CHAPTER XII

FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF CHEMICALS AND DRUGS [Sidenote: A Factor in All Industries] The chemical and drug industry is not only in itself an enormous business, but it supplies essential materials for almost every branch of manufacturing. Chemical products are employed in our buildings, our clothing, our food; we come into the world and go out of the world with the odour of chemicals about us. The manufacturer or dealer cannot analyze all the influences that affect his market, and when he tries, as he must, to consider the future of the trade, to reckon with the channels of demand that will arise in the course of new applications of chemical products, he is facing all the problems of all the industries. The variety of raw materials from which chemical products are derived, and the activity with which new sources are discovered and developed, are almost as bewildering. Only a century has passed since coal-tar was first distilled, and to-day no chemist would venture to fix the limits of its industrial possibilities. Electrolysis has been in use since 1804, and yet the future of the world’s wheat supply probably depends upon processes, as yet hardly beyond the experimental stage, of utilizing atmospheric nitrogen. In connection with so comprehensive an industry, the uses of the Britannica are so manifold that this whole Guide might be devoted to them. Articles on every manufacturing process touch upon the use of chemicals. The articles on countries, states and cities are full of relevant information; and there is hardly a scientific article that would not be helpful. But the 40 general articles on chemistry, the 350 on chemical compounds, and the 75 on manufactured products call most immediately for attention; and, with the aid of other chapters in the Guide, the reader who desires to go further will easily find his way. [Sidenote: Articles on Chemicals] The article CHEMISTRY (Vol. 6, p. 33), equivalent to 135 pages of this Guide, is divided into 6 sections. The first, _History_, traces the general trend of the science from its infancy to the foundations of the modern theory. The second section, _Principles_, treats of nomenclature, formulæ, chemical equations and chemical changes. It provides a brief but complete introduction to the terminology and methods of the chemist, and there is not a line in it which will not prove of value in some way or other to the chemical manufacturer. Sections 3 and 4 are devoted to _Inorganic and Organic Chemistry_, giving a history of the subjects and the principles underlying the structure of compounds, with cross references to all articles dealing with their preparation and properties. Sections 5 and 6 deal, respectively, with _Analytical_ and _Physical Chemistry_. Dr. Walter Nernst, professor of physical chemistry, University of Berlin, is the author of CHEMICAL ACTION (Vol. 6, p. 26), which deals specifically with the nature of chemical forces and deduces the laws of chemical statics and kinetics. Of interest and importance in connection with the manufacture of chemicals is SOLUTION (Vol. 25, p. 368), by W. C. D. Whetham, of Cambridge University, author of _Theory of Solution_, etc. Another theoretical article which will be found widely useful is THERMOCHEMISTRY (Vol. 26, p. 804), by Prof. James Walker, of Edinburgh University. For further details see the chapter on CHEMISTRY in this Guide. [Sidenote: Manufacture of Chemicals] It is possible here to mention only a small amount of the material dealing with