1919. In 1920, there was a falling off to 137,000,000 pounds, and it may

be that the high figure reached the year before represents about the maximum that her natural market, the Pacific-coast region, can well absorb. For the benefit of those who like to do their own interpreting of figures, we present in the table at the top of this page the official record for recent years. The leading importers of Brazil coffee direct to New York and Baltimore in 1894, as compiled by William H. Force & Co., were as follows. Included in this list are a number of names well known in the green and roasted coffee trades of other cities: DIRECT IMPORTERS OF BRAZIL COFFEE _New York, 1894_ _Bags_ Arbuckle Bros. 688,726 W.H. Crossman & Bro. 355,864 Hard & Rand. 345,541 W.F. McLaughlin & Co. 227,935 J.W. Doane & Co. 207,170 Steinwender, Stoffregen Co. 132,482 J.L. Phipps & Co. 54,617 Dannemillers & Co. 49,449 E. Levering & Co. 47,322 Aug. Stumpp. 44,959 Thomson & Taylor Spice Co. 44,017 G. Amsinck & Co. 38,350 E.H. & W.J. Peck. 33,278 J.H. Labaree & Co. 32,071 Fitch & Howland. 31,515 Shinkle, Wilson & Kreis Co. 25,951 C.D. Lathrop & Co. 23,263 Taylor & Levering. 21,501 Heinrich Haase. 18,976 William T. Levering. 18,796 T.G. Lurman & Co. 18,017 Elmenhorst & Co. 16,221 Sprague, Warner & Co. 14,856 Sorver, Damon & Co. 14,675 Sutton & Vansant 13,957 John O'Donohue's Sons 13,681 Hoffman, Lee & Co. 13,598 S.R. Alexander 12,805 Eppens, Smith & Wiemann Co. 12,719 Baker & Young 11,906 Hanley & Kinsella C. & S. Co. 11,318 Durand & Kasper Co. 11,124 Wm. Schotten & Co. 11,005 C.G. Bullard & Co. 10,653 H.W. Banks & Co. 10,351 Ellis Bros. 10,282 Jacob Baiz 9,146 A. Lueder & Co. 8,492 C.F. Pitt & Sons 8,262 G.F. Gillman 7,927 Bell, Conrad & Co. 6,528 N. Martin & Co. 6,507 J.B. O'Donohue & Co. 6,102 Steele, Wedeles Co. 5,700 G.O. Gordon 5,550 Sherman Bros. & Co. 4,998 F. MacVeagh & Co. 4,763 Benedict & Co. 4,717 Chase & Sanborn 4,505 West & Melchers 4,500 Mokaska Mfg. Co. 4,013 Haebler & Co. 4,000 Robt. Crooks & Co. 3,509 M.M. Levy & Co. 3,037 J.A. Tolman Co. 3,004 Tracy & Avery Co. 3,000 Wells Bros. 2,800 Kirby, Halsted & Chapin Co. 2,754 W.M. Hoyt Co. 2,252 Gt. A. & P. Tea Co. 2,250 Foote & Knevals 2,000 L.W. Minford & Co. 1,800 Wm. Bayne & Co. 1,755 Indiana Coffee Co. 1,650 W.K. Carson & Co. 1,501 Miller, Smith & Co. 1,500 Rufus Woods 1,498 J.G. Flint 1,345 Davenport & Morris 1,250 Canada 1,140 Westfeldt Bros. 1,000 Edw. Westen T. & S. Co. 800 Corbin, May & Co. 750 F. Cannon & Co. 618 Adam Roth Gro. Co. 500 Scudder, Gale Gro. Co. 500 J.H. Taylor & Co. 500 Wm. B. Willson 500 Dwinell, Wright & Co. 500 Swift, Billings & Co. 500 New Orleans Coffee Co. 500 B. Fischer & Co. 401 Smith & Schipper 300 Ulman, Lewis & Co. 281 Ridenour, Baker Gro. Co. 250 W.H. Minor 250 Nave & McCord Merc. Co. 202 Skiddy, Minford & Co. 196 Rossbach & Bro. 184 L. Wolff 149 Reimers & Meyer 50 W.F. Jackson 5 --------- Total 2,791,642 DIRECT IMPORTERS OF BRAZIL COFFEE _Baltimore, 1894_ _Bags_ E. Levering & Co. 40,965 T.G. Lurman & Co. 29,325 C.M. Stewart & Co. 25,499 Thornton Rollins 21,436 William T. Levering 15,884 Steinwender, Stoffregen 12,852 W.B. Willson 11,540 Hoffman, Lee & Co. 8,953 Rufus Woods 8,020 P.T. George & Co. 7,463 Taylor & Levering 6,440 Benedict & Co. 5,434 Brazil Trading Co. 2,666 C.F. Pitt & Sons 2,505 J.W. Doane & Co. 2,500 Enterprise Coffee Co. 1,811 H.M. Wagner & Co. 504 C.D. Lathrop & Co. 503 Mokaska Manufacturing Co. 500 Hanley & Kinsella C. & S. Co. 500 Shinkle, Wilson & Kreis Co. 404 G. Amsinck & Co. 400 Indiana Coffee Co. 251 ------- Total 206,355 _Early Days of Green Coffee in New Orleans_ The history of New Orleans as a coffee port may be considered as beginning with the transfer of Louisiana by Napoleon Bonaparte to the United States in 1803. In this year, according to Martin's _History of Louisiana_, New Orleans imported 1438 bags of coffee of 132 pounds each. In the latter part of the eighteenth century, settlers in large numbers had crossed the Allegheny Mountains from the Atlantic states into the valley of the Ohio River; and their crops of grain and provisions were exported by means of cheaply constructed rafts and boats, which were floated down the river to New Orleans, where they were generally broken up and sold for use as lumber and firewood--there being, at that time, no power available for propelling them back against the current of the river. From 1803 until 1820, on account of the difficulty of navigating upstream, New Orleans imports did not increase as rapidly as exports. In 1814, however, the first crude steamboat had begun to carry freight on the river; and by 1820, the supremacy of New Orleans as the gateway of the Mississippi Valley had been for the time established by this new means of transportation. The