CHAPTER VII

FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF METALS, HARDWARE, GLASS AND CHINA Elisée Reclus, the great French student of the origins of civilization, says, in the Britannica article FIRE (Vol. 10, p. 399), that “human culture may be said to have begun with fire, of which the uses increased in the same ratio as culture itself.” The industries grouped in the present chapter all depend upon the curiously diverse effects of heat; the softening and tempering of metals, the hardening of clay and the changes by which sand becomes glass. It is for the reader himself to decide whether he wishes to begin his course of reading by a study of the article HEAT (Vol. 13, p. 135), and the allied articles to which it refers, and thus to understand how temperature plays its dominant part in the most useful of manufacturing processes. [Sidenote: Knowledge in “Layers”] It is, indeed, one of the most attractive features of the Britannica that it presents knowledge in _layers_. In text-books, the theoretical and practical aspects of an industry are so interwoven that you cannot separate them. But in the Britannica, if you desire only to examine the finished products of any branch of industry, as you might see them and hear them described at an exhibition or in a manufacturer’s sample room, you can turn to articles and sections of articles in which critical comment and elaborate illustrations put clearly before you the varieties of, for example, plated ware, china or glass. Proceeding to the next “layer,” you find technical information about the manufacture of these and all other goods; you have been permitted to pass from the sample room into the factory, which is not usually so easy of access. And in the scientific articles you arrive at the very substratum and foundation of knowledge; you have what the experts in the factory could not give you if they would: the clear teaching that only the great masters of science can supply. The manufacturer, of course, absolutely _needs_ to know all that can be learned about the origin of his materials and the principles upon which his processes are based. But the dealer, in his turn, will be a shrewder buyer, a more convincing salesman and a better manager of the salesmen under him, if he knows the whole history of his wares, of the ingredients that enter into their composition and of their manufacture. Factory experience is hardly more universal among wholesale men, most of whom begin as clerks, than among retailers, and it is impossible for a business man who has got his foot fairly on the ladder to drop his work and go through an apprenticeship or take a thorough course at a technical college. If, however, he will for a few months devote his spare time to the studies he can pursue, unaided, in the Britannica, the insight he obtains will give a new value to all the knowledge he picks up in the course of his business. [Sidenote: Physics and Chemistry] [Sidenote: Some of the Authorities] The departments of physics and physical chemistry are of course those in which the Britannica’s scientific contents especially interest those to whom this chapter is addressed, and the authority of the Britannica in those departments of knowledge is shown by a very striking fact. You may remember that Alfred Nobel, the great Swedish chemist, who made a fortune by the invention and manufacture of dynamite, devoted $9,000,000 to the establishment of the annual Nobel prizes, to be awarded, irrespective of nationality, for eminence in scientific research and in the cause of peace. In physics and chemistry, _Britannica contributors have won, in eleven years, seven of these prizes_, these winners being: in 1901, Prof. J. H. van’t Hoff, of the University of Berlin; in 1902, Prof. Lorentz, of the University of Leiden; in 1904, Lord Rayleigh, Chancellor of the University of Cambridge; in 1906, Sir J. J. Thomson, of the University of Cambridge; in 1909, Prof. Ostwald, of the University of Leipzig; in 1911, Prof. Van der Waals, of the University of Amsterdam. In other words, you find that the scientific committee who award the Nobel prizes select for these unique distinctions the same men whom the editor of the Britannica selected as contributors. Now apply