CHAPTER VI

FOR MERCHANTS AND MANUFACTURERS OF MACHINERY [Sidenote: A Change in Public Opinion] An appreciation of the science of mechanical engineering is so indispensable to the manufacture and sale of machinery that the reader of this Guide might simply have been referred to the chapter _For Engineers_ as covering the industry, if it were not that the Britannica contains (as the list at the end of this chapter shows) a great number of articles dealing with individual machines. The amount of space which the new Britannica devotes to mechanical subjects, and the great number of expert contributors whose collaboration was enlisted in this connection, are significant from more than one point of view. All other general encyclopaedias, including earlier editions of the Britannica itself, seem to have been influenced by the old-fashioned fetish of “pure” scholarship and “pure” science, treating theory as a subject of study much more dignified than the application of knowledge to the practical affairs of life. Until recent days the great universities of such important manufacturing countries as England, Germany and France were almost exclusively devoted to the teaching of philosophy, history, Greek and Latin, mathematics and pure or natural science. The older universities of the United States, too, were for a long time reluctant to recognize the growing importance of technical education, and the necessity, apart from technical education, of giving the general student some knowledge of mechanics. And it is a significant fact that the Britannica, the first encyclopaedia that has ever been published by a university, should be, although it comes from one of the oldest of all universities, the first to give full recognition to the importance of this department of knowledge. Men in the machinery trade will welcome this change of attitude in the Britannica, not because they crave a public acknowledgment of the great share of the world’s work that they are doing, but because public ignorance of mechanical subjects results in the abuse of machines and in unreasonable complaints against manufacturers when improperly used machinery fails to do its work. A curious illustration of the general disregard of the subject is supplied by the fact—as true of the United States as of England, Germany or France—that representative government is, in practice, chiefly government by lawyers, and that in this age of machinery it is the exception to find in the cabinet which directs the affairs of any country, a single member who has any knowledge of mechanics. The same ignorance is conspicuous in newspaper offices. Even the most dignified dailies seem unable to deal with any news that has to do with machinery without making ridiculous blunders. [Sidenote: Influence of Automobiles] Fortunately, the automobile is beginning to stimulate interest in practical mechanics, for no one can attempt to drive his own car, or even to obtain proper service from his chauffeur and from garage workmen, without realizing that he failed, at school, to learn some of the most useful of lessons. Before long the authorities responsible for our public schools may realize that it is absolute barbarism to neglect mechanical teaching as they do; and the new Britannica is already doing good service in stimulating public interest in the subject. An examination of the articles mentioned in detail in the following summary, and a glance at the long list of articles at the end of the chapter, will show the comprehensiveness with which the Britannica treats all types of machinery. The materials employed are, logically, the first subjects upon which information will be desired. IRON AND STEEL (Vol. 14, p. 801), by Professor H. M. Howe of Columbia University, is a mine of information about the properties and uses of the different varieties of the indispensable metal of which 50,000,000 tons per annum are employed. In the manufacture of electrical apparatus COPPER (Vol. 7, p. 102) is largely employed, and for this reason alone the article has great value for the manufacturer. Almost as important is ALLOYS (Vol. 1, p. 704). Its chief author, Sir William Chandler Roberts-Austen, is the greatest living authority on alloys, and it is full of interesting facts about new admixtures. The processes of ANNEALING, HARDENING AND TEMPERING are described in J. G. Horner’s article under that title (Vol. 2, p. 70). This authority explains clearly the difference between hardening and tempering and gives valuable advice as to the most efficient methods of hardening. FOUNDING (Vol. 10, p. 743), also by J. G. Horner, is fully illustrated, and the question of the highest economies of machine moulding are among the practical matters considered. FORGING (Vol. 10, p. 663), with 19 illustrations, discusses fullering, swaging, upsetting, bending, welding, pinching, cutting-off, and die-forging. There is also a separate article, WELDING (Vol. 28), in which the section on _Electric Welding_ is written by Elihu Thomson, who invented the process. A table of energy used in electric welding is added. See also BRAZING AND SOLDERING (Vol. 4, p. 463). [Sidenote: Manufacturing Methods] The designer of machinery