the manufacture of chemicals. At the end of this chapter there is a fuller alphabetical list. It may be noted, however, that the articles on the elements, metallic and non-metallic, give much consideration to their compounds, how these are made and how used in the arts and in medicine. But in addition to this there are many noteworthy contributions dealing with chemical manufacture. For instance, ALKALI MANUFACTURE (Vol. 1, p. 674), by Dr. Georg Lunge, professor of technical chemistry, Zurich Polytechnic, 11 pages in length and with 10 illustrations. The chief processes described are the Leblanc, ammonia-soda, and electrolytic, together with others dependent upon them. The facts about the manufacture of the carbonate, hydrate, and sulphate of soda, chlorine, hydrochloric acid, etc., are fully given. POTASSIUM (Vol. 22, p. 197) treats of the commercial compounds of this metal in the same manner. NITROGEN (Vol. 19, p. 714) explains the new process for the commercial manufacture of nitric acid from atmospheric air—a matter of enormous industrial importance—and also the conversion of nitrogen into ammonia, which has been done successfully only within the past few years. The manufacture of chemical products by the use of electricity is the subject of ELECTROCHEMISTRY (Vol. 9, p. 208), and a still larger field is covered by ELECTROMETALLURGY (Vol. 9, p. 232). Both of these valuable articles are by W. G. M‘Millan, formerly secretary of the Institute of Electrical Engineers of Great Britain. SULPHURIC ACID (Vol. 26, p. 65), illustrated, by Dr. Lunge, describes the properties, reactions and manufacture of the most important of all chemicals, including the more modern contact processes. [Sidenote: Drugs, Origin and Manufacture] As a key to the subject of the origin and manufacture of drugs, the article PHARMACOLOGY (Vol. 21, p. 347), by Dr. Ralph Stockman, professor of materia medica and therapeutics in the University of Glasgow, presents a great amount of interesting and valuable information on the action of chemical substances (apart from foods) on all kinds of animals, from bacteria up to man. A short history of pharmacology is given and a large part of the article concerns the action of drugs. There is also a classification of drugs according to the latest and most scientific methods into twenty-eight groups, describing the effects of each group. An appendix to the article, by Dr. H. L. Hennessy, is entitled _Terminology in Therapeutics_, and is a general explanation of the common names used in the therapeutic classification of drugs. Since therapeutics is concerned with the remedial power of drugs and the conditions under which they are to be used, the article THERAPEUTICS (Vol. 26, p. 793), by Dr. Sir Lauder Brunton, of St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, London, and author of the well-known treatise, _Modern Therapeutics_, should not be overlooked, nor POISON (Vol. 21, p. 893), by Dr. Sir Thomas Stevenson, lecturer on chemistry and forensic medicine at Guy’s Hospital, London, wherein all poisons are classified and their antidotes are indicated. PHARMACY (Vol. 21, p. 355), by E. M. Holmes, of the Pharmaceutical Museum, London, is largely historical in its nature, and yields much interesting and valuable information about the pharmacist. We learn that an Egyptian papyrus of the date 2300 B.C. gives direction as to the preparation of prescriptions, and that diachylon plaster, invented by Menecrates in A.D. 1, is used for the same purposes to-day. A great deal of