another test, in connection with the subject matter of this chapter. What is, by general consent, the most exquisitely finished product of any of the industries under discussion in the present section? To this question there can be but one answer: Optical glass. Where is the best glass made? At the Zeiss Works in Jena, Germany. Very well, Dr. Otto Henker and Dr. Eppenstein, both of the scientific staff of the Zeiss Works, wrote the optical articles in the Britannica which deal with the lens and with aberration in lenses. You should therefore remember, in reading the Britannica, that whether you are only going as far as the uppermost layer of knowledge, or reaching down to the very foundations of science, the men whose articles you are reading command the respect that you can pay to them by giving your very closest attention. Do not imagine that because the book contains forty-four million words, it is made to be skimmed; every article in it is condensed; and you cannot derive the fullest benefit from your reading unless you feel, as you would feel if you were fortunate enough to be brought into personal contact with any of these great men, that you have a privilege of which you must make the most. [Sidenote: Metals] Other chapters of this Guide also deal in detail with the scientific side of the industries mentioned here; and in examining the groups of industrial articles, those dealing with metals claim first consideration. The article METAL (Vol. 18, p. 198) is devoted to classification only, and would not occupy more than ten pages of this Guide. It contains information as to the physical properties of the metals, including a table in which the specific gravity of each of 42 metals is stated, a table of comparative ductility under the hammer, for rolling and for wire drawing, a table of elasticities, and other tables showing the ratio of expansion under heat, the melting and boiling points, and the relative thermic and electric conductivity. A section is devoted to the action of chemical agents upon the simple metals. METALLURGY (Vol. 18, p. 203), and ELECTROMETALLURGY (Vol. 9, p. 232), by W. G. McMillan, lecturer on metallurgy at Mason College, Birmingham, deal with all the methods of smelting ores. Your next reading should be the great article IRON AND STEEL (Vol. 14, p. 801), by Prof. H. M. Howe, of Columbia University, containing as much matter as would fill 110 pages of this Guide. At the beginning of this article Prof. Howe disposes of the much discussed question as to the true distinction between iron and steel, as to which there has been great confusion. Before 1860, the word “steel” was never applied to a metal that could not be hardened by tempering. But when the invention of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes introduced a new class of iron, “which lacked the essential property of steel, the hardening power, yet differed from the existing forms of wrought iron in freedom from slag,” the men interested in the new product did not like to call it “wrought iron,” which is what it really is, because that name would confuse it with a lower-priced grade of metal. They ought to have coined a new word for it, but they appropriated the name of steel—so that to-day “steel” means either true steel or the low-carbon, slagless variety of malleable iron. The article is divided into 133 sections, so that to analyze its contents would swamp this chapter of the Guide, but the reader will find in it the clearest and most authoritative account of the industry which has yet been published. Among articles on the commercial metals are COPPER (Vol. 7, p. 102), LEAD (Vol. 16, p. 314), TIN (Vol. 26, p. 995), ZINC (Vol. 28, p. 981), ALUMINIUM (Vol. 1, p. 767), NICKEL (Vol. 19, p. 658), ANTIMONY (Vol. 2, p. 127), and, on the precious metals, GOLD (Vol. 12, p. 192), SILVER (Vol. 25, p. 112), and PLATINUM (Vol. 21, p. 805). The article ALLOYS, of which Sir W. C. Roberts-Austen, long chemist of the London Mint, is the chief contributor, with its photomicrographic illustrations, contains not only an account of the alloys already generally used in the metal industries, but also practical information as to the experiments which have been made recently with some of the newly discovered