coffee-importing business flourished; and, from its modest beginning in 1803, grew to 531,236 bags in 1857. By this time, however, New Orleans had begun to feel the competition of the Erie Canal, and of the systems of east and west railroad lines which had been in the course of active construction during the preceding fifteen years. The railroad systems which had as their ports Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, entered upon a desperate war of freight rates, each in the endeavor to establish the supremacy of its own port. As the building of railroads had been entirely east and west, and no large amount of capital had been invested in north and south lines, much of the business of the valley was diverted to the Atlantic ports, apparently never to return to New Orleans. In 1862, on account of the blockade of the port, not a bag of coffee was imported through New Orleans, and practically none came in until the year 1866, when the small amount of 55,000 bags was the total for the year. At about this time, Boston and Philadelphia became negligible importing quantities; the business of Baltimore continued to be quite prosperous; and New York rapidly increased her imports and took the commanding position. [Illustration: IN THE NEW ORLEANS COFFEE DISTRICT] New Orleans had increased her coffee imports to 250,000 bags in 1871, and the yearly imports continued at about this figure until the last decade of the century, when the business began to expand. The imports had reached a total of 337,000 bags in 1893-1894; and of 373,000 in 1896-97. This was the beginning of a new era, and the coffee business of New Orleans entered upon the period of its greatest growth. Imports were 514,000 bags in 1900-01, and were slightly more than twice that by 1903-04. In 1909-10 the imports had again doubled, and had reached a total for the twelve months ending July 1, 1909, of slightly more than 2,000,000 bags; while the figures for the calendar year 1909 totaled 2,500,000 bags. Borino & Bro., 77 Gravier Street, were the largest importers of coffee in New Orleans in 1869. The principal importers in 1880 were P. Poursine & Co., Westfeldt Bros., Dymond & Gardes, Schmidt & Ziegler, J.L. Phipps & Co., Geo. O. Gordon & Co., and Smith Bros. Shipments were by sailing vessels, a full cargo being about 5000 bags. Fancy grades, like Golden Rios, washed and peaberries, were shipped in double bags. Musty coffees were common, and every bag in a cargo was sampled for must. S. Jackson was first to issue regular manifests. With the entry of steamers into the coffee transport business, New Orleans was placed at a disadvantage as steamer rates were about twenty cents a bag higher to New Orleans than to New York, and imports were limited. The subsequent revival of the business was due largely to Hard & Rand. Being unable to obtain steamer rates equal to those quoted in New York, Hard & Rand chartered steamers for New Orleans; and soon the trade began to offer cost and freight to New Orleans, and the business grew from about 350,000 bags of green coffee per annum to 2,500,000 bags. One of the best remembered names in the green coffee trade of New Orleans is that of Charles Dittman (1848-1920), who for nearly fifty years was one of the leading coffee commission merchants of the country. Mr. Dittman entered the coffee business with Napier & Co., representing E. Johnston & Co., of Rio de Janeiro. In 1875, upon the death of Mr. Napier, the firm changed to Johnston, Gordon & Co., later to G.O. Gordon, and in 1886 to the Charles Dittmann Co. Since his death in 1920, the business has been continued by F.V. Allain and Charles Dittmann, Jr. [Illustration: A SECTION OF THE GREEN COFFEE DISTRICT OF NEW ORLEANS Most of the buildings shown here are occupied by green coffee importing houses. The one on the right with the balconies is the old Board of Trade Building] _Green Coffee in San Francisco_ In the early days of the green coffee business in San Francisco these names stood out as most important among the coffee importers: Hellmann Bros. & Co., Montealegre & Co., E.L.G.S. Steele & Co., and Urruella & Urioste. From their many friends in Central America, they, and others in their line, obtained small consignments that were bought by the roasters according to their immediate needs. Often as many as five or six buyers would share in a parcel of fifty bags, as they were not in the custom of filling up the larder for days of want. There always seemed to be sufficient for every one, and bull movements and corners had not then become the vogue. Just as today, the mainstays of the early San Francisco trade were coffees produced in Costa Rica, Salvador, and Guatemala, although some were brought from the Colima district of Mexico. The