War and Peace by graf Leo Tolstoy

CHAPTER II

890 words | Chapter 319

One of the most obvious and advantageous departures from the so-called laws of war is the action of scattered groups against men pressed together in a mass. Such action always occurs in wars that take on a national character. In such actions, instead of two crowds opposing each other, the men disperse, attack singly, run away when attacked by stronger forces, but again attack when opportunity offers. This was done by the guerrillas in Spain, by the mountain tribes in the Caucasus, and by the Russians in 1812. People have called this kind of war “guerrilla warfare” and assume that by so calling it they have explained its meaning. But such a war does not fit in under any rule and is directly opposed to a well-known rule of tactics which is accepted as infallible. That rule says that an attacker should concentrate his forces in order to be stronger than his opponent at the moment of conflict. Guerrilla war (always successful, as history shows) directly infringes that rule. This contradiction arises from the fact that military science assumes the strength of an army to be identical with its numbers. Military science says that the more troops the greater the strength. Les gros bataillons ont toujours raison. * * Large battalions are always victorious. For military science to say this is like defining momentum in mechanics by reference to the mass only: stating that momenta are equal or unequal to each other simply because the masses involved are equal or unequal. Momentum (quantity of motion) is the product of mass and velocity. In military affairs the strength of an army is the product of its mass and some unknown x. Military science, seeing in history innumerable instances of the fact that the size of any army does not coincide with its strength and that small detachments defeat larger ones, obscurely admits the existence of this unknown factor and tries to discover it—now in a geometric formation, now in the equipment employed, now, and most usually, in the genius of the commanders. But the assignment of these various meanings to the factor does not yield results which accord with the historic facts. Yet it is only necessary to abandon the false view (adopted to gratify the “heroes”) of the efficacy of the directions issued in wartime by commanders, in order to find this unknown quantity. That unknown quantity is the spirit of the army, that is to say, the greater or lesser readiness to fight and face danger felt by all the men composing an army, quite independently of whether they are, or are not, fighting under the command of a genius, in two—or three-line formation, with cudgels or with rifles that repeat thirty times a minute. Men who want to fight will always put themselves in the most advantageous conditions for fighting. The spirit of an army is the factor which multiplied by the mass gives the resulting force. To define and express the significance of this unknown factor—the spirit of an army—is a problem for science. This problem is only solvable if we cease arbitrarily to substitute for the unknown x itself the conditions under which that force becomes apparent—such as the commands of the general, the equipment employed, and so on—mistaking these for the real significance of the factor, and if we recognize this unknown quantity in its entirety as being the greater or lesser desire to fight and to face danger. Only then, expressing known historic facts by equations and comparing the relative significance of this factor, can we hope to define the unknown. Ten men, battalions, or divisions, fighting fifteen men, battalions, or divisions, conquer—that is, kill or take captive—all the others, while themselves losing four, so that on the one side four and on the other fifteen were lost. Consequently the four were equal to the fifteen, and therefore 4x = 15y. Consequently x/y = 15/4. This equation does not give us the value of the unknown factor but gives us a ratio between two unknowns. And by bringing variously selected historic units (battles, campaigns, periods of war) into such equations, a series of numbers could be obtained in which certain laws should exist and might be discovered. The tactical rule that an army should act in masses when attacking, and in smaller groups in retreat, unconsciously confirms the truth that the strength of an army depends on its spirit. To lead men forward under fire more discipline (obtainable only by movement in masses) is needed than is needed to resist attacks. But this rule which leaves out of account the spirit of the army continually proves incorrect and is in particularly striking contrast to the facts when some strong rise or fall in the spirit of the troops occurs, as in all national wars. The French, retreating in 1812—though according to tactics they should have separated into detachments to defend themselves—congregated into a mass because the spirit of the army had so fallen that only the mass held the army together. The Russians, on the contrary, ought according to tactics to have attacked in mass, but in fact they split up into small units, because their spirit had so risen that separate individuals, without orders, dealt blows at the French without needing any compulsion to induce them to expose themselves to hardships and dangers.