will find much practical information in DRAWING, _Drawing Office Work_ (Vol. 8, p. 556), and SUN-COPYING (Vol. 26, p. 93). It is a remarkable fact that prints identical in scale with the originals are now made up to a length of 22 feet. BEARINGS (Vol. 3, p. 578), illustrated, is written by Professor Dalby of the South Kensington Central Technical College. The article TOOL (Vol. 27, p. 14), by J. G. Horner, is 33 pages in length and has 79 illustrations. The whole subject is completely covered. In the section on _Machine Tools_ are discussed turning lathes, reciprocating machines, machines with drill and bore holes, milling machines, machines for cutting the teeth of gear wheels, grinding machinery, sawing machines, shearing and punching machines, hammers and presses, portable tools, appliances, wood-working machines, and measurement. In regard to the last subject great advances have lately been made. A thousandth of an inch is now considered a coarse dimension in the machine shop, where gauges within one five-thousandth of an inch are often used. This article is an invaluable manual for the machine-shop, and supplies many hints which should be given to workmen, for, to use the author’s words, “a clumsy workman is as much out of place in a modern machine-shop as he would be in a watch-factory.” Another article useful to the mechanic is SCREW (Vol. 24, p. 477), with 10 illustrations, by J. G. Horner, with a section on the _Errors of Screws_, by the late Henry A. Rowland, the American physicist, whose skill, shown in the construction of dividing engines of extraordinary precision and delicacy, made him famous the world over. See also GRADUATION (Vol. 12, p. 312). [Sidenote: Engines and Motors] The articles on the prime-movers are an important and noteworthy part of the new Britannica. Professor Ewing, of Cambridge University, contributes AIR ENGINE (Vol. 1, p. 443) and STEAM ENGINE (Vol. 25, p. 818), both fully illustrated. The latter has a most interesting preliminary historical account of engines from the aeolipile of Hero of Alexandria (about 130 B.C.) to the steam-turbine, the most modern type of all. The newest forms of internal combustion motors, OIL ENGINE (Vol. 20, p. 35) and GAS ENGINE (Vol. 11, p. 495), are described by Dugald Clerk, inventor of the Clerk cycle gas engine, and the articles are fully illustrated. Under HYDRAULICS (Vol. 14, p. 91) will be found complete information as to the construction of water-pressure engines, water-wheels, turbines, and also pumps. The article is written by Professor W. C. Unwin, and has been universally declared to be the best treatise on the subject that has yet appeared. There is a separate illustrated article WATER-MOTORS (Vol. 28, p. 382), by Professor Beare of Edinburgh University. See also WINDMILL (Vol. 28, p. 710). Designers and constructors of electrical machinery will be greatly interested in C. C. Hawkins’ illustrated article DYNAMO (Vol. 8, p. 764), which explains fully how the dynamo is constructed and gives its history from Faraday’s discovery of the principle in 1831. Dr. Louis Bell, of the General Electric Co., writes on MOTORS, ELECTRIC (Vol. 18, p. 910). [Sidenote: Machinery for Special Purposes] In hundreds of articles on manufacturing and manufactured products there are excellent descriptions of the machinery employed. COTTON-SPINNING MACHINERY (Vol. 7, p. 301), by Professor Fox, of Manchester University, gives details, with illustrations, of the modern systems of spinning, all founded on the inventions of Paul, Arkwright, Hargreaves and Crompton, while an historical account of primitive machines as well as much practical information, will be found under SPINNING (Vol. 25, p. 685). WEAVING has a section _Weaving Machinery_ (Vol. 28, p. 443). An account of the special machinery and appliances used in the manufacture of woollens is included in Professor Barker’s illustrated article WOOL, WORSTED AND WOOLLEN MANUFACTURES (Vol. 28, p. 805). In HOSIERY (Vol. 13, p. 788) we learn about framework knitting and warp-knitting machines. It is recorded that up to the middle of the 19th century only a flat web could be knitted, and that a circular knitting machine of American origin is the type of machine on which is produced the seamless hosiery of to-day. This was introduced by J. W. Lamb in 1863. ROPE AND ROPE MAKING (Vol. 23, p. 713), by Thomas Woodhouse, of the Dundee Technical College, is richly illustrated with pictures of the most modern type of machinery for the manufacture of fibre and wire ropes. The various machines and apparatus for sugar making are carefully described in SUGAR, _Sugar Manufacture_ (Vol. 26, p. 35). For milling machinery see FLOUR AND FLOUR MANUFACTURE (Vol. 10, p. 548), by George F. Zimmer, author of _Mechanical Handling of Material_. The latest designs in agricultural machines, with illustrations, as well as a history of their development, will be found under PLOUGH AND PLOUGHING (Vol. 21, p. 850), SOWING (Vol. 25, p. 523), HARROW (Vol. 13, p. 27), REAPING (Vol. 22, p. 944), THRASHING (Vol. 26, p. 887), etc. It is a matter of interest that the first successful reaping-machine was invented by a Scotch clergyman in 1826. For