broker had a comparatively easy job in selling his wares. Samples of the lots would be given to him in carefully sealed glass bottles, and usually the buyer would trust his discerning eye to judge correctly the quality of the goods, not even taking the trouble to uncork the bottle. Size, color, and imperfections would be his criterion. The leading coffee importers at San Francisco in 1875 were B.E. Auger & Co., 409 Battery; S.A. Carit & Co., 405 Front Street; Hellmann Bros. & Co., 525 Front Street; Adolphe Low & Co., 208 California Street; S.C. Merrill & Co., 204 California Street; Parrott & Co., 306 California Street; and Urruella & Urioste, 405 Front Street. The annual consumption of green coffee in San Francisco in the early eighties was estimated at 100,000 bags. A marked change in the coffee business of San Francisco was brought about by the discovery that the differences in the taste of coffees could not be accurately detected from their color or from the size of bean. To Clarence E. Bickford belongs the credit of having discovered the cup qualities of high-grown Central American coffees. He was employed at the time by a broker named Hockhofler, and probably did not realize what far-reaching effect his discovery would have on the future of San Francisco's coffee trade; but no other factor has contributed so much to its growth. When the roasters began to examine coffees for their taste, values were of course revolutionized. Antiguas, and other high-grown coffees, that had theretofore been penalized for the small size of bean, soon brought a premium, and have ever since been in great demand. It goes without saying that the new classification was of material assistance to the roasters in bettering their output, as blending was then put on a scientific basis. About the middle of the nineties San Francisco began to function as a distributing center, and shipments were made from there to St. Louis and Cincinnati. The selection of coffees on their cup merit was undoubtedly a factor of considerable importance in creating new outlets; although it is generally conceded that the winning personality of C.E. Bickford helped considerably. Mr. Bickford, by this time, had succeeded his former employer. He served the trade by living up to the best standards of business practise until his death in 1908; when the institution he founded was continued by E.H. O'Brien under the name of C.E. Bickford & Co. [Illustration: CALIFORNIA STREET, THE COFFEE-TRADING CENTER OF SAN FRANCISCO] San Francisco imported 175,293 bags of coffee in 1900. Imports had grown to 256,183 bags by 1906; and the following were the leading importers, as taken from a compilation by C.E. Bickford & Co.: IMPORTERS OF COFFEE BY SEA _San Francisco, 1906_ _Bags_ Haas Bros. 38,947 Otis, McAllister & Co. 34,342 Jno. T. Wright 21,741 Geo. A. Moore & Co. 17,851 Castle Bros. 17,397 Lastreto & Co. 15,609 Bloom Bros. 14,372 W.R. Grace & Co. 14,143 Baruch & Co. 9,400 Schwartz Bros. 7,310 Dieckmann & Co. 6,981 H. Hackfeld & Co., Ltd. 4,466 M.J. Brandenstein & Co. 4,281 Urioste & Co. 4,081 Goldtree, Liebes & Co. 3,962 J.Z. Posadas. 3,950 Mohns-Frese Com. Co. 3,714 Welch & Co. 3,385 Thannhauser & Co. 3,328 E. Mejia 2,965 Hind, Rolph & Co. 2,814 Hellmann Bros. & Co. 2,170 Parrott & Co. 2,137 J.A. Folger & Co. 2,094 S.L. Jones & Co. 2,042 Ariza & Lombard 1,133 Hamberger-Polhemus Co. 1,096 Theo. H. Davies & Co., Ltd. 955 Livierato Frères 927 J.D. Spreckels & Bros. Co. 828 McCarthy Bros. 795 W. Loaiza & Co. 642 Wm. Halla 591 H.W. Burmester 582 Williams, Dimond & Co. 399 M. Phillips & Co. 381 Alexander & Baldwin 358 London, Paris & Am. Bank, Ltd. 333 P.J. Knudsen Co. 309 Ballou & Cosgrove 300 M. Schweitzer & Co. 300 Johnson-Locke Merc. Co. 270 The Lewin-Meyer Co. 250 Sperry Flour Co. 231 Canadian Bank of Commerce 200 Porto Rico Coffee Co. 148 McChesney & Sons 145 Bowring & Co. 145 China & Java Export Co. 140 John Weissman 126 Montealegre & Co. 120 W.H. Miller 109 Maldonado & Co. 105 De Fremery & Co. 100 Sundries 683 ------- Total 256,183 [Illustration: BIRD'S EYE VIEW OF SAN FRANCISCO'S COFFEE DISTRICT] The imports of green coffee at San Francisco in 1914-15 amounted to about 400,000 bags. The beginning of the World War was almost coincidental with an energetic campaign waged by San Francisco coffee interests to popularize Central American coffees, and particularly Guatemalas, in this country. The time was well chosen, as the world's exposition at San Francisco offered a good opportunity to acquaint the public with the fine qualities of Guatemala growths. Furthermore, it was necessary to create new markets for these coffees, which in former years had been very extensively used in Europe. Figures show that San Francisco's efforts were crowned with success. In 