curious knowledge about ancient remedies, such as the thigh bone of a hanged man, moss grown on a human skull, the ashes of the head of a coal-black cat, etc., renders this article especially entertaining. PHARMACOPŒIA (Vol. 21, p. 353), also by Mr. Holmes, tells about the pharmacopœias in use in different countries, the standardization of drugs, etc. In the list at the end of this chapter are noted the numerous separate articles on drugs, their preparation and use that appear in the Britannica. Mention should be made of the articles on the elements, such as IRON (Vol. 14, p. 799), ARSENIC (Vol. 2, p. 653), MERCURY (Vol. 18, p. 158), IODINE (Vol. 14, p. 725), BROMINE (Vol. 4, p. 633), SODIUM (Vol. 25, p. 343), POTASSIUM (Vol. 22, p. 200), MAGNESIUM (Vol. 17, p. 321), BISMUTH (Vol. 4, p. 11). Separate sections dealing with pharmacology are found in the articles on very many plants, such as ALOE (Vol. 1, p. 720), ANISE (Vol. 2, p. 55), ARROWROOT (Vol. 2, p. 649), _Iceland Moss_ (Vol. 14, p. 241), CINCHONA (Vol. 6, p. 369), COCA (Vol. 6, p. 614), COLCHICUM (Vol. 6, p. 661), DANDELION (Vol. 7, p. 801), HOP (Vol. 13, p. 678), HOREHOUND (Vol. 13, p. 692), LOBELIA (Vol. 16, p. 837), MINT (Vol. 18, p. 557), MUSTARD (Vol. 19, p. 97), PEPPERMINT (Vol. 21, p. 128), etc. [Sidenote: Biographies of Eminent Scientists] The scientific biographies include not a few subjects which will be of interest, owing to familiarity with the names, to those engaged in the chemical and drug business. Among these are LISTER, BARON JOSEPH L. (Vol. 16, p. 777), to whose work and teaching the present importance of the manufacture of antiseptics is largely due; PASTEUR, LOUIS (Vol. 20, p. 892); CURIE, PIERRE, and MME. MARIE CURIE (Vol. 7, p. 644), the physicists who first announced the existence of radium; LIEBIG, BARON J. VON (Vol. 16, p. 590), the great physiological chemist; LUNGE, GEORG (Vol. 17, p. 126), the noted expert in technical chemistry, already mentioned as a contributor to the Britannica, and GLAUBER, J. R. (Vol. 12, p. 114), the German chemist who made a living chiefly by the sale of secret chemical and medicinal preparations. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO THOSE ENGAGED IN THE MANUFACTURE AND SALE OF CHEMICALS AND DRUGS Abel, Sir Frederick A. Acacia Acenaphthene Acetic Acid Aceto-Acetic Ester Acetone Acetophenone Acetylene Achard, F. C. Acid Acid Amides Aconite Acorus Calamus Acridine Adenine Adipocere Affinity, Chemical Albumin, or Albumen Alcohol Alcohols Aldehydes Alembic Algaroth, Powder of Alizarin Alkahest Alkali Alkali Manufacture Alkaline Earths Alkaloid Alkanet Allantoin Alloxan Alloxantin Allyl Alcohol Almond Aloe Alum Aluminium Amidines Amines Ammonia Ammoniacum Amygdalin Amyl Alcohols Amyl Nitrite Anaesthesia and Anaesthetics Analysis Anatto Andrews, Thomas Angelica Aniline Animé Anise Anthracene Anthraquinone Antimony Antipyrine Antiseptics Apothecary Araroba Powder Archil Argol Aristolochia Arnica Arrowroot Arsenic Asafetida Asparagine Aspen Asphodel Azo Compounds Azoximes Baeyer, Adolf von Balard, Antoine J. Balsam Barium Base Baumé, Antoine Bdellium Becher, J. J. Bell, Jacob Belladonna Benzaldehyde Benzine Benzidine Benzoic Acid Benzoin Benzophenone Benzyl Alcohol Berberine Bergman, Torbern Olof Berthelot, M. P. E. Berthollet, C. L. Beryllium, or Glucinum Berzelius, J. J. Betaine Betel Nut Bhang Bibirine or Bebeerine Bichromates and Chromates Bismuth Bittern Black, Joseph Borage Borax Boric Acid or Boracic Acid Boron Boussingault, J. B. J. D. Brande, William