CHAPTER XXX

FOR NAVAL OFFICERS The scope of a naval officer’s professional interests is so broad that the present chapter of this Guide could not, without duplicating other chapters, indicate all the aspects of the Britannica with which he is directly concerned. And he will find that his use of the Britannica is simplified by the subdivisions about to be specified, which virtually present his subjects under four different heads. Of course he may be called upon, in the exercise of his duties, simultaneously to think and to act in all his capacities, to concentrate upon the swift solution of one problem his knowledge of warfare, of shipbuilding, of navigation and of mechanical engineering; but his reading upon these topics naturally divides itself into these four parts. [Sidenote: Three Other Relevant Chapters] Inasmuch as army officers, even when they are at sea, are passengers, and, save in relation to the discipline of their troops, have nothing to do with the ship’s management, it could not be assumed that the present chapter would appeal to them. But naval officers, when co-operating in a land expedition, need to employ every kind of knowledge that is of use to army officers, and as the chapter _For Army Officers_ in this Guide would therefore in any case be read by them, it has seemed convenient to include in it the description of those articles in the Britannica which deal with war in general. The chapter _For Marine Transportation Men_ in this Guide is also one to which the naval officer should refer, as it deals with ships and navigation in general. The articles SHIP and SHIPBUILDING mentioned in that chapter are (except for the historical section of the former) by Sir Philip Watts, designer of the British “Dreadnoughts” and “Super-Dreadnoughts;” and the article SHIPPING is by Douglas Owen, of the Royal Naval War College at Portsmouth. Obviously these and many other articles described in that chapter are of the greatest importance to naval officers. The chapter _For Engineers_ in this Guide describes the articles dealing with steam engines, internal combustion engines, electrical machinery and fuels of all kinds; and it would be a waste of space to repeat in this chapter a summary of the Britannica treatment of these subjects. All three of the chapters mentioned should therefore be treated as forming constituent parts of the general plan of this present chapter, in which the naval officer will find no repetition of their contents. [Sidenote: The Key Article] The article to which he will naturally first turn is NAVY AND NAVIES (Vol. 19, p. 299), by David Hannay, author of _A Short History of the Royal Navy_. This article is equivalent to 60 pages of this Guide in length. It contains: _Naval Personnel._ Sketches of the _Administrative History of navies_: _Athenian_; _Roman_; _Byzantine_; _Medieval_; _British_, with special attention to the period since the Restoration, and the reforms under James II when Samuel Pepys was secretary; _French_—modern navy dating from the time of Richelieu; _Spanish_—a great navy without an organization before the 18th century; _Dutch_—good seamen and well-fed, led by able admirals, but unorganized, and unimportant after the 17th century; _United States_—the first great extra-European power on the sea; _Russian_—dating from the reign of Peter the Great, when it was organized and led by foreigners. _The Balance of Navies in History_: influence of sea-power—“when Napoleon fell, the navy of Great Britain was not merely the first in the world; it was the only powerful navy in existence.” _Modern Rivalry_ between Italy and Germany (1871), United States (1890), Japan; England and the Dual Alliance—“naval scares” since 1874; British Naval Defence Act of 1889; Russia’s navy crushed (1904); new navies rivalling Great Britain and France,—Italy, Germany, United States, Japan. _Latest developments_: “Dreadnoughts”; Building Programmes. _Bibliography_ (about 1800 words). _Naval Strategy and Tactics_. _Historical evolution_: inter-relation of the ship’s capacity and armament. _Early history_: ramming demanded oars for propulsion; small