1916, the importation increased by fifty percent; and in 1917, importations were double those of 1915. In 1918, a total of nearly 1,000,000 bags was reached; and this mark was passed by almost 200,000 in 1919. In 1920, 971,567 bags were imported. The origin of San Francisco's fight for control of Central American coffee dates back to the years 1908 to 1910, when the German Kosmos Line was fighting the Pacific Mail for the Central and South American shipping business. W.R. Grace & Co., at that time, were already the heaviest shippers of American merchandise to the Latin-American countries; and while their own steamers were not touching at Central American ports, they were handling merchandise from the United States and nitrates from the South American countries in their own bottoms, and were also engaged as general carriers for that trade. The fight directed by the Kosmos Line against the Pacific Mail, which at that time was under the control of the Southern Pacific Company, was accordingly directed against the Grace interests also, so far as South American countries were concerned. The fight was long and bitter, and costly to both sides. At times, the contenders offered to take freight, not only without charge, but to pay the shipper a premium for the privilege of carrying his freight. Differences were finally settled in conference; but the experience taught the American interests that they could survive in any territory only if at all times they were able to provide their own cargoes for their own boats, as had been accomplished with nitrate in South America. J.H. Rosseter, the Grace manager, who later became well known as director of operations of the United States Shipping Board during the war, undertook an extended trip to Central America in 1912 to study the situation at close range. There was only one product of Central America that was available in cargo quantities, namely coffee; and naturally his attention was drawn to the possibility of carrying coffee to San Francisco to provide return cargoes for ships of the Pacific Mail, or associated lines, carrying merchandise for the Central American countries. While in Guatemala, Mr. Rosseter outlined a future policy in regard to Central American coffees; the basis being his firm determination that coffees grown in Central America, and logically and geographically tributary to San Francisco distribution, should come to San Francisco in largely increasing quantities. Up to that time San Francisco had received, on an average, only 200,000 bags of Central American coffee annually for the ten preceding years; while Europe had received about 1,500,000 bags a year. The quantity necessary to make San Francisco a factor would call for an importation, on an average, of 750,000 bags--a quantity almost four times as large as then established. This was an extremely ambitious undertaking, considering the conditions then prevailing in Central America. European countries were firmly entrenched in the coffee business in Central America, with Germany leading in Guatemala, France in Salvador and Nicaragua, England and France contending for superiority in Costa Rica, and the United States getting only the leavings. The European countries held their position in the Central American Coffee trade by liberal financing, and a thorough knowledge of the varying qualities of coffee produced on the different plantations. San Francisco, the only important port in the United States dealing in Central American coffees, had neither strong financial entrenchment in Central America nor expert knowledge of coffee quality. Year after year, San Francisco merchants had depended on consignments chosen by the consignors. This rendered quality selection of coffees by the importers impossible. Rosseter, being primarily a steamship man, tackled the proposition from the standpoint of transportation, figuring that if he could establish and maintain preferential steamer service to San Francisco, and steady freight rates, a great step would be accomplished toward the desired end. This led to his interest in the Pacific Mail Company, of which the final outcome was his present position as vice-president of the reorganized Pacific Mail Company. In that capacity he maintained, practically throughout the entire period of the World War, freight rates on coffee from Central America to San Francisco that gave that Pacific port an immediate and definite advantage. This gave merchants in San Francisco the chance to build up a steady trade, and prevented other ports in the United States from entering into serious competition with San Francisco as a distributing point for Central American coffees. The view taken by Rosseter was as far-sighted as it was broad. He argued that with the end of the