seed, 93 Cuneiform, 15 Cup, Joseph’s divining, 386 Cupping glass, 192 Curlew, 217 Curse, 28, 93, 366, 434 Cynics, 277 _Cynocephalia_, an herb, 67 Cynocephalus, 70, 333 Cyprus, magic of, 59; oil of, 68; Galen’s visit to, 131-2 Cyrene, 541 Dacian, 597 Daedalus, 283 Daily life, magic in, 9-10, 20; experience from, 54 Danish, 612 Dardanus, a magician, 58-9, 463, 558 Darius, 256, 260 “Dark Ages,” 618 Date, the fruit, 20 Date, discussed of, Ptolemy, 105; Hero, 188; Greek alchemists, 193-4; works of Apuleius, 222-5; Solinus, 326-7; Horapollo, 331; Enoch literature, 341-2; apocryphal Gospels, 388-9; _Pseudo-Clementines_, 404-6; _Physiologus_, 497-9; Augustine, 504; _Mathesis_ of Firmicus, 526-7; Synesius, 541; Pseudo-Callisthenes and Julius Valerius, 552-5; Aëtius, 570; Marcellus, 584-5; early medieval pseudo-literature, 594-6; Macer, 612-3; Thebit, 661;