CHAPTER X

FOR JEWELLERS, CLOCK AND WATCH MAKERS AND MERCHANTS By long established custom, watches and the higher grade of clocks form part of the jeweller’s stock, and he sells a few other articles of utility, such as purses and bags, but to all intents and purposes he shares with the artist and art-dealer the distinction of making a living by adding pleasure to the lives of others. The very word “jewelry” carries, in its root form, the idea of joy; and when a Senwosri princess, 43 centuries ago, smiled happily as she raised her brown arms to fasten the clasp of a new necklace, the jeweller of Memphis on the Nile no doubt took his little profit, as the jeweller of Memphis on the Mississippi takes his to-day, all the more gladly for being, in the oriental phrase, a “Distributor of delights.” Sour philosophers have always sneered at women for loving jewels, and most of all for piercing their ears and noses to vary its display, but the nose-ring that overhangs a thick Nubian lip is an expression of the same charming instinct that makes a child diversify the arrangement of her daisychains. And jewelry plays its part in the higher emotions as well as in the pretty vanities; witness the engagement ring, the marriage ring and all the uses, described in the Britannica, of jewels as religious symbols. [Sidenote: Specimens Reproduced] The article JEWELRY (Vol. 15, p. 364), by A. H. Smith, the official in charge of the great jewel collection in the British Museum, contains nearly a hundred illustrations, half of them on plate paper, which include examples of every period and every variety of the jeweller’s art, and these, with the illustrations in other articles mentioned in this chapter, are so full of interest to the jeweller’s customers that he ought really to keep his Britannica at his place of business rather than at his house. It is, at any rate, amusing to recall that in a speech made by the Editor-in-chief of the Britannica, on the occasion of a banquet given to celebrate the completion of the new edition, he remarked that when he had chanced to take home the proof sheets of this article, to read them at night, he carefully kept them out of his wife’s sight lest they might suggest too tempting possibilities. The article divides modern jewelry into three classes: _(1) objects in which gems and stones form the principal portions, and in which the work in silver, platinum or gold is really only a means for carrying out the design by fixing the gems or stones in the position arranged by the designer, the metal employed being visible only as a setting_; _(2) when gold work plays an important part in the development of the design, being itself ornamented by engraving (now rarely used) or enamelling or both, the stones and gems being arranged in subordination to the gold work in such positions as to give a decorative effect to the whole_; _(3) when gold or other metal is alone used, the design being wrought out by hammering in repoussé, casting, engraving, chasing or by the addition of filigree work, or when the surfaces are left absolutely plain but polished and highly finished_. [Sidenote: The “Personal Art” Movement] The second of these three classes includes the work which has completely revolutionized the theory of design, so far as the best class of trade is concerned, since the Paris International Exposition of 1900 first drew general attention to the exquisite creations of Lalique and his school. L. C. Tiffany, in the United States, and Philippe Wolfers, in Belgium, have done more than any designers other than the French to extend this new movement; but in England, Germany, Austria, Russia and Switzerland there has been a notable increase of individual effort and purpose, and a recognition of the possibilities of personal art as at any rate an important factor in the business. Side by side with this development new standards have been established in mechanical work. “Nearly every kind of gold chain now made is manufactured by machinery, and nothing like the beauty of design or perfection of workmanship could be obtained by hand at, probably, any cost.” The article, equivalent in length to about 35 pages of this Guide, contains a full review, amplified by the results of the most recent excavations (some of them undertaken expressly for the archaeological purposes of this edition of the Britannica) of the history of jewelry, Egyptian, Assyrian, Mycenean, Greek, Etruscan, Roman, Merovingian, Oriental and Renaissance. [Sidenote: Rings for Love and Murder] RING (Vol. 23, p. 349), of which Prof. Middleton, long art director of the South Kensington Museum, is the chief contributor, is another copiously illustrated article. Among the curious items of information it contains, there is the unromantic