war there would be no strength in a scattering distribution of Central American coffees by New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco; and the only promise of maintenance of the business for the United States would be in maintaining unity of distribution in one port of the United States, namely San Francisco. The first year open to European competition after the war showed that San Francisco was well able to maintain its lead in Central American coffees. Today, the mortgages formerly held by European merchants on the native coffee plantations, and the control thereby of the produce of these plantations, are in the hands of American merchants; and what is more, out of general merchandising and importing by merchants of San Francisco there have developed expert coffee departments in all of the larger houses. The years of the war brought the product of virtually all plantations in Central America to the intimate knowledge of these expert coffee departments; and today the advantage that Europe formerly had--of knowing exactly what a specific plantation produced--is possessed by San Francisco merchants. This is no small advantage when we consider that in Guatemala and Costa Rica, qualities vary from plantation to plantation, and that often on adjoining plantations there is from three to five cents a pound difference in quality, from the standpoint of cup merit. One can not buy coffee in Central America as in Brazil, as these countries are not highly organized commercially, and the importers here are forced to assume the rôle of the Brazilian _commisario_ and banker. The crop has to be financed from six to nine months before it is brought to the port; and the securities covering such advances are at best of questionable value, on account of political insecurity, and the ever-threatening earthquakes, and the uncertainty of the elements. Distribution of the coffee after it has been brought to San Francisco also involves many difficulties, notwithstanding that the demand is good. This will be better realized when we consider that the Pacific coast, from Alaska to Mexico, and eastward as far as the Rocky Mountains, embraces a population of about 8,000,000, whose annual consumption is estimated at 400,000 bags; and that, as already stated, treble that quantity was imported to San Francisco in 1919. In 1900, ninety-nine firms were engaged in the green coffee importing business (some were roasters also) in New York; six in Philadelphia; twenty-eight in San Francisco; twelve in New Orleans. In 1920, there were two hundred and sixteen in New York; thirty-one in San Francisco; fifteen in New Orleans. _Green Coffee Trade Organizations_ Previous to the organization of the roasters, the only kind of coffee organization in this country of more than local importance was the New York Coffee Exchange, which came into existence in 1881, the organization meeting being held in the offices of B.G. Arnold & Co., at 166 Pearl Street, New York. The Exchange was incorporated December 7, 1881, the incorporators being Benjamin Green Arnold, Francis B. Arnold, William D. Mackey, John S. Wright, William Sorley, Joseph A. O'Brien, H. Clay Maddux, C. McCulloch Beecher, Geo. W. Flanders, and John R. McNulty. B.G. Arnold was the first president. Soon afterward, rooms were rented and fitted up for trading purposes at 135 Pearl Street, at the junction of Beaver and Pearl Streets, and only two blocks away from the more pretentious structure now housing the Coffee Exchange. Actual trading operations did not begin until March 7, 1882. The New York Coffee Exchange was the world's first coffee-trade organization of national proportions. Havre's exchange was inaugurated in 1882, under the name of the Coffee Terminal Market. Five years later, coffee exchanges were opened in Amsterdam and Hamburg; while the exchanges of London, Antwerp, and Rotterdam did not come into existence until the year 1890. The exchange in Trieste, Italy, was organized in 1905; while the Coffee Trade Association of London was started in 1916. The first exchange in Santos was started in 1914. The success of the New York Coffee Exchange led to its imitation in other coffee ports of the United States. Baltimore started a similar organization, early in 1883, under the name of the Baltimore Coffee Exchange; but after a short existence, it petered out. New Orleans organized a green coffee trading association in 1889, as a coffee committee of the Board of Trade. It is still active. The Green Coffee Association of New Orleans, Inc., which is distinct from the Coffee Committee, was established January 7, 1920. San Francisco did not have a trading exchange until 1918, in which year the Green Coffee Association of the San Francisco Chamber of Commerce began