warships, large fighting crews,—no blockade, short cruises; _Greek and Roman methods_: boarding introduced by Romans; “bearding,” that is, fortifying with iron bands across the bows, an early form of armor plate. _Sailing ships_: ramming discarded; “line ahead” formation displaces “line abreast”; principles of fighting tactics—order at beginning to be kept throughout, thus no advantage taken of enemy’s disorder; Clerk’s theories (1790–97)—not maximum safety but immediate mêlée the _desideratum_; Suffren, Rodney and Howe and their disregard of accepted tactics. _Improved shipbuilding and modern times_: New problems—steam propulsion, its gain in speed, but its dependence on fuel; fleet in being; risk of transporting troops while enemy is unbeaten; ramming and pell-mell battles forbidden by torpedoes; searchlight as check to torpedoes; failure of attempts to “bottle up” harbours; gun-fire still the great factor; position; speed; submarines still an unknown factor. _Bibliography_. [Sidenote: Naval Administration] The first part of this article NAVY AND NAVIES should be supplemented by the article ADMIRALTY ADMINISTRATION (Vol. 1, p. 195), by Admiral Sir R. Vesey Hamilton, and, for the United States, the late Admiral W. T. Sampson. The American part of this article describes the divisions and the working of the Navy Department, its bureaus, judge advocate-general, office of naval intelligence, boards etc.; and there is additional information on the subject in such articles as DOCKYARDS, and UNITED STATES NAVAL ACADEMY. For the legal side of naval administration the reader should study the article ADMIRALTY JURISDICTION (Vol. 1, p. 205), by Sir Walter Phillimore, former president of the International Law Association (and author of the Britannica article ADMIRALTY, HIGH COURT OF), and, for the United States, by J. Arthur Barrett; and also the general articles INTERNATIONAL LAW (Vol. 14, p. 694), by Sir Thomas Barclay, author of _Problems of International Practice and Diplomacy_, and INTERNATIONAL LAW, PRIVATE (Vol. 14, p. 701), by Dr. John Westlake, formerly professor of international law, Cambridge University, and member for the United Kingdom of the International (Hague) Court of Arbitration; as well as such special articles as SEARCH (Vol. 24, p. 560), by Sir Thomas Barclay, and SEA LAWS (Vol. 24, p. 535), by Sir Travers Twiss. [Sidenote: Policy, Strategy, Tactics] It has already been noticed that the closing part of the article NAVY AND NAVIES dealt with strategy and tactics in a general way. This subject is treated in fuller detail by Admiral Sir Cyprian Bridge, G.C.B. (former Director of Naval Intelligence, British Navy, author of _Sea-Power and other Studies_) in two articles SEA-POWER (Vol. 24, p. 548) and SEA, COMMAND OF THE (Vol. 24, p. 529). Each of these articles will be of great value and interest to the naval officer as a summary and criticism of the theories of Captain A. T. Mahan and Vice-Admiral P. H. Colomb; and this will be made evident by the brief outline of the two articles which follows. Article, SEA-POWER—Use of the term to mean (1) a state pre-eminently strong at sea; and (2)—as in this article—the various factors in a state’s naval strength. Thucydides as a forerunner of Mahan; he makes Pericles in comparing Athenian resources with those of her enemies comment on the importance of “sea-power.” The meaning of sea-power can only be learned historically. Although there have been more land-wars, “the course of history has been profoundly changed more often by contests on the water.” Salamis saved Greece and held back Oriental invasion. The loss of the Peloponnesian War by Athens was due to her weakening sea-power. The First Punic War, Roman rather than Carthaginian control of the Mediterranean, was won by Roman naval predominance. Mahommedan conquest spread west in Africa only with the creation of a navy. The crusades could not have continued had not Mahommedan naval power sunk as the Venetian, Pisan, and Genoese grew. The defeat of Genoa by Venice gave the latter a right to perform the ceremony of “wedding the sea” with a ring as token of “perpetual