CHAPTER XXXV

LANGUAGE AND WRITING [Sidenote: Evolution] One of the most interesting subjects of scientific study developed during the last century is that of primitive culture and the gradual advancement of primitive man from a state of savagery to comparative civilization. For this study there are no historical documents in the ordinary use of the words “historical” and “document.” The story must be arrived at by analysis, deduction, even by guess-work, supplementing the studies of travelers among tribes which now are in the lowest stages of development and farthest from civilization, and therefore most resemble our remotest human ancestors. Almost the very earliest of writers on evolution, the Roman poet LUCRETIUS (Vol. 17, p. 107), who died in 55 B.C., sketched general outlines of the development of this primitive civilization in much the same way as do modern ethnologists. But his description was imaginary and was fashioned to fit his and Epicurus’s evolutionary theories. The article CIVILIZATION (Vol. 6, p. 403) in the Britannica makes the development of speech the mark of the first period when mankind was in the lower stages of savagery. “Our ancestors of this epoch inhabited a necessarily restricted tropical territory and subsisted upon raw nuts and fruit.” The next higher period in the progress of civilization began with the knowledge of the use of fire (p. 404). This wonderful discovery enabled the developing race to extend its habitat almost indefinitely, and to include flesh, and in particular fish, in its regular dietary. Man could now leave the forests and wander along the shores and rivers, migrating to climates less enervating than those to which he had previously been confined. Doubtless he became an expert fisher, but he was as yet poorly equipped for hunting.... Primitive races of Australia and Polynesia had not advanced beyond this middle status of savagery when they were discovered a few generations ago. The next great ethnical discovery was that of the bow and arrow, a truly wonderful instrument. The possessor of this device could bring down the fleetest animal and could defend himself against the most predatory. He could provide himself not only with food, but with materials for clothing and for tent-making, and thus could migrate at will back from the seas and large rivers.... The meat diet, now for the first time freely available, probably contributed, along with the stimulating climate, to increase the physical vigour and courage of this highest savage, thus urging him along the paths of progress. Nevertheless, many tribes came thus far, and no further, as witness the Athapascans of the Hudson’s Bay Territory and the Indians of the valley of the Columbia. After the use of fire and the discovery of the bow and arrow came the invention of pottery, the domestication of animals, and the smelting of iron, all successive stages in man’s history which “in their relation to the sum of human progress, transcend in relative importance all his subsequent works,”—and this is even truer if there is included in this period the development of a system of writing, which may be reckoned either the end of the primitive period or the beginning of the period of _civilization proper_. These two great steps in the story of civilization, language and writing, are closely connected in our minds, though so far separated in time of origin; and their story as told in the Britannica by the world’s greatest authorities, English, American, German, French, Italian, Danish, etc., is an interesting one for the general reader, while the articles are invaluable to the specialist in linguistic study. [Sidenote: Philology] The starting point for a course of reading is the article PHILOLOGY (Vol. 21, p. 414; equivalent to 80 pages in this Guide), of which the first part, a general treatment, is by the greatest of American philologists, William Dwight Whitney, editor-in-chief of _The Century Dictionary_, and author of _Life and Growth of Language_, one of the most important scientific contributions to the subject. The second part, on the comparative philology of the Indo-European languages, is by Prof. Eduard Sievers of Leipzig and Prof. Peter Giles of Cambridge. Both these names are well known to students of the subject, the