operations. _Growth of the Coffee-Roasting Trade_ The wholesale coffee roasting business in the United States seems to have started in the closing years of the eighteenth century. In February, 1790, a "new coffee manufactory" began business at 4 Great Dock Street, New York, and the proprietor announced that he had provided himself at considerable expense with the proper utensils "to burn, grind and classify coffee on the European plan." He sold the freshly roasted product "in pots of various sizes from one to twenty weight, well packed down, either for sea or family use so as to keep good for twelve months." A second roasting plant started up at 232 Queen Street, New York, nearly opposite the governor's house, toward the close of 1790. This second coffee roasting plant was known in 1794 as the City Coffee Works. James Thompson operated a "coffee manufactory" at 25 Thames Street in 1795. In this year there was also the "Old Ground Coffee Works" in Pearl Street, formerly Hanover Square, "three doors below the bank at number 110," operating "two mills, one pair French burr stones" but no orders were accepted here for less than six pounds, at "two pence advanced from the roasting loss." Other coffee manufactories followed in the large towns of the new states; and, always, the coffee was treated "on the European plan." This meant that it was "burnt over a slow coal fire, making every grain a copper color and ridding it all of dust and chaff." There was usually a difference in price of three to four pence a pound between the green and roasted product. Packages of roasted coffee under the half-dozen weight were sold in New York in 1791 for two shillings and three pence per pound, allowance being made for grocers at a distance. In those days, the favorite container was a narrow-mouthed pot or jar of any size. This was the first crude coffee package. In retailing the product, cornucopias made of newspapers, or any other convenient wrapping, were first employed; but, with the introduction of paper bags in the early sixties, the housekeeper soon became educated to this more sanitary form of carry package, and its permanence was quickly assured. The following were listed in Longworth's _Almanack_ as coffee roasters in New York in 1805: John Applegate; Cornelius Cooper; Benjamin Cutler, 104 Division Street; George Defendorf, 83 Chapel Street; William Green; Cornelius Hassey, 14 Augustus Street; Joseph M'Ginley, 28 Moore Street; John W. Shaw, 43 Oliver Street; John Sweeney, Mulberry Street; Patience Thompson, 23 Thames Street. Elijah Withington came from Boston to New York in 1814. He set up a coffee roaster in an alley behind the City Hall and engaged a big, raw-boned Irishman to run it. This was the beginning of a coffee roasting business that has continued until the present day. Withington dealt in Padang interiors, Jamaica, and West Indian coffees, and numbered many society folk among his customers. Withington's business removed to 7 Dutch Street in 1829: and the firm became Withington & Pine in 1830. The roasted coffee business in New York had grown to such proportions in 1833 and gave such promise, that James Wild considered it a good investment to bring over from England for his new coffee manufactory in New York a complete power machinery equipment for roasting and grinding coffee. There was also an engine to run it. It was set up in Wooster Street opposite the present Washington Square. Samuel Wilde, son of Joseph Wilde, of Dorchester, Mass., came to New York about 1840 to make his fortune. He was a young man with vision; and first applied himself with diligence to the hardware and looking-glass business. When he found that most of his customers were theaters and saloons, his religious scruples bade him abandon it, which he did. Meanwhile, in 1844, Withington's pioneer roasting enterprise had admitted Norman Francis and Amos S. Welch as general partners, and Samuel and Charles C. Colgate as special partners, under the style of Withington, Francis & Welch. It so continued until 1848, when Samuel Wilde--who had selected the coffee business as more honorable than the one in which he started--was admitted, and the firm became Withington & Wilde. Mr. Withington retired in 1851, and Samuel Wilde associated with him in the business his sons Joseph and Samuel, Jr., the title becoming Samuel Wilde & Sons. Samuel Wilde, Sr., died in 1862. The title then became Samuel Wilde's Sons. Joseph Wilde died in 1878, and Samuel Wilde, Jr. in 1890, the business being left to and continuing with a younger brother, John, from 1878 to 1894, when John's son, Herbert W. Wilde, became a member of the firm, which continues the old title at 466 Greenwich Street, as Samuel Wilde's Sons Company, having been incorporated in