rare earths. In the article METALLOGRAPHY (Vol. 18, p. 202), by the same specialist, the microscopic examination and photography of metals and alloys is described. Among articles on the metallic compounds are BRASS (Vol. 4, p. 433), in which “Dutch metal,” “Mannheim gold,” “similor” and “pinchbeck” are described; BRONZE (Vol. 4, p. 639), which deals with steel bronze, phosphor bronze, and other combinations; FUSIBLE METAL (Vol. 11, p. 369) is an important compound. PEWTER (Vol. 21, p. 338), by Malcolm Bell, author of _Pewter Plate_, etc., is of historical interest, and of value to the dealer or collector, while he who wishes to distinguish between the older and the more modern electroplated ware is referred to the article SHEFFIELD PLATE (Vol. 24, p. 824), also by Malcolm Bell. ELECTROPLATING (Vol. 9, p. 237) describes the art that put an end to the Sheffield plate industry. Other methods of coating metals are given under GALVANIZED IRON (Vol. 11, p. 428), TIN PLATE AND TERNE PLATE (Vol. 26, p. 1000), and GILDING (Vol. 12, p. 13). The art of making gold-leaf is described in GOLDBEATING (Vol. 12, p. 202). In regard to manufacturing processes there are the separate articles: FORGING (Vol. 10, p. 663), with 19 illustrations; FOUNDING (Vol. 10, p. 743), with 11 illustrations; ANNEALING, HARDENING AND TEMPERING (Vol. 2, p. 70), and BRAZING AND SOLDERING (Vol. 4, p. 463). These four articles are by J. G. Horner. And see WELDING (Vol. 28, p. 500), also by Mr. Horner, with a section on _Electro-Welding_, by Elihu Thomson, inventor of the process of electric welding and expert for the General Electric Co. The article TOOL (Vol. 27, p. 14), another of Mr. Horner’s valuable contributions, has 79 illustrations and possesses special interest for the manufacturer of metal-ware as well as the dealer in hardware. [Sidenote: Metal-Ware] Coming now to the production of metal wares, the article METAL-WORK (Vol. 18, p. 205), beautifully illustrated, is the work of three noted experts. The late J. H. Middleton, Slade Professor of Fine Art, Cambridge University, writes on _Methods of Manipulation in Metal Work_ and tells of the metal work of Greece, Italy, Spain, Germany, France, England, Persia and Damascus. J. S. Gardner, an expert metal worker, deals with _Modern Art Metal Work_, and J. G. Horner contributes the section on _Industrial Metal Working_, in which he deals with _Plater’s Work_, _Coppersmith’s Work_, _Raised Work_, _Cast Work_, _Methods of Union and Protection of Surfaces_. In connection with the last mentioned subject, see also JAPANNING (Vol. 15, p. 275), LACQUER (Vol. 16, p. 53), and PAINTER-WORK (Vol. 20, p. 457). Further information about lacquering, with valuable formulas, will be found in the article JAPAN (Vol. 15, p. 188). Some of the ornamental forms of metal work are described in REPOUSSÉ (Vol. 23, p. 108), by M. H. Spielmann, formerly editor of _The Magazine of Art_; INLAYING (Vol. 14, p. 574), and DAMASCENING (Vol. 7, p. 783). See also GRILLE (Vol. 12, p. 596). PLATE (Vol. 21, p. 789), an article by H. R. Hall, of the British Museum, H. Stuart Jones, director of the British School at Rome, and E. A. Jones, author of _Old English Gold Plate_, etc., is a concise, complete hand-book on work in silver and gold of any class other than those of personal ornaments and coins. It is profusely illustrated with plates and text-cuts, showing many exquisite models; and the reader can master the details of style in different periods and countries. The subjects of the assay of gold and silver plate and hall-marks are discussed, the former being treated more fully in ASSAYING (Vol. 2, p. 776), by A. A. Blair, chief chemist of the U. S. Geological Survey. The article ROMAN ART, by H. Stuart Jones, has a section devoted to _Work in Precious Metals_ (Vol. 23, p. 483). CUTLERY (Vol. 7, p. 671) is one of the articles pertaining specifically to hardware manufacture and trade, in which general processes of manufacture are described; and of allied interest are KNIFE (Vol. 15, p. 850), FORK (Vol. 10, p. 666), SPOON (Vol. 25, p. 733), SCISSORS (Vol. 24, p. 407), SHEARS (Vol. 24, p. 815), RAZOR (Vol. 22, p. 937), CHAFING-DISH (Vol. 5, p. 800), NAIL (Vol. 19, p. 153), AXE (Vol. 3, p. 67), HAMMER (Vol. 12, p. 897), CHISEL (Vol. 6, p. 247), WIRE (Vol. 28, p. 738), and BARBED WIRE (Vol. 3, p. 384). Articles describing all forms of agricultural implements will be found under their respective headings. [Sidenote: Glassware] GLASS (Vol. 12, p. 86) is most complete in its consideration of the entire subject. The introductory section by H. J. Powell, of the Whitefriars Glass Works, London, author of _Glass Making_, and W. Rosenhain, of the National Physical Laboratory, London, deals with the manufacture of optical glass, blown glass and mechanically-pressed glass. The necessary qualities of each kind are stated and the newest processes of manufacture described, with full information about materials. The second part of the article is devoted to the _History of Glass Manufacture_, by Mr. Powell and Alexander Nesbitt, who wrote the well-known _Introduction_ to the South Kensington Museum Catalogue of Glass Vessels. Egyptian, Assyrian, Roman, Venetian, Bohemian and Oriental glass, as well as the modern types, are exhaustively described. The article is splendidly illustrated. DRINKING VESSELS (Vol. 8, p. 580), by Dr. Charles H. Read, of the British Museum, describes old forms of glass cups and goblets. It is most valuable for its information in regard to styles of different countries and periods, and the illustrations show many types. Stained glass is the subject of the separate article GLASS, STAINED (Vol. 12, p. 105), illustrated, by the late Lewis F. Day, author of _Windows, a Book about Stained Glass_. It is both historical and descriptive in its nature, deals with painted and stained glass, contains a table of examples of important historical stained glass, and treats of the latest progress in the art, including the productions of La Farge and L. C. Tiffany in this country. The art of fitting and setting of glass is described in GLAZING (Vol. 12, p. 116), illustrated, by James Bartlett. Here we learn about the setting of window glass, the use of glass in decoration, systems of roof glazing and the use of wire glass. Full information about glass for optical purposes will be found under LENS (Vol. 16, p. 421), illustrated, by Dr. Otto Henker, of the Carl Zeiss Factory, Jena, Germany; LIGHTHOUSE, _Optical Apparatus_ (Vol. 16, p. 633), illustrated, by W. T. Douglass, who erected the Eddystone and Bishop Rock lighthouses, and Nicholas G. Gedye, chief engineer to the Tyne Improvement Commission; TELESCOPE, _Instruments_ (Vol. 26, p. 561), illustrated, by H. Dennis Taylor and Sir David Gill; PHOTOGRAPHY, _Photographic Objectives or Lenses_ (Vol. 21, p. 507), illustrated, by James Waterhouse; SPECTACLES (Vol. 25, p. 617). [Sidenote: Chinaware, Pottery and Porcelain] To those engaged in the china ware, pottery or porcelain manufacture and trade, the great article CERAMICS (Vol. 5, p. 703) will prove a revelation. It is the joint product of a number of experts, both practical and artistic, including William Burton, chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain, Henry R. H. Hall and Robert Lockhart Hobson, both of the British Museum, and A. Van de Put and Bernard Rackham, both of the Victoria and Albert Museum. It is 85,000 words in length and contains over a hundred beautiful illustrations, including six plates in colour. It deals fully with the artistic and economic phases of the subject, the methods of manufacture, the different varieties of ceramics, their history, decoration, etc. Japanese ceramics are treated separately in JAPAN, _Ceramics_ (Vol. 15, p. 183), illustrated, by the late Capt. Frank Brinkley. CLAY (Vol. 6, p. 472), by Dr. J. S. Flett, describes the occurrence, composition and properties of the various clays used in ceramics. TERRACOTTA (Vol. 26, p. 653), illustrated, by William Burton and H. B. Walters, of the British Museum, deals with the artistic use to which baked clay is put, while TILE (Vol. 26, p. 971), illustrated, also by William Burton, has great practical value for the present-day manufacturer. KAOLIN (Vol. 15, p. 672), by F. W. Rudler, of the Museum of Practical Geology, London, deals specifically with china clay and its preparation for the market. GILDING (Vol. 12, p. 13) contains material on the subject of the gilding of pottery and