former as that of the author of numerous valuable works on Germanic phonetics and metric, and the latter as a writer on Greek language and as the author of _A Short Manual of Comparative Philology_. The article begins with a definition of “philology,” the science of language, and of “comparative philology,” the comparison of one language with another, in order to bring out their relationships, their structures, and their histories. Prof. Whitney shows how much the recent development of linguistic science owes to the general scientific movement of the age. “No one,” he says, “however ingenious and entertaining his speculations, will cast any real light on the earliest history of speech.” But he notes the obvious analogy between speech and writing, and he puts stress on the “sociality” of man as the prime factor in his development of speech. Other topics in this part of the article are: Instrumentalities of expression—gesture, grimace, and voice; “language” means “tonguiness”—a mute would call it “handiness”; advantages of voice over gesture. Imitation as a factor in development of language and of writing; onomatopoetic origin of words. Development of sign-making: “Among the animals of highest intelligence that associate with man and learn something of his ways, a certain amount of sign-making expressly for communication is not to be denied; the dog that barks at a door because he knows that somebody will come and let him in is an instance of it; perhaps, in wild life, the throwing out of sentinel birds from a flock, whose warning cry shall advertise their fellows of the threat of danger, is as near an approach to it as is anywhere made.” Brute speech and human speech: “Those who put forward language as the distinction between man and the lower animals, and those who look upon our language as the same in kind with the means of communication of the lower animals, only much more complete and perfect, fail alike to comprehend the true nature of language, and are alike wrong in their arguments and conclusions. No addition to or multiplication of brute speech would make anything like human speech; the two are separated by a step which no animal below man has ever taken; and, on the other hand, language is only the most conspicuous among those institutions the development of which has constituted human progress.” Language and culture: “Differences of language, down to the possession of language at all, are differences only in respect to education and culture.” Development of language signs: the beginning slow, acceleration cumulative. The root-stage: first signs must have been “integral, significant in their entirety, not divisible into parts.” Earliest phonetic forms: the simplest syllabic combination a single consonant with a following vowel. See the article HAWAII (Vol. 13, p. 88) for a similar language even now in existence: “Every syllable is open, ending in a vowel sound, and short sentences may be constructed wholly of vocalic sounds.” Character of early speech: “first language-signs must have denoted those physical acts and qualities which are directly apprehensible by the senses.... We are still all the time drawing figurative comparisons between material and moral things and processes, and calling the latter by the names of the former.” Development of language as illustrated in Indo-European speech. Laws of growth and change: internal growth by multiplication of meanings; phonetic change—the principle of economy (euphony); borrowing and mixing of vocabularies. Classification of languages by structural types: isolating (Chinese); agglutinative (Turkish, etc.); inflective (Indo-European); or—a more elaborate classification: [Sidenote: Indo-European Languages] Indo-European: on which see part II of the article PHILOLOGY and the article INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 14, p. 495; equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide), by Prof. Peter Giles,—especially interesting for the attempt on a linguistic basis to reconstruct the original civilization and to discover the home of the ancestors of this language-stock which now occupies nearly all of Europe and is so intimately connected with the civilization of the last 2500 years. See: GREEK LANGUAGE (Vol. 12, p. 496), by