origin of the engagement ring (which may be cited by the jeweller to prove that it should always be a costly one), the ancient Romans regarding it as a pledge to assure the donor’s fulfilment of his promise; the fact that the modern rheumatism ring had its medieval forerunner in the rings, blessed by the sovereign, which were worn as a preservative against cramp; and the description of the old poison rings, which were of two kinds: those merely affording, in the bezel, a secret receptacle so that the poison might be always at hand for suicide, and those provided with a hollow point to which, on touching a spring, the venom ran as in a snake’s fang, so that the murderer could give a fatal scratch while shaking hands with his victim. BROOCH (Vol. 4, p. 641) traces, with many illustrations of typical specimens, the “fibula” or safety pin from its origin in Central Europe during the Bronze Age, through the modifications which introduced the bow shape, providing space for thicker folds of cloth, to the modern ornament. The long brooch is not a new fashion, for silver brooches no less than 15 inches in length have been found in Viking hoards of the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries. EAR-RING (Vol. 8, p. 798) describes ear “ornaments” of the most grotesque size. In Borneo the hole in the ear lobe is stretched to a calibre of 3¾ inches, but the Masai tribes in equatorial Africa far outdo this, stretching the lobes, year after year, until they can wear stone ear-plugs weighing 2 lbs. 14 ozs. each, with a diameter of 4½ inches; and they thus achieve the supreme elegance of making the two long flaps of flesh meet above their heads. It is also curious to note the custom of some oriental tribes of wearing one ear-ring only. BRACELET (Vol. 4, p. 359) describes the three distinct models worn by the Israelites, all of which the Authorized Version calls “bracelet,” although the original Hebrew has separate names for them. Armlets have always been conspicuous in the regalia of Eastern kings, and the pair captured at Delhi and taken to Persia by Nadir Shah in 1739 contain jewels valued at more than $5,000,000, including the famous “Sea of Light” diamond, which, although it weighs only 186 carats as against the 516½ of the largest fraction into which the Cullinan stone was cut, is unique as possessing the finest lustre of any known specimen. The 24 plate illustrations in the article SCANDINAVIAN CIVILIZATION (Vol. 24, p. 287), by Miss B. S. Phillpotts, show some exquisite designs of clasps, collars and pins exhumed in Denmark, Norway and Sweden, and supposed by some authorities to antedate the oldest Egyptian jewelry. [Sidenote: Precious Metals] The article GOLD (Vol. 12, p. 192) is a thorough workshop treatise, as well as a detailed study of existing mines and of the influence their production exerts upon the “price,” if it can be so called, of a metal which is its own standard of value. SILVER (Vol. 25, p. 112) and PLATINUM (Vol. 21, p. 805) are treated with similar comprehensiveness. The articles ALLOYS (Vol. 1, p. 704), ASSAYING (Vol. 2, p. 776), METAL (Vol. 18, p. 198), METALLOGRAPHY (Vol. 18, p. 202), and METALLURGY (Vol. 18, p. 203), all by noted authorities, are full of information useful to the jeweller. METAL-WORK (Vol. 18, p. 205), fully illustrated, incidentally touches upon the art of the silver- and gold-smith; and this branch of the subject is also treated in such articles as PLATE (Vol. 21, p. 789), with over 30 typical illustrations—a most interesting historical account, by several well-known experts, of works in gold and silver which belong to any class other than those of personal ornament and coins; and DRINKING VESSELS (Vol. 8, p. 580), illustrated, by Dr. Charles H. Read of the British Museum, which discusses gold and silver cups. Mention must also be made of the description of American work in precious metals before the time of Christopher Columbus, in the section _Archaeology_ of the article AMERICA (Vol. 1, p. 812), by the late Dr. O. T. Mason, of the National Museum, Washington; also of MEXICO, _Ancient Civilization_ (Vol. 18, p. 335), by the famous ethnologists, Dr. E. B. Tylor of Oxford and Dr. Walter Lehmann, of the Royal Ethnographical Museum, Munich; EGYPT, _Ancient Art_ (Vol. 9, p. 73), by W. M. Flinders Petrie; GREEK ART (Vol. 12, p. 470), illustrated, by Dr. Percy Gardner, of Oxford; ROMAN ART, _Work in Precious Metals_ (Vol. 23, p. 483), illustrated, by H. Stuart Jones, director of the British School at Rome; JAPAN, _Art, Sculpture and Carving_ (Vol. 15, p. 176), by Capt. Frank Brinkley, author of _A History of the Japanese People_; and CHINA, _Bronzes_ (Vol. 6, p. 215), by C. J. Holmes, formerly Slade professor of fine art at Oxford. FILIGREE (Vol. 