Chapters

1. Chapter 1 2. CHAPTER XXVIII 3. CHAPTER XXI 4. CHAPTER XIX 5. CHAPTER XVI 6. CHAPTER XXII 7. CHAPTER XXVI 8. CHAPTER XIII 9. CHAPTER XXII 10. CHAPTER XXIII 11. CHAPTER XXXIX 12. CHAPTER XXXIV 13. CHAPTER XVI 14. CHAPTER XIX 15. CHAPTER XIX 16. CHAPTER XX 17. CHAPTER XVI 18. CHAPTER XII 19. CHAPTER I 20. CHAPTER II 21. CHAPTER III 22. CHAPTER IV 23. CHAPTER V 24. CHAPTER VI 25. CHAPTER VII 26. CHAPTER VIII 27. CHAPTER IX 28. CHAPTER X 29. CHAPTER XI 30. CHAPTER XII 31. CHAPTER XIII 32. CHAPTER XIV 33. CHAPTER XV 34. CHAPTER XVI 35. CHAPTER XVII 36. CHAPTER XVIII 37. CHAPTER XIX 38. CHAPTER XX 39. CHAPTER XXI 40. CHAPTER XXII 41. CHAPTER XXIII 42. CHAPTER XXIV 43. CHAPTER XXV 44. CHAPTER XXVI 45. CHAPTER XXVII 46. CHAPTER XXVIII 47. CHAPTER I 48. CHAPTER II 49. CHAPTER III 50. CHAPTER IV 51. CHAPTER V 52. CHAPTER VI 53. CHAPTER VII 54. CHAPTER VIII 55. CHAPTER IX 56. CHAPTER X 57. CHAPTER XI 58. CHAPTER XII 59. CHAPTER XIII 60. CHAPTER XIV 61. CHAPTER XV 62. CHAPTER XVI 63. CHAPTER XVII 64. CHAPTER XVIII 65. CHAPTER XIX 66. CHAPTER XX 67. CHAPTER XXI 68. CHAPTER I 69. CHAPTER II 70. CHAPTER III 71. CHAPTER IV 72. CHAPTER V 73. CHAPTER VI 74. CHAPTER VII 75. CHAPTER VIII 76. CHAPTER IX 77. CHAPTER X 78. CHAPTER XI 79. CHAPTER XII 80. CHAPTER XIII 81. CHAPTER XIV 82. CHAPTER XV 83. CHAPTER XVI 84. CHAPTER XVII 85. CHAPTER XVIII 86. CHAPTER XIX 87. CHAPTER I 88. CHAPTER II 89. CHAPTER III 90. CHAPTER IV 91. CHAPTER V 92. CHAPTER VI 93. CHAPTER VII 94. CHAPTER VIII 95. CHAPTER IX 96. CHAPTER X 97. CHAPTER XI 98. CHAPTER XII 99. CHAPTER XIII 100. CHAPTER XIV 101. CHAPTER XV 102. CHAPTER XVI 103. CHAPTER I 104. CHAPTER II 105. CHAPTER III 106. 1. Discretion, the keeping of the secrets of the Order. 2. Obedience to 107. CHAPTER IV 108. CHAPTER V 109. CHAPTER VI 110. CHAPTER VII 111. CHAPTER VIII 112. CHAPTER IX 113. CHAPTER X 114. CHAPTER XI 115. CHAPTER XII 116. CHAPTER XIII 117. CHAPTER XIV 118. CHAPTER XV 119. CHAPTER XVI 120. CHAPTER XVII 121. CHAPTER XVIII 122. CHAPTER XIX 123. CHAPTER XX 124. CHAPTER XXI 125. CHAPTER XXII 126. CHAPTER I 127. CHAPTER II 128. CHAPTER III 129. CHAPTER IV 130. CHAPTER V 131. CHAPTER VI 132. CHAPTER VII 133. CHAPTER VIII 134. CHAPTER IX 135. CHAPTER X 136. CHAPTER XI 137. CHAPTER XII 138. CHAPTER XIII 139. CHAPTER XIV 140. CHAPTER XV 141. CHAPTER XVI 142. CHAPTER XVII 143. CHAPTER XVIII 144. CHAPTER XIX 145. CHAPTER XX 146. CHAPTER XXI 147. CHAPTER XXII 148. CHAPTER XXIII 149. CHAPTER XXIV 150. CHAPTER XXV 151. CHAPTER XXVI 152. CHAPTER I 153. CHAPTER II 154. CHAPTER III 155. CHAPTER IV 156. CHAPTER V 157. CHAPTER VI 158. CHAPTER VII 159. CHAPTER VIII 160. CHAPTER IX 161. CHAPTER X 162. CHAPTER XI 163. CHAPTER XII 164. CHAPTER XIII 165. CHAPTER I 166. CHAPTER II 167. CHAPTER III 168. CHAPTER IV 169. CHAPTER V 170. CHAPTER VI 171. CHAPTER VII 172. CHAPTER VIII 173. CHAPTER IX 174. CHAPTER X 175. CHAPTER XI 176. CHAPTER XII 177. CHAPTER XIII 178. CHAPTER XIV 179. CHAPTER XV 180. CHAPTER XVI 181. CHAPTER XVII 182. CHAPTER XVIII 183. CHAPTER XIX 184. CHAPTER XX 185. CHAPTER XXI 186. CHAPTER XXII 187. CHAPTER I 188. CHAPTER II 189. CHAPTER III 190. CHAPTER IV 191. CHAPTER V 192. CHAPTER VI 193. CHAPTER VII 194. CHAPTER VIII 195. CHAPTER IX 196. CHAPTER