Professor Giles, and articles HOMER (Vol. 13, p. 626); DORIANS (Vol. 8, p. 423), etc.; but the main treatment of different Greek dialects is in the article GREEK LANGUAGE (Vol. 12, p. 496), to which the student should refer for Arcadian and Cyprian, Aeolic, Ionic-Attic, and Doric dialects. LATIN LANGUAGE (Vol. 16, p. 244), by Dr. A. S. Wilkins, late professor of Latin, Owens College, Manchester, and Dr. Robert S. Conway, professor of Latin, University of Manchester, with a peculiarly valuable summary of _The Language as Recorded_, which is a linguistic critique of the style and vocabulary of the great Roman authors and a comparison (p. 253) of Latin and Greek prose. And see the articles on the dialects of ancient Italy: ITALY, _Ancient Languages and People_; ETRURIA, _Language_; LIGURIA, _Philology_; SICULI; POMPEII, _Oscan Inscriptions_; SABINI; FALISCI; VOLSCI; OSCA LINGUA; IGUVIUM; BRUTII; UMBRIA; PICENUM; SAMNITES, etc., by Prof. Conway, which will serve the student as a foundation for this subject, with more recent revision of all that is known than there is in Prof. Conway’s books, in the works of C. D. Buck, or in other authorities. [Sidenote: Romance Languages] For the descendants of Latin, the article ROMANCE LANGUAGES (Vol. 23, p. 504), by Dr. Wilhelm Meyer-Lübke, Professor of romance philology in the University of Vienna; and the following separate articles: ITALIAN LANGUAGE (Vol. 14, p. 888), by Graziadio I. Ascoli, professor of comparative grammar at the University of Milan, and Carlo Salvioni, professor of Romance languages in the same university, with a valuable summary of the dialects of modern Italy. FRENCH LANGUAGE (Vol. 11, p. 103), by Henry Nicol and Paul Meyer, professor at the Collège de France; particularly interesting because treated comparatively with constant reference to English and French influence on English. PROVENÇAL LANGUAGES (Vol. 22, p. 491), by Prof. Paul Meyer. SPAIN: _Language_ (Vol. 25, p. 573), by Alfred Morel-Fatio, professor of Romance languages at the Collège de France, and James Fitzmaurice-Kelly, professor of Spanish, Liverpool University; describing the Catalan as well as the Castilian and the Portuguese. RUMANIA: _Language_ (Vol. 23, p. 843). [Sidenote: Teutonic Languages] The general articles SCANDINAVIAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 24, p. 291), by Dr. Adolf Noreen, professor in the University of Upsala, with sections on Icelandic, Norwegian or Norse, Swedish, and Danish, and the Scandinavian dialects; and TEUTONIC LANGUAGES (Vol. 26, p. 673), by Hector Munro Chadwick, Librarian of Clare College, Cambridge. More in detail on the Teutonic languages are the articles: ENGLISH LANGUAGE (Vol. 9, pp. 587–600; equivalent to 45 pages of this Guide), by Sir James A. H. Murray, editor-in-chief of the (Oxford) _New English Dictionary_, and Miss Hilda Mary R. Murray, lecturer on English at the Royal Holloway College. DUTCH LANGUAGE (Vol. 8, p. 717), by Prof. Johann Hendrik Gallée of the University of Utrecht. GERMAN LANGUAGE (Vol. 11, p. 777), Dr. Robert Priebsch, professor of German philology, University of London, which deals with modern and ancient, new, middle, and old, high and low German. For Indo-Iranian languages, see: [Sidenote: Persia and India] PERSIA: _Language and Literature_ (Vol. 21, p. 246), by Dr. Hermann Ethé, professor of Oriental languages, University College, Wales, dealing with Zend, and Old, Middle and New Persian and modern dialects of Persian. INDO-ARYAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 14, p. 487), by George Abraham Grierson, formerly in charge of the Linguistic survey of India, who treats in this article the relations of Pisaca, Prakrit and Sanskrit, and contributes the separate articles PISACA LANGUAGES, PRAKRIT, BENGALI, BIHARI, GUJARATI AND RAJASTHANI, HINDOSTANI, KASHMIRI, and MARATHI. More important than these minor dialects are SANSKRIT LANGUAGE (Vol. 24, p. 156), by Dr. Julius Eggeling, professor of Sanskrit, Edinburgh University,—an article equivalent in length to 90 pages of this Guide; and PALI (Vol. 20, p. 630), by Prof. T. W. Rhys Davids of Manchester University, president of the Pali Text Society. ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE (Vol. 2, p. 571), by Dr. F. C. Conybeare, author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle_, etc. LITHUANIANS AND LETTS, _Language and Literature_ (Vol. 16, p. 790); SLAVS: _Language_ (Vol. 25, p. 233), by Ellis Hovell Minns, Lecturer in palaeography, Cambridge, with a table of alphabets; and supplementary information in the articles RUSSIA, BULGARIA, SERVIA, POLAND, BOHEMIA, CROATIA-SLAVONIA, SLOVAKS, SLOVENES, SORBS, KASHUBES, POLABS. ALBANIA, LANGUAGE (Vol. 1, p. 485), by J. D. Bourchier, correspondent of _The Times_ (London) in South-eastern Europe. [Sidenote: Semitic] The material on the Semitic group is principally in the article SEMITIC LANGUAGES (Vol. 24, p. 617), by Theodor Nöldeke, late professor of Oriental languages at Strassburg. This article deals with: Assyrian—see also CUNEIFORM (Vol. 7, p. 629); Hebrew—see also HEBREW LANGUAGE (Vol. 13, p. 167), by Arthur Ernest Cowley, sub-librarian of the Bodleian, Oxford; Phoenician—see also PHOENICIA (Vol. 21, p. 449), by the Rev. Dr. George Albert Cook, author of _Text Book of North-Semitic Inscriptions_, etc.; Aramaic—and see the separate article ARAMAIC LANGUAGES (Vol. 2, p. 317); Arabic, Sabaean, Mahri and Socotri, Ethiopic, Tigre and Tigrina, Amharic, Harari and Gurague. And see the article SYRIAC LANGUAGE (Vol. 26, p. 309), by Norman McLean, lecturer in Aramaic, Cambridge. [Sidenote: Hamitic] The article HAMITIC LANGUAGES (Vol. 12, p. 893) is by Dr. W. Max Müller, professor in the Reformed Episcopal Seminary, Philadelphia. See also the article EGYPT, _Language and Writing_ (Vol. 9, p. 57), by Dr. Francis Llewelyn Griffith, reader in Egyptology, Oxford; and the articles: ETHIOPIA (Vol. 9, p. 845), by Dr. D. S. Margoliouth, professor of Arabic, Oxford; BERBER, _Language_ (Vol. 3, p. 766) and KABYLES (Vol. 15, p. 625) for the Libyan group of the Hamitic languages. [Sidenote: Other Tongues] On the mono-syllabic languages see CHINA, _Language_ (Vol. 6, p. 216), by Dr. H. A. Giles, professor of Chinese, Cambridge, and Lionel Giles, assistant Oriental Department, British Museum; JAPAN, _Language_ (Vol. 15, p. 167), by Captain Frank Brinkley, late editor of the Japan _Mail_; and TIBETO-BURMAN LANGUAGES (Vol. 26, p. 928), by Dr. Sten Konow, professor in the University of Christiania. The article URAL-ALTAIC (Vol. 27, p. 784), by Dr. Augustus Henry Keane, late professor of Hindustani, University College, London, gives a general account of the relationship of Turkish, Finno-Ugrian, Mongol and Manchu; and is supplemented by the articles TURKS, _Language_ (Vol. 27, p. 472), by Sir Charles Eliot, vice-chancellor of Sheffield University; FINNO-UGRIAN (Vol. 10, p. 388), on language of Finns, Lapps and Samoyedes, HUNGARY _Language_ (Vol. 13, p. 924), on Magyar, both by Sir Charles Eliot; and MONGOLS, _Language_ (Vol. 18, p. 719), by Dr. Bernhard Jülg, late professor at Innsbruck. On the non-Aryan languages of Southern Africa see the article TAMILS (Vol. 26, p. 388), by Dr. Reinhold Rost, late secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society. For languages of Malay-Polynesia and other Oceanic peoples see MALAYS, _Language_ (Vol. 17, p. 477), by Sir Hugh Charles Clifford, colonial secretary of Ceylon, and joint-author of _A Dictionary of the Malay Language_; and the articles POLYNESIA, SAMOA, JAVA, HAWAII, etc. On the Caucasian language see GEORGIA (Vol. 11, p. 758) and CAUCASIA (Vol. 5, p. 546). On other European languages see BASQUES (Vol. 3, p. 485), by the late Rev. Wentworth Webster, author of _Basque Legends_, and Julien Vinson, author of LE BASQUE ET LES LANGUES MEXICAINES; and for the Etruscan language ETRURIA (Vol. 9, p. 854), by Professor R. S. Conway. On African languages see BANTU LANGUAGES (Vol. 3, p. 356), by Sir H. H. Johnston; BUSHMEN (Vol. 41, p. 871) and HOTTENTOTS (Vol. 13, p. 805); and, for the intermediate group, the article HAUSA (Vol. 13, p. 69). On the languages of the North American Indians see the article INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN (especially p. 457 of Vol. 14), by Dr. A. F. Chamberlain, professor of anthropology, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts. [Sidenote: Alphabet] This list of articles will serve the student as a guide for the purely linguistic articles. Besides the general treatment in the article