10, p. 343) describes the delicate jewel work of twisted gold and silver threads, and also the “granulated” work which consists of minute globules of gold soldered to form patterns on a metal surface. In India the filigree worker has retained the patterns used by the ancient Greeks and works in the same way they did. Wandering workmen are given so much gold, coined or rough. This is weighed, heated and beaten into wire, and worked in the courtyard or on the verandah of the customer’s house. The worker reweighs the complete work when finished and is paid at a specified rate for his labor. Repoussé (Vol. 23, p. 108), by M. H. Spielmann, editor _Magazine of Art_; CHASING (Vol. 5, p. 956) and INLAYING (Vol. 14, p. 574) are other articles dealing with certain processes in jewel work. The jeweller also must not overlook two superb articles, MEDAL (Vol. 18, p. 1), illustrated, by M. H. Spielmann, and NUMISMATICS (Vol. 19, p. 869), which is by three specialists, and is most fully illustrated by designs inviting practical use. ENAMEL (Vol. 9, p. 362), illustrated, by Alexander Fisher, author of _The Art of Enamelling on Metals_, goes very fully and practically into this interesting subject, which is further discussed in JAPAN, _Cloisonné Enamel_ (Vol. 15, p. 189). MOSAIC (Vol. 18, p. 883), illustrated, by Professor Middleton and H. Stuart Jones, deals in part with the ornamentation of jewelry by this method. In BRAZING and SOLDERING (Vol. 4, p. 463) the composition of silver solder used for jewelry is described, and in CEMENT there is an account of _Jeweller’s_ or _Armenian Cement_ (Vol. 5, p. 659). [Sidenote: Precious Stones] The article GEM treats the subject in two sections, of which the first (Vol. 11, p. 560), by F. W. Rudler, of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, deals with _Mineralogy_ and _General Properties_. Here are discussed hardness, specific gravity, crystaline forms and cleavage, colour, refraction, chemical composition, etc., and there is an interesting section on superstitions in regard to gems, the medical and magical powers with which they were reputed to be endowed. These beliefs are very remarkable, and it has even been suggested by archaeologists that jewelry did not have its origin so much in a love for personal decoration, as in the belief that the objects used possessed magical virtue. The article MINERALOGY (Vol. 18, p. 509), by L. J. Spencer, of the British Museum, and editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_, will be found especially valuable for reference in the workshop. It gives, among other things, the scale of hardness, and nomenclature and classification of minerals. The crystal formation of gems as well as their optical properties—characteristics by which the genuineness of precious stones may be tested—are discussed and explained in the article CRYSTALLOGRAPHY (Vol. 7, p. 569), with over 100 illustrations, also by L. J. Spencer. The cutting of gem stones is treated under LAPIDARY AND GEM CUTTING (Vol. 16, p. 195), by Dr. George F. Kunz, the famous gem expert to Tiffany & Co., New York,—an article of uncommon historical interest and practical value, in which diamond cutting is considered at much length. The second section of the article GEM, _Gems in Art_ (Vol. 11, p. 562), by Dr. A. S. Murray, the famous British archaeologist, and A. H. Smith, gives an account of precious stones engraved with designs. The illustrations show more than 90 examples, including Cretan and Mycenaean intaglios, Greek, Phœnician and Etruscan scarabs and scarabæoids, cameos, seals, Oriental, Christian, and modern gems. This subject is further discussed in separate articles, such as SCARAB (Vol. 24, p. 301), by Dr. F. Ll. Griffith, the Egyptologist, an account of the designs which, originating in Egypt during the Fourth Dynasty, have exercised a lasting influence on the design and shape of gems; CAMEO (Vol. 5, p. 104), INTAGLIO (Vol. 14, p. 680), SEALS (Vol. 24, p. 539), illustrated, by Sir E. Maunde Thompson, formerly principal librarian, British Museum, as well as in the articles on ancient and Oriental civilizations, already mentioned. [Sidenote: Synthetic Stones] The artificial duplication of certain gems by chemical processes which yield products identical in composition and physical properties with the natural stones is a subject of growing importance to the jeweller, and the latest developments are described in GEM, ARTIFICIAL (Vol. 11, p. 569), by Sir William Crookes. This famous chemist and authority on precious stones does not hesitate to declare that although the artificial diamonds so far produced have been microscopic in size, scientists have now found the right method and that “there is no reason to doubt that, working on a larger scale, larger