sway.” Lepanto (1571) the end of Turkish sea-power. Spanish and Portuguese sea-power crushed by English growth and the loss of the Armada. Early English naval history: the importance of the battle of Dover in 1217. Appearance of standing navies. The New World and its influence on sea-power. The sea-power of the Dutch; its sudden rise; its basis in foreign trade; the Dutch wars with England resulted in England’s becoming the first great naval power, but did not crush the United Provinces because of their sea-power. Torrington and the “Fleet in Being” in 1690. Change in naval operations in 17th century—the scene thereafter in the enemy’s waters, not near the coast of England. The 18th century. Rise of Russia’s sea-power—an artificial creation. Seven Years’ War and its gains to Great Britain. War of American Independence: British mistakes—the enemy’s coast _not_ considered the frontier. Wars of the French Revolution and Empire: Great Britain’s advantage not in organization, discipline or “science,” but in sea-experience. The War of 1812. “The British had now to meet the _élite_ of one of the finest communities of seamen ever known.... In any future war British sea-power, great as it may be, should not receive shocks like those that it unquestionably did suffer in 1812.” Later Manifestations of Sea-Power. American Civil War—“By dominating the rivers the Federals cut the Confederacy asunder; and, by the power they possessed of moving troops by sea at will, perplexed and harassed the defence, and facilitated the occupation of important points.” Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78—Turkish control of Black Sea forced Russians to invade by land through the difficult Balkans. Chilean Civil War of 1891—an army defeated by a navy. Chino-Japanese War of 1894–95—Japanese navy in transport work and in crushing last resistance. Spanish-American War: “Spaniards were defeated by the superiority of the American sea-power.” Article, SEA, COMMAND OF THE—Sketch of Sovereignty of the Sea; Command different from Sovereignty or Dominion. Attempts to gain Command: Dutch Wars. Strategic Command or Control—largely the power of carrying out considerable over-sea expeditions at will. Seeking the enemy’s fleet. Temporary command in smaller operations. [Sidenote: Special Historical Articles] As for the army officer, so the Britannica has for the naval officer many separate articles on wars, campaigns, battles, generals, commanders. The following list of articles will serve as a guide to a course of reading constituting a history of naval warfare, furnishing the concrete separate facts on which are based the articles already described. _Ancient History._ _Greece_: articles _Salamis_, _Themistocles_, _Xerxes I_, _Peloponnesian War_, _Pericles_. _Rome_: articles _Punic Wars_, _Carthage_, _Pompey_, _Actium_. _Medieval History._ _Crusades_; _Swold_; _Dover, Battle of_; _Sluys, Battle of_; _Espagnols sur Mer_ (and article _Edward III_), _Chioggia_ (and articles _Venice_ and _Genoa_). _16th Century._ _Lepanto_ (and article _Don John of Austria_). _Armada_ (and articles on _Howard_, _Hawkins_, _Drake_, _Frobisher_, _Raleigh_, _Richard Grenville_, and the other heroes of this first bright glow of England’s naval glory). _The Era of Sailing Vessels._ _Dutch Wars_ (and articles _Tromp_, _Robert Blake_, _Ayscue_, _De Ruyter_, _Cornelius De Witt_, _William Penn_, _George Monk_, _Sir John Lawson_, _James II_, _Prince Rupert_, _First Earl of Sandwich_, _Abraham Duquesne_). _Grand Alliance, Naval Operations_ (and articles _Earl of Torrington_, and _Beachy Head, Battle of_; _La Hogue_, _Earl of Oxford_ [Edward Russell] and _Tourville_). _Spanish Succession, Naval Operations_ (and _Château-Renault_, _Benbow_, _Rooke_, _Cloudesley Shovel_, _Duguay-Trouin_, _Forbin_). _Austrian Succession, Naval Operations_ (and the articles _Edward Vernon_, _Lord Anson_, _Toulon, Battle of_, and _Thomas Mathews_, marking the official sanction in England of an absurd formal system of tactics). _Seven Years’ War, Naval Operations_ (and _Boscawen_, _Byng_, _Hawke_, _Pocock_, _Quiberon_). _American War of Independence, Naval