PHILOLOGY from which we started, he should read articles on such general subjects as PHONETICS (Vol. 21, p. 458), by Dr. Henry Sweet, author of _A Primer of Phonetics_, _A History of English Sounds since the Earliest Period_, etc. This leads to a study of the article ALPHABET (Vol. 1, p. 723), equivalent to 30 pages of this Guide, written by Professor Peter Giles of Cambridge and illustrated with a plate and various fac-similes of early alphabets. This article is supplemented by Professor Giles’s articles on all the letters of the alphabet, which deal with the history and form of the symbol, the character of the sound it stands for and, particularly, the development and change of the sound in English and its dialects. For instance the article on the letter _N_ describes four different sounds, of which there are two in English—usually distinguished as _n_ and _ng_; explains that in the early Indo-European language some _n’s_ and _m’s_ could sometimes be pronounced _as vowels_; describes the opposite process, the nasalization of vowels, especially in French; and closes by saying: “It is possible to nasalize some consonants as well as vowels; nasalized spirants play an important part in the so-called Yankee pronunciation of Americans.” [Sidenote: Artificial Languages] From alphabets the student may well turn to ideal languages in the article UNIVERSAL LANGUAGES (Vol. 27, p. 746), by Professor Henry Sweet, which criticizes Volapük and Esperanto and the Idiom Neutral as being unscientific, not really international—even from a European point of view, and still less when one considers the growing importance of Japan and China in world-trade and world-history. Their being based on national languages Dr. Sweet thinks is a disadvantage. But in their comparative success he sees proof that a universal language is possible. See also Prof. Sweet’s separate articles VOLAPÜK (Vol. 28, p. 178) and ESPERANTO (Vol. 9, p. 773). [Sidenote: Writing] The article WRITING (Vol. 28, p. 852) deals, chiefly from the anthropological standpoint, with primitive attempts to record ideas in an intelligible form, for example with “knot-signs,” “message-sticks,” picture-writing and the like. The needs, which led to the invention of these primitive forms of writing, were: mnemonic, recalling that something is to be done at a certain time—the primitive “tickler” was a knotted string or thong, like our knotted handkerchief as a reminder, and these knot-strings were finally used for elementary accountings, commercial or chronological, like the use of the abacus in little shops, or of the similar system in scoring games of pool; to communicate with some one at a distance, for which marked or notched sticks, engraved or coloured pebbles, wampum belts, etc., were used; and, third, to distinguish one’s own property or handicraft whence cattle-brands, trade-marks, etc. In Assyria, Egypt and China picture-writing developed into conventional signs: on these see EGYPT (Vol. 9, p. 60), and CHINA (Vol. 6, p. 218). All of these are of great interest to the general reader, but the article CUNEIFORM (Vol. 7, p. 629) by Dr. R. W. Rogers, professor of Hebrew and Old Testament exegesis, Drew Theological Seminary, Madison, New Jersey, has the sort of entertainment in it that there is in a good detective story, since it tells how the meaning of the mysterious wedge-shaped inscriptions on the rocks at Mount Rachmet in Persia was discovered. The subject of writing is treated, also, in the articles: INSCRIPTIONS (Vol. 14, p. 618); _Semitic_, aside from the Cuneiform, by Arthur Ernest Cowley, sub-librarian of the Bodleian, Oxford; _Indian inscriptions_, by John Faithfull Fleet, author of _Inscriptions of the Early Gupta Kings_, etc.; _Greek_, by Edward Lee Hicks, Bishop of Lincoln, author of _Manual of Greek Historical Inscriptions_, etc., and George Francis Hill, author of _Sources for Greek History_, etc.; and _Latin_, by Emil Hübner, late professor of classical philology at Berlin, author of _Romische Epigraphik_, etc., and Dr. W. M. Lindsay, of the University of St. Andrews, author of _The Latin Language_, etc. PALAEOGRAPHY (Vol. 20, p. 556), equivalent to 75 pages of this Guide, by Sir Edward Maunde Thompson, late librarian of the British Museum and author of _Handbook of Greek and Latin Palaeography_, etc. The article is illustrated with 50 fac-similes of typical handwritings. MANUSCRIPT (Vol. 17, p. 618), equivalent to 20 pages of this Guide, by the same author, with a description of the various forms of manuscripts, of the mechanical arrangement of writing in MSS., and of writing implements and inks. See, also, ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS, PAPYRUS, PAPER and other articles mentioned in the chapter in this Guide _For Printers_. [Sidenote: Text Criticism] The student of language and literature and of writing will also find much valuable information in the article TEXTUAL CRITICISM (Vol. 26, p. 708), equivalent to 25 pages of this Guide, by Professor J. P. Postgate of the University of Liverpool, well-known to Latinists as the brilliant editor of Tibullus and Propertius. The article gives examples of the classes of errors occurring in texts and the methods of restoring true readings—largely of course by conjecture—and illustrates such errors and their correction by the very poorly printed first editions of the English poet Shelley. In the study of language and writing as in courses on other sciences and arts, the reader will find an additional interest in supplementing general and abstract articles by biographical sketches of the great men in the science. The following is a partial list of the articles in the Britannica on great philologists: Aasen, Ivar Adelung, J. C. Ahrens, F. H. L. Ascoli, G. I. Baehr, J. C. F. Baiter, J. G. Bake, Jan Barth, Kaspar von Benfey, Theodor Bennett, Charles E. Bentley, Richard Bernhardy, Gottfried Bhau Daji Blass, Friedrich Bleek, W. H. I. Bloomfield, Maurice Böhtlingk, Otto von Bopp, Franz Bosworth, Joseph Bréal, M. J. A. Brown, Francis Bücheler, Franz Buck, C. D. Bugge, Sophus Burmann Burnell, A. C. Burnouf, Eugène Buttmann, Philipp Karl Carey, William Casaubon Caspari, K. P. Castell, Edmund Castiglione, Count Castrén, M. A. Childers, R. C. Cleynaerts, Nicolas Cobet, C. G. Conington, John Cook, A. S. Corssen, W. P. Cotgrave, Randle Creuzer, G. F. Csoma de Körös, A. Darmesteter, J. Delius, N. Diez, F. C. Döbrowsky, J. Döderlein, J. C. W. L. Donaldson, J. W. Drisler, Henry Dunash Ebel, H. W. Egger, Emile Elias, Levita Ellis, A. J. Ellis, Robinson Erasmus Erpenius, Thomas Ettmüller, E. M. L. Facciolati, J. Fairuzabadi Fleckeisen, C. F. W. A. Fleischer, Heinrich L. Flügel, G. L. Flügel, J. G. Forcellini, Egidio Freund, Wilhelm Freytag, G. W. F. Furnivall, F. J. Fürst, Julius Gabelentz, H. C. von der Gaisford, Thomas Gayangos y Arce, P. de Gildersleeve, B. L. Goeje, M. J. de Goldstücker, T. Goldziher, Ignaz Golius, Jacobus Goodwin, W. W. Greenough, J. B. Grimm, J. L. C. Grimm, W. C. Gudeman, Alfred Gutschmid, Baron von Hadley, James Hagen, F. H. von der Haldeman, S. S. Hale, W. G. Halhed, N. B. Hall, Fitzedward Hall, Isaac Hollister Hasden, B. P. Haug, Martin Haupt, Moritz Henry, Victor Herbelot de Molainville, B. d’ Hervás y Panduro, L. Hoffmann, J. J. Hopkins, E. W. Hottinger, J. H. Hübner, Emil Humboldt, K. W. von Ingram, James Jauhari Jawaliqi Jirecek, Josef Jonah, Rabbi Jones, Sir William Karajich, V. S. Kern, J. H. Khalil ibn Ahmad, Kimbi (family) Klaproth, H. J. Kuhn, F. F. A. Lachmann, Karl Lanman, C. R. Lassen, Christian Legge, James Leitner, G. W. Liddell, H. G. Littré, M. P. E. Ludolf, Hiob Madvig, J. N. Malan, S. C. March, F. A. Max Müller, F. Mayor, J. E. B. Ménant, Joachim Meyer, P. H. Mezzofanti, Giuseppe C. Miklosich, Franz von Mohl, Julius von Monier-Williams, Sir M. Morris, Richard Munro, D. B. Murray, Sir James Nettleship, Henry Nöldeke, Theodor Oppert, Julius Paley, F. A. Paris, B. P. G. Peerlkamp, P. H. Peile, John Petrarch Poggio Politian Porson, Richard Pott, A. F. Quatremère, E. M. Rask, R. C. Reiske, J. J. Reland, Adrian Rémusat, J. P. A. Ribbeck, Otto Rieu, C. P. H. Ritsche, F. W. Rutherford, W. G. Sale, George Salesbury, William Sanders, Daniel Sayce, A. H. Schafarik, P. J. Scheler, J. A. W. Schiefner, F. A. Schleicher, August Schultens (family) Scott, Robert Sellar, W. Y. Skeat, W. W. Taylor, Isaac Ten Brink, B. E. K. Teuffel, W. S. Thorpe, Benjamin Wailly, N. F. de Walker, John Warren, Minton Webster, Noah Whitney, W. D. Wilkins, Sir Charles Wordsworth, Christopher Zarncke, F. K. T.