diamonds will result.” The artificial production of rubies, sapphires, Oriental emeralds, amethysts, topazes and zircons is also discussed. Descriptions of the several gem stones are found under their respective headings, for example DIAMOND (Vol. 8, p. 158), illustrated, by H. A. Miers, principal of the University of London, and former editor of the _Mineralogical Magazine_. Here are given its scientific characters, its uses (especially for faceting softer precious stones), distribution, and mining, and the wonderful history of the most famous diamonds of the world. RUBY (Vol. 23, p. 812), the most valued of gem stones, is often called “Oriental ruby” to distinguish it from SPINEL (Vol. 25, p. 684), an aluminate stone of inferior hardness, density and value. It is interesting to note that many historic stones described as monster rubies were really spinels. The great ruby set in the Maltese Cross in front of the Imperial State Crown of England is a spinel. SAPPHIRE (Vol. 24, p. 201) was known to the Greeks as “hyacinthus,” and the present name was formerly applied to lapis lazuli. ASTERIA or STAR STONE (Vol. 2, p. 792) tells how the luminous star comes to be seen in sapphires, rubies and topazes. The name EMERALD (Vol. 9, p. 332) is used for a number of stones, of which the most valued is not a true emerald at all; see CORUNDUM (Vol. 7, p. 207). The same is true of the TOPAZ (Vol. 27, p. 48), the more prized Oriental topaz being a yellow corundum, harder and denser than the stone from which it takes its name. “Scotch” or “Spanish” topazes are yellow or smoke-tinted quartz, or cairngorm. The AMETHYST (Vol. 1, p. 852) is violet or purple quartz, and the sapphire of a purple colour is often called an Oriental amethyst. The many varieties of the beautiful ZIRCON (Vol. 28, p. 989), such as HYACINTH (Vol. 14, p. 25) and JARGOON (Vol. 15, p. 276) are carefully described and distinguished. These valuable articles on the precious stones have been contributed by F. W. Rudler, of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. PEARL (Vol. 21, p. 24) discusses the results of the latest researches on the cause of pearl formation, and gives a graphic account of pearl-fishing. [Sidenote: Semi-Precious Stones] The material in the Britannica on the semi-precious stones is as complete. There are many articles, specified in the list at the end of this chapter. ALEXANDRITE (Vol. 1, p. 576) is remarkable for its property of appearing dark green by daylight, and red by candle-light, which makes it especially popular in Russia where green and red are the military colors; CHRYSOBERYL (Vol. 6, p. 320), of which alexandrite is a variety; CHRYSOLITE (Vol. 6, p, 320), often mistaken for chrysoberyl; PERIDOT (Vol. 21, p. 147), like chrysolite, a variety of olivine; BERYL (Vol. 3, p. 817), much prized by the ancients as a gem stone, and of which the EMERALD (see above) and the AQUAMARINE (Vol. 2, p. 237) are the chief “precious” varieties; TOURMALINE (Vol. 27, p 103), the remarkable stone of as much interest to the physicist as to the jeweller, on account of its optical and electrical properties; and RUBELLITE (Vol. 23, p. 804), its much prized red variety GARNET (Vol. 11, p. 470), together with ALMANDINE (Vol. 1, p. 712), which, when cut with a convex face is known as carbuncle; CINNAMON-STONE (Vol. 6, p. 376), the light red garnet, so easily mistaken for a variety of zircon (the article tells how to distinguish them); DEMANTOID (Vol. 7, p. 979), the green garnet from the Urals, and PYROPE (Vol. 22, p. 695), usually known as Bohemian garnet; JADE (Vol. 15, p. 122), which occupies in China the highest place as a jewel, and whose many varieties are here clearly distinguished; JET (Vol. 15, p. 358); HAEMATITE (Vol. 12, p. 804); MOONSTONE (Vol. 18, p. 807); CAT’S-EYE (Vol. 5, p. 537), a term applied to several distinct minerals of which CROCIDOLITE (Vol. 7, p. 477) has recently become very popular; OPAL (Vol. 20, p. 120), an article in which the brilliant flashes of colour in this stone are explained; QUARTZ (Vol. 22, p. 715), with its many ornamental varieties such as AGATE (Vol. 1, p. 368), AMETHYST (Vol. 1, p. 852), AVENTURINE (Vol. 3, p. 54), BLOODSTONE (Vol. 4, p. 85), CAIRNGORM (Vol. 4, p. 952), CARNELIAN (Vol. 5, p. 365), CHALCEDONY (Vol. 5, p. 803), CHRYSOPRASE (Vol. 6, p. 320), HELIOTROPE (Vol. 13, p. 232), MOCHA STONE (Vol. 18, p. 637), ONYX (Vol. 20, p. 118), ROCK-CRYSTAL (Vol. 23, p. 433), SARD (Vol. 24, p. 209), and SARDONYX (Vol. 24, p. 2.18). [Sidenote: Watches and Clocks] The article WATCH (Vol. 28, p. 362), illustrated, by Lord Grimthorpe, the great authority on watches and clocks, and Sir H. H. Cunynghame, vice-president of the British Institute of Electrical Engineers, is full of interest. There