Thomas Bromine Brown, S. M. Brucine Buchu Bunsen, P. W. von Butyl Alcohols Butyric Acid Cadmium Caesium Caffeine Cajuput Oil Calabar Bean Calcium Calomel Calvert, F. Crace Camphors Cannizzaro, Stanislao Cantharides Capsicum Capsule Caraway Carbazol Carbide Carbohydrate Carbolic Acid Carbon Carbonates Carbon Bisulphide Carbonic Acid Cardamon Carvacrol Cassia Castor Oil Catalysis Catechu Caustic Cavendish, Henry Cayenne Pepper Cellulose Cerium Chamomile, or Camomile Flowers Charcoal Chemical Action Chemistry Chevreul, M. F. Chloral Chlorates Chlorine Chloroform Chlorpicrin Chromium Chrysene Cimicifuga Cinchona Cinnamic Acid Cinnamon Cinnolin Citric Acid Clark, Thomas Cloves Coal-tar Cobalt Coca, or Cuca Cocaine Coco-nut Palm Cod-liver Oil Colchicum Colcothar Collodion Colocynth Colt’s-Foot Columbium Combustion Condenser Conine Copaiba Copal Copper Copperas Coriander Corrosive Sublimate Coumarin Coumarones Creosote Cresols Crookes, Sir William Crotonic Acid Croton Oil Crystallization Cubebs Cumin Curie, Pierre Cyanamide Cyanic Acid and Cyanates Cyanide Cyanogen Cytisine Dalton, John Dammar Dandelion Daniell, John F. Davy, Sir Humphry Decolourizing Depilatory Dessication Dewar, Sir James Dextrine Diazo Compounds Didymium Digitalis Dill Diphenyl Disinfectants Distillation Dividivi Döbereiner, J. W. Dragon’s Blood Drug Dulong, Pierre Louis Dumas, J. B. A. Durene Earth Ecgonine Elaterium Elecampine Electrochemistry Electrolysis Electrometallurgy Element Elixir Elm Epsom Salts Equivalent Erbium Erdmann, Otto Linné Ergot, or Spurred Rye Erythrite Esters Ether Ethers Ethyl Ethyl Chloride Ethylene Eucalyptus Eugenol Euphorbium Eupion Europium Fehling, Hermann von Fennel Fenugreek Fig Filter Fir Fischer, Emil Fittig, Rudolf Flamel, Nicolas Flavin Fluoranthene Fluorene Fluorescein Fluorine Formalin, or Formaldehyde Formic Acid Formula Fourcroy, A. F., Comte de Foxglove Frankland, Sir Edward Frémy, Edmond Fresenius, Karl R. Friedel, Charles Fructose, or Fruit-sugar Fuchs, Johann N. von Fulminic Acid Fumaric and Maleic Acids Fumitory Furazanes Furfurane Fusel Oil Gadolinium Galangal Galbanum Gallic Acid Gallium Gamboge Gannal, J. N. Garlic Gay-Lussac, J. L. Geber Gelatin Gelsemium Gentian Geoffroy, E. F. Gerhardt, Charles F. Germanium Gibbs, Oliver Wolcott Gilbert, Sir Joseph H. Ginger Ginseng Gladstone, John Hall Glaser, Christopher Glauber, Johann R. Glauber’s Salt Glucinum Glucose Glucoside Glutaric Acid Glycerin, or Glycerol Glycols Gmelin (family) Gold Graham, Thomas Grains of Paradise Greenheart Guaco, Huaco or Guao Guaiacum Guanidine Guarana Guelder Rose Guimet, Jean B. Gum Guyton de Morveau, Baron Harcourt, W. Vernon Hartshorn, Spirits of Hashish Hellebore Helmont, Jean B. van Hemp Henbane Henna Henry, William Herb Hippuric Acid Hofmann, A. W. von Homberg, William Homoeopathy Hop Horehound Houseleek Hydantoin Hydracrylic Acid Hydrastine Hydrate Hydrazine Hydrazone Hydrocarbon Hydrochloric Acid Hydrogen Hydroxylamine Hyposulphite of Soda Hyssop Iatrochemistry Iceland Moss Imidazoles, or Glyoxalines Indazoles Indene Indicator Indigo Indium Indole Indulines Inulin Iodine Iodoform Ipecacuanha Iron Isatin Isomerism Isoxazoles Jaborandi Jalap Juniper Kámalá Kekulé, F. August Kelp Kermes Ketenes Ketones Kino Klaproth, M. H. Kolbe, A. W. Hermann Kopp, Hermann F. M. Kousso Kunkel, or Kunckel von Lowenstjern, J. Lactic Acid Lactones Laevulinic Acid Lanolin Lanthanum Laudanum Lavender Lavoisier, A. L. Lead Le Blanc, Nicolas Lemery, Nicolas Lemon Liebig, Baron J. von Lime Linseed Liquorice