X 197. CHAPTER XI 198. CHAPTER XII 199. CHAPTER XIII 200. CHAPTER XIV 201. CHAPTER XV 202. CHAPTER XVI 203. CHAPTER XVII 204. CHAPTER XVIII 205. CHAPTER XIX 206. CHAPTER XX 207. CHAPTER XXI 208. CHAPTER XXII 209. CHAPTER XXIII 210. CHAPTER I 211. CHAPTER II 212. CHAPTER III 213. CHAPTER IV 214. CHAPTER V 215. CHAPTER VI 216. CHAPTER VII 217. CHAPTER VIII 218. CHAPTER IX 219. CHAPTER X 220. CHAPTER XI 221. CHAPTER XII 222. CHAPTER XIII 223. CHAPTER XIV 224. CHAPTER XV 225. CHAPTER XVI 226. CHAPTER XVII 227. CHAPTER XVIII 228. CHAPTER XIX 229. CHAPTER XX 230. CHAPTER XXI 231. CHAPTER XXII 232. CHAPTER XXIII 233. CHAPTER XXIV 234. CHAPTER XXV 235. CHAPTER XXVI 236. CHAPTER XXVII 237. CHAPTER XXVIII 238. CHAPTER XXIX 239. CHAPTER XXX 240. CHAPTER XXXI 241. CHAPTER XXXII 242. CHAPTER XXXIII 243. CHAPTER XXXIV 244. CHAPTER XXXV 245. CHAPTER XXXVI 246. CHAPTER XXXVII 247. CHAPTER XXXVIII 248. CHAPTER XXXIX 249. CHAPTER I 250. CHAPTER II 251. CHAPTER III 252. CHAPTER IV 253. CHAPTER V 254. CHAPTER VI 255. CHAPTER VII 256. CHAPTER VIII 257. CHAPTER IX 258. CHAPTER X 259. CHAPTER XI 260. CHAPTER XII 261. CHAPTER XIII 262. CHAPTER XIV 263. CHAPTER XV 264. CHAPTER XVI 265. CHAPTER XVII 266. CHAPTER XVIII 267. CHAPTER XIX 268. CHAPTER XX 269. CHAPTER XXI 270. CHAPTER XXII 271. CHAPTER XXIII 272. CHAPTER XXIV 273. CHAPTER XXV 274. CHAPTER XXVI 275. CHAPTER XXVII 276. CHAPTER XXVIII 277. CHAPTER XXIX 278. CHAPTER XXX 279. CHAPTER XXXI 280. CHAPTER XXXII 281. CHAPTER XXXIII 282. CHAPTER XXXIV 283. CHAPTER I 284. CHAPTER II 285. CHAPTER III 286. CHAPTER IV 287. CHAPTER V 288. CHAPTER VI 289. CHAPTER VII 290. CHAPTER VIII 291. CHAPTER IX 292. CHAPTER X 293. CHAPTER XI 294. CHAPTER XII 295. CHAPTER XIII 296. CHAPTER XIV 297. CHAPTER XV 298. CHAPTER XVI 299. CHAPTER I 300. CHAPTER II 301. CHAPTER III 302. CHAPTER IV 303. CHAPTER V 304. CHAPTER VI 305. CHAPTER VII 306. CHAPTER VIII 307. CHAPTER IX 308. CHAPTER X 309. CHAPTER XI 310. CHAPTER XII 311. CHAPTER XIII 312. CHAPTER XIV 313. CHAPTER XV 314. CHAPTER XVI 315. CHAPTER XVII 316. CHAPTER XVIII 317. CHAPTER XIX 318. CHAPTER I 319. CHAPTER II 320. CHAPTER III 321. CHAPTER IV 322. CHAPTER V 323. CHAPTER VI 324. CHAPTER VII 325. CHAPTER VIII 326. CHAPTER IX 327. CHAPTER X 328. CHAPTER XI 329. CHAPTER XII 330. CHAPTER XIII 331. CHAPTER XIV 332. CHAPTER XV 333. CHAPTER XVI 334. CHAPTER XVII 335. CHAPTER XVIII 336. CHAPTER XIX 337. CHAPTER I 338. CHAPTER II 339. CHAPTER III 340. CHAPTER IV 341. CHAPTER V 342. CHAPTER VI 343. CHAPTER VII 344. CHAPTER VIII 345. CHAPTER IX 346. CHAPTER X 347. CHAPTER XI 348. CHAPTER XII 349. CHAPTER XIII 350. CHAPTER XIV 351. CHAPTER XV 352. CHAPTER XVI 353. CHAPTER XVII 354. CHAPTER XVIII 355. CHAPTER XIX 356. CHAPTER XX 357. CHAPTER I 358. CHAPTER II 359. CHAPTER III 360. CHAPTER IV 361. CHAPTER V 362. CHAPTER VI 363. CHAPTER VII 364. CHAPTER VIII 365. CHAPTER IX 366. CHAPTER X 367. CHAPTER XI 368. CHAPTER XII 369. CHAPTER XIII 370. CHAPTER XIV 371. CHAPTER XV 372. CHAPTER XVI 373. CHAPTER I 374. CHAPTER II 375. CHAPTER III 376. CHAPTER IV 377. CHAPTER V 378. CHAPTER VI 379. CHAPTER VII 380. CHAPTER VIII 381. CHAPTER IX 382. CHAPTER X 383. CHAPTER XI 384. CHAPTER XII

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