is a very valuable historical account beginning with the invention of portable time pieces in the 15th century. The parts of a modern watch are described, with details as to the mainspring, different types of escapement, the balance-wheel and hair-spring, compensation adjustments and secondary compensation. Methods of correcting temperature errors are discussed, and a simple means for demagnetizing a watch which has been near a dynamo is given. The proper materials used for jewelled bearings are described in the articles DIAMOND, CORUNDUM, etc. LUBRICANTS (Vol. 17, p. 88) contains a valuable paragraph on the properties and preparation of the fluid oils used on the spindles of watches and clocks. The article CLOCK (Vol. 6, p. 536) is by the same distinguished authorities as WATCH, with an additional section on _Decorative Aspects_ (p. 552), by James Penderel-Brodhurst. It is equivalent to 55 pages of this Guide and is fully illustrated. Among the topics considered are the earliest clocks and their gradual improvement; the essential components of a clock; the mechanics of the pendulum; methods of compensation, including the use of the new nickel-steel alloy—described in the article INVAR (Vol. 14, p. 717)—the barometrical error, and methods of counteraction; suspension of pendulums; balance, anchor, dead, pinwheel, detached or free, and gravity escapements; the remontoire systems for abolishing errors in the force driving the escapement; testing of clocks; clock wheels; striking mechanism; the watchman’s clock, church and turret clocks, electrical clocks, miscellaneous clocks, including magical clocks and other curious designs. The section on _Decorative Aspects_ tells about styles of cases and mountings, the origin and development of the “grandfather” clock, etc. In connection with long-period clocks, attention should be given to the new and ingenious, if not commercially practical, device invented by the Hon. R. J. Strutt. Electrified particles emitted by a radioactive substance separate two strips of gold leaf, and these, falling together after the charge has been conducted away upon contact with metal, are extended again, the process being constantly repeated. If some way could be found to utilize this motion to work an escapement, we should have a clock that would go on indefinitely, since 1000 years must elapse before even half the small amount of radium used has disappeared. A description of this so-called “radium” clock will be found in PERPETUAL MOTION (Vol. 21, p. 181). ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO MANUFACTURERS OF AND DEALERS IN JEWELRY, CLOCKS, AND WATCHES Agate Aigrette Aiguillette Albite Alexandrite Alloys Almandine Amazon-stone Amber America, _Archaeology_ Amethyst Andalusite Anhydrite Apatite Apostle Spoons Aquamarine Arabesque Arts and Crafts Assaying Asteria, or Star-stone Aventurine Axinite Azurite Bead Benitoite Beryl Beryllonite Biddery Bloodstone Bort Bracelet Brazing and Soldering Britain, _Ornaments_ Bronzite Brooch Cairngorm Cameo Campani-Alimenis, M. Carbonado Carnelian Cat’s-eye Cellini, Benvenuto Cement Chain Chalcedony Chasing Chessylite China, _Art_ Chrysoberyl Chrysolite Chrysoprase Cinnamon-stone Clock Collar Congreve, Sir William Coral Corundum Costume Cressent, Charles Crocidolite Cross Crown Crystallography Cyanite Demantoid Diallage Diamond Dioptase Drinking Vessels Dumortierite Ear-ring Egypt, _Ancient Art_ Electroplating Emerald Emery Enamel Epidote Euclase Felspar Filigree Finiguerra, Maso Fluorescence Fluor-spar Franklin, Benjamin Galileo Galilei Garnet Gem Gem, Artificial Gold Gold beating Göthite Gouthière, Pierre Greek Art Grimthorpe, 1st Baron Haematite Hiddenite Hyacinth, or Jacinth Hypersthene Inlaying Intaglio Invar Iolite Ivory Jade Japan, _Art_ Jargoon Jasper Jet Jewelry Knighthood and Chivalry Kunzite Labradorite Lapidary and Gem Cutting Lapis Lazuli Leucite Line-engraving Lubricants Malachite Marot, Daniel Meissonier, J. A. Medal Metal Metallography Metallurgy Metal-Work Mexico, _Ancient Civilization_ Microcline Mineral Deposits Mineralogy Miniature Mint Mocha-stone Monogram Monteith Moonstone Morel-Ladeuil, Léonard Mosaic Nepheline Niello Numismatics Oligoclase Olivine Onyx Opal Orthoclase Palladium Paste Pearl Peridot Perpetual Motion Phenacite Phosphorescence Plagioclase Plate Plated Ware Platinum Pollaiuolo Prehnite Pyrope Pyroxene Quartz Regalia Repoussé Ring Rock-crystal Roman Art Rubellite Ruby Sapphire Sard Sardonyx Scandinavian Civilization Scarab Seals Sheffield Plate Silver Sphene Spinel Spodumene Staurolite Sunstone Tassie, James Tiffany, C. L. Time, Measurement of Time, Standard Topaz Tourmaline Turquoise Variscite Vesuvianite Watch Weighing Machines Weights and Measures Wyon, Thomas Zircon Zoisite