Lister, Baron Lithium Litmus Lobelia Lunge, Georg Madder Magnesium Magnus, H. G. Malic Acid Mallow Malonic Acid Malt Mammee Apple Mandelic Acid Mandrake Manganese Mangosteen Manna Marggraf, Andreas S. Marignac, Jean C. G. de Mastic Mayow, John Medical Jurisprudence Medicine Mellitic Acid Mandeléeff, Dmitri I. Mercaptans Mercury Mesoxalic Acid Methyl Alcohol Meyer, J. Lothar Meyer, Victor Microcosmic Salt Mineral Waters Mint Mitscherlich, E. Mohr, K. Friedrich Moissan, Henri Molybdenum Mond, Ludwig Morphine Mucic Acid Murexide Murray, John Musk Muspratt, J. and J. S. Mustard Mustard Oils Myrrh Myrtle Naphtha Naphthalene Naphthols Naphthylamines Nepenthes Newlands, John A. R. Nickel Nightshade Niobium Nitre Nitric Acid Nitrobenzene Nitro Compounds Nitrogen Nitroglycerin Nobel, Alfred B. Nux Vomica Officinal Oils Olefine Oleic Acid Opium Orcin Orpiment Orris-root Oxalic Acid Oxazoles Oxide Oximes Oxygen Oxyhydrogen Flame Palladium Palmitic Acid Paraffin Paraldehyde Pasteur, Louis Pelouze, T. Jules Pennyroyal Peppermint Pepsin Perfumery Perkin, Sir W. H. Pettenkofer, Max J. von Pharmacology Pharmacopoeia Pharmacy Phenacetin Phenanthrene Phenazine Phenol Phenolphthalein Phosphates Phosphorus Phthalazines Phthalic Acids Picene Picric Acid Picrotoxin Pilocarpine Pimento Pine Piperazin Piperine Piperonal Platinum Plattner, K. F. Podophyllin Poison Polymethylenes Pomade Potashes Potassium Priestley, Joseph Primuline Propiolic Acid Propyl Alcohols Proust, Joseph Louis Prout, William Prussic Acid Pumice Purin Purslane Pyrazines Pyrazoles Pyrene Pyrethrum Pyridine Pyrimidines Pyrocatechin Pyrogallol Pyrones Pyrophorous Pyrrol Pyruvic Acid Quassia Quercitron Quinazolines Quinine Quinoline Quinones Quinoxalines Radium Ramsay, Sir William Raoult, François M. Rare Earths Regnault, H. V. Resorcin Retene Rhamnus Purshiana Rhatany, or Krameria Root Rhodium Rhubarb Richter, J. B. Roebuck, John Roscoe, Sir H. E. Rose Rouelle, G. F. Rouge Rubidium Ruthenium Saccharic Acid Saccharin Safflower Saffron Safranine Sainte-Claire Deville, E. H. Sal Ammoniac Salep Salicin, Salicinum Saliscylic Salt Saltpetre Samarium Sandalwood Sandarach Santonin Sarsaparilla Scammony Scandium Scheele, K. W. Schlippe’s Salt Schönbein, C. F. Schützenberger, P. Senega Senna Sesame Silica Silicon Silliman, Benjamin Silver Snake-root Soap Soap-bark Sodium Solution Spectroscopy Spikenard, or Nard Spirits Sponges Squill Stahl, G. E. Stas, J. S. Stearic Acid Sterochemistry Stero-isomerism Stoichometry Stramonium Strontium Strophanthus Strychnine Styrolene Succinic Acid Sugar Sulphonal Sulphonic Acids Sulphur Sulphuric Acid Sumbul, or Sumbal Supra-renal extract Talc Tamarisk Tannin or Tannic Acid Tantalum Tar Taraxacum Tartar Tartaric Acid Tellurium Tennant, Charles Tennant, Smithson Terbium Terpenes Tetrazines Tetrazoles Thénard, L. J. Therapeutics Thermochemistry Thiazines Thiazoles Thiophen Thomsen, Julius Thomson, Thomas Thorium Thymol Thyroid Tin Tincture Titanium Toilet Powders Toluene Tonqua Bean Tooth Powders and Pastes Triazines Triazoles Triphenylmethane Trophine Tungsten Turmeric Upas Uranium Urea, or Carbamide Urethane Urotropin Valency Valerian Valeric Acid Vanadium Vanilla Van’t Hoff, J. H. Vaseline Vauquelin, L. N. Veratrum Veronal Viburnum Vitriol Weighing Machines Weights and Measures Weldon, Walter Wenzel, K. F. Williamson, A. W. Wine Wintergreen Winter’s Bark Wislicenus, J. Witch-hazel Wöhler, Friedrich Wollaston, W. H. Wormwood Wurtz, C. A. Xanthic Acid Xanthone Xylene Yew Young, James Ytterbium Yttrium Zinc Zirconium