Operations_ (and _Esek Hopkins_, _John Paul Jones_, _Comte d’Estaing_, _Suffren St. Tropez_, _Thomas Truxtun_, _Lord Howe_, _John Byron_, _Hotham_, _Hyde Parker_, _Rodney_, _Guichen_, _Comte de Grasse_). _French Revolutionary Wars, Naval Operations_ (and _First of June, Battle of_, _Howe_, _Villaret de Joyeuse_, _Lord Bridport_, _Lord Hood_, _Earl of St. Vincent_ [John Jervis], _St. Vincent, Battle of_, _Lord Keith_, _Lord Duncan_, _Nile_, _Nelson_, _Sir Thomas Troubridge_). _Napoleonic Campaigns, Naval Operations_ (and _Baron de Saumarez_, _Copenhagen, Battle of_, _Sir Hyde Parker_, _Sir Robert Calder_, _Villeneuve_, _Trafalgar_, _Lord Collingwood_). _American War of_ 1812 (and _John Rodgers_, _Isaac Hull_, _William Bainbridge_, _Stephen Decatur_, _David Porter_, _Oliver Hazard Perry_, _Sir Philip Broke_, _Thomas Macdonough_). And _Lissa_ (1811), closely resembling Trafalgar, and _Navarino_, decisive for Greek Independence. _The Era of Steam._ _American Civil War_ (and _Hampton Roads_, _Andrew Hull Foote_, _New Madrid_, _D. G. Farragut_, _D. D. Porter_, _W. B. Cushing_). _Chile-Peruvian War._ _Chilean Civil War._ _Chino-Japanese War_ (and see _Ito_). _Spanish-American War_ (and see the articles _W. T. Sampson_, _W. S. Schley_, _George Dewey_, _Pascual Cervera y Topete Cervera_). _Russo-Japanese War_ (and _Togo_, _Dogger Bank_, _Tsushima_). [Sidenote: Armaments] The subject of _armaments_ is treated in the articles SHIP and SHIPBUILDING (see chapter _For Marine Transportation Men_), ARMOUR PLATES, with illustrations, by Major William Egerton Edwards, late lecturer at the Royal Naval War College, Greenwich, ORDNANCE, AMMUNITION, TORPEDO, etc. The following is an alphabetical list of articles in the Britannica of especial interest to naval officers or other students of naval warfare. Actium Admiral Admiralty Administration Admiralty Jurisdiction American Civil War American War of Independence American War of 1812 Ammunition Anson, Lord Armada Armour Plates Arms and Armour Ayscue Bainbridge, William Beachy Head Benbow Beresford Blake, Robert Boscawen Bridport, Lord Broke, Sir Philip Byng Byron, John Calder, Sir Robert Camperdown Carthage Casemate Case-shot Cervera Château-Renault Chile-Peruvian War Chilean Civil War Chino-Japanese War Chioggia Coaling Stations Coast Defence Coast Guard Codrington Coligny Collingwood, Lord Colomb Commodore Copenhagen, Battle of Crusades Cushing, W. B. Decatur, Stephen d’Estaing De Ruyter De Saumarez, Baron Dewey, George De Witt, Cornelius Dockyards Dogger Bank Dover, Battle of (1217) Drake Duguay-Trouin Duilius Duncan, Lord Duquesne, Abraham Dutch Wars Edward III Espagnols sur Mer Farragut, D. G. Fireship First of June Flagship Fleet Flying Column Foote, Andrew Hull Forbin French Revolutionary Wars Frigate Frobisher Genoa Grand Alliance Grasse, Comte de Grenville, Richard Greek Independence Guardship Perry, Guichen Hampton Roads Hawke Hawkins Hood, Lord Hopkins, Esek Hotham Howard Howe, Lord Hull, Isaac International Law James II Jones, John Paul Keith, Lord La Hogue Lawson, Sir John Lepanto Liner Lissa (1811, 1866) Macdonough, Thomas Madrid, New Mahan Marines Mathews, Thomas Meloria Miaoulis Midshipman Monk, George Napoleonic Campaigns Nauarchia Naucrary Naval Operations Navarino Navy and Navies Nelson Nile, Battle of the Ordnance Oxford, Earl of Parker, Hyde Parker, Sir Hyde Peloponnesian War Penn, William Pepys Pericles Perry, Oliver Hazard Piracy Pocock Pompey Porter, David Porter, D. D. Privateer Punic Wars Quiberon, Battle of Raleigh Range-finder Rodgers, John Rodney Rooke Rupert, Prince Russo-Japanese War Saint-Bon Saint Vincent Saints, Battle of the Salamis Sampson, W. T. Sandwich, 1st Earl of Schley, W. S. Sea, Command of the Sea Laws Seamanship Sea-Power Search Seven Years’ War Ship, Shipbuilding Shovel, Cloudesley Sluys Spanish-American War Spanish Succession Squadron Submarine Mines Suffren, St. Tropez Swold Themistocles Togo Torpedo Torrington Toulon, Battle of Tourville Trafalgar Tromp Troubridge, Sir Thomas Truxtun, Thomas Tsushima U. S. Naval Academy Venice Vernon, Edward Villaret de Joyeuse Villeneuve Xerxes I