porcelain, and PAINTING has a section _Painting with Coloured Vitreous Pastes_ (Vol. 20, p. 484), by Prof. G. B. Brown, of Edinburgh University, which describes the use of these pastes in ceramics. ENAMEL (Vol. 9, p. 362), illustrated, by Alexander Fisher, yields equally valuable information for those concerned with the decoration of china. In MURAL DECORATION, by Walter Crane and William Morris, there is a section devoted to _Wall-Linings of Glazed Brick or Tiles_ (Vol. 19, p. 17). Material of great archaeological interest relating to earthenware, etc., will be found in such articles as AEGEAN CIVILIZATION (Vol. 1, p. 245), illustrated, by D. G. Hogarth, of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford; CRETE, _Archaeology_ (Vol. 7, p. 421), illustrated, by Arthur J. Evans, the famous Cretan explorer, and GREEK ART (Vol. 12, p. 470), illustrated, by Percy Gardner, the classical archaeologist. The following is a partial list in alphabetical order of articles and subjects in this field treated in the Britannica. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF ARTICLES AND SUBJECTS IN THE ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA OF SPECIAL INTEREST TO THOSE IN METAL, HARDWARE, GLASS AND CHINA MANUFACTURE AND TRADE Adze Aegean Civilization Ainmuller, M. E. Alloy Steels Alloys Aluminium Amphora Andiron Annealing, Hardening and Tempering Antimony Anvil Armour Plate Arms and Armour Arretine Ware Assaying Auger Awl Axe Barbed Wire Banko Ware Basin Beaker Belleeck Ware Bidri Work Binocular Instrument Biscuit Bismuth Bizen Ware Bohemian Glass Bottle Bow Ware Bradawl Brass Brasses, Monumental Brazier Brazing and Soldering Bronze Byzantine Glass Caffieri, Jacques Candlestick Capo di Monte Ware Capronnier, J. B. Cast Work Cellini, Benvenuto Ceramics Chafing Dish Chalice Chelsea Ware China China, _Art_ Chinese Porcelain Chisel Churn Clay Cookworthy, William Coperta Copper Coppersmith’s Work Crete Crown Glass Cup Cutlery Cultivator Damascening Damask Steel, or Damascus Steel Damascus Ware Delft Ware Della Robbia Derby Ware Doulton, Sir Henry Dresden, or Meissen, Ware Drinking Vessels Dwight, John Electrolier Electroplating Electrum Enamel Painting Etruscan Ware Faience Fender File Finiguerra, Maso Fireback Firing Fire-irons Flint Glass Fork Forging Founding Fusible Metal Galvanized Iron German (or Nickel) Silver Gilding Gimlet Girandole Glass Glass, Ancient Glass-blowing Machine Glass Cutting and Engraving Glass, Painted Glass-press Glass, Stained Glazes Glazing Goblet Gold Gold and Silver Thread Goldbeating Gouge Gombroon Ware Gouthière, Pierre Graffito Ware Grate Greek Art Grille Hall-marks Hammer Harrow Hatchet Henri-Deux, Oiron, or St. Porchaire Ware Hispano-Moresque Ware Hizen Ware Hoe Horseshoes Ingot Inlaying Invar Iron and Steel Iron Work Izumo Ware Japan, _Ceramics_ Japanning Jug Kaolin Kashi Kiln Kioto Ware Knife Kuang-Yao Kuft Work Kutani Ware Lacquer La Farge, John Lang-Yao Latten Lead Lens Lighthouse Apparatus, Optical Lock Lubricants Lustred Ware Majolica Meissonier, J. A. Medal Metal Metallography Metallurgy Metal Work Mezza Majolica Minoan, or Kamares, Ware Mirror Monstrance Morel-Ladeuil, L. Mural Decoration Nail Needle Nickel Niello Ormolu Owari Ware Painter-work Palissy, Bernard Palissy Ware Painting Pen Persian Pottery Pewter Photographic Objectives or Lenses Pin Pitcher Plaque Plate Plated Ware Plate-glass Plater’s Work Platinum Plough Porcelain Pot-hook Potteries, The Potter’s Marks Potter’s Wheel Pottery Protection of Surfaces Raised Work Rake Razor Reaper Repoussé Roman Art Rookwood Ware Royal Copenhagen Ware Royal Worcester Ware Salt Glaze Salver Samovar Saracenic Glass Satsuma Ware Saw Scissors Sconce Screen Screw Scythe Sèvres Porcelain Shears Sheet Glass Sheffield Plate Shovel Shuttle Sieve Silver Smith Solder Spade Spectacles Spit Spoon Spade Stone Ware Table-ware Takatori Ware Tanagra Figures Tankard Tazza Telescopic Instruments Terracotta Thrasher Tiffany, C. L. Tiffany Glass Tiles Tin Tinker Tin and Terne Plate Tongs Tool Torchère Tray Tripod Trivet Tube-making, Glass Turkish Pottery Tweezers Trowel Vacuum Cleaner Vase Venetian Glass Wedgewood, Josiah Wedgewood Ware Whitefriars Glass Wire Wired Glass Yatsushiro Ware Yi-Hsing-Yao Zinc