machinery used in the modern dairy see DAIRY AND DAIRY PRODUCTS (Vol. 7, p. 750). The germ of the sewing machine dates back to 1755, and the whole story of its development is told in SEWING MACHINES (Vol. 24, p. 744). [Sidenote: A Vast Encyclopaedia of Machinery] The descriptions of machinery of various kinds are continued under such headings as BREWING, _Brewing Operations_ (Vol. 4, p. 506), illustrated; BELLOWS AND BLOWING MACHINES (Vol. 3, p. 705), illustrated; PIN (Vol. 21, p. 615); NEEDLE (Vol. 19, p. 338); TYPOGRAPHY, _Modern Practical Typography_ (Vol. 27, p. 542), illustrated; PRINTING (Vol. 22, p. 350), illustrated; BOOKBINDING, _Modern Methods_ (Vol. 4, p. 218), illustrated; TEXTILE PRINTING (Vol. 26, p. 694); ALKALI MANUFACTURE (Vol. 1, p. 674), illustrated; REFRIGERATING AND ICE MAKING (Vol. 23, p. 30); SILK, _Silk Manufacture_ (Vol. 25, p. 102); LACE, _Machine-made Lace_ (Vol. 16, p. 44), illustrated; CARPET, _Modern Machinery_ (Vol. 5, p. 396); LEATHER (Vol. 16, p. 330), illustrated; BICYCLE (Vol. 3, p. 913), illustrated; TYPEWRITER (Vol. 27, p. 501), illustrated; DREDGE AND DREDGING (Vol. 8, p. 562), illustrated; and PAPER, _Paper Manufacture_ (Vol. 20, p. 727), illustrated. Biographies of many inventors, designers and builders of machines are included in the list of articles at the end of the chapter _For Engineers_ in this Guide, and are therefore omitted in the following alphabetical summary. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL MACHINES AND APPLIANCES DESCRIBED IN THE BRITANNICA AND GENERAL SUBJECTS AND ARTICLES ON MACHINERY Accumulator Acetylene Generator Aerating Apparatus Aeroplane Air Brake Alternators Alloys Ammunition Hoist Anemometer Annealing, Hardening and Tempering Archimedes, Screw of Babbitt’s Metal Back-starching Mangle Bale-breakers Band-knife Cutting Machine Barbed Wire Machinery Barker’s Mill Barrel Organ Bearings Beating Machine Beetling Machine Bellows and Blowing Machines Bessemer Convertor Bevel Bicycle Black-ash Revolving Furnace Blast Furnace Blocking Machine Boiler Bolt-screwing Machines Book-sewing Machine Boring Tools Brake, Hydraulic Brass Brazing and Soldering Breaker Card Brewing Machinery Bronze Bundling Press Burner Butter Worker Butyrometer Calculating Machines Calender Machine Calipers Calorimeter Carburetter Carding Engine Carpet-making Machinery Case-making Machine Casing-in Machine Centrifugal Machines Chisel Chronograph Chucks Churn, Mechanical Clepsydra, or Waterclock Clock Coal-cutting Machines Coal-wedging Machines Coal-weighing Machine Coining Press Comber Compressed-air Machines Continuous Press Conveyors Copper Copying Machines Core-making Cotton-gin Cotton-spinning Machinery Cranes Crushing Machine Cultivator Current Meter Curvometer Cutting Machines Cutting Tools Damping Machines Dash Wheel Depth Recorder Die Differential Machines Dividing Engines Diving Bell Doublers Dough Kneaders Dough Dividers and Moulders Dough Mixers Drawing-box Drawing-frame Drawing-office Dredgers Dressing Machine Drill Drop Hammer Drying Machine, Horizontal Dye-jigger Dynamo Dynamometer Eccentric Elevators, Lifts and Hoists Error of Screws Fans, Rotary Fire-engines Flour-sifters Flying Machines Fly-shuttle Forging Forging Press, Hydraulic Founding Friction Furnace Gas Engine Gas Plants Gas Producers Gill Frame Glass-blowing Machine Glass Press Graduation Gravity Stamp Grinding Machinery Gyroscope and Gyrostat Hackling and Spreading Machine Half-stuff Machine Hammer Hand Drill, Electric Harrow Hat-making Machines Hay Elevator Hide Mill, or Double-Acting Stock Hoe, Horse Holden Burner Hydraulic Machines Hydraulics Hydro-extractors Ice-making Machines Indicator Injector Integrators Iron and Steel Ironing Machines Jigger, Hydraulic Jigs Jute-Crusher Jute-Opener Jute-softening Machine Kier Knitting Machines Labour Legislation Lace Machines Lappet Looms Lathe, Automatic Laundry Machines Lever Lifts, Hydraulic Linotype Machine Liquid-air Machine Lithographing Machines Loaders Lock Locomotives Loom Lubricants Luggage-weighing machine, Automatic Machine Machine Gun Machine Moulding Mandrel Lathe Mangling Machines Manometer Measuring Machine Mercerizing Machines Metal-turning Tools Meter, Electric Micrometer Microtome Milling Cutters Milling Machines Milling Stock Monotype Machine Mortising Machine Motors, Electric Motor Vehicles Mowers Mule, Crompton’s Nail Machines Needle Machines Netting Machine Oil Engine Oil Muffle Furnace Opening Machine Ore-Breaker Pantograph Paper-making Machines Patent logs Patents Perpetual Motion Phonograph Phosphor Bronze Pin Machine Pig-casting Machine Planimeters Planing Tools Plug and Ring Gauge Pneumatic Hammer Potter’s Wheel Power-looms Power Transmission Price-computing Weighing Machine Printing Presses Pulley Pumps Purifiers Rag Boiler, Revolving Rag-breaking Engine Rake, Horse Reaping Machines Reciprocating Machines Rectifiers Reel Paper-Cutter Reels Refrigerating Machines Remontoire Reverbatory Furnace Rifling Machine Ring-frame Rock Drill Rod Gauge Roller Milling Machine Roller Washing Machine Rolling, Mill Rope-making Machines Rotary Washing Machines Rounding and Backing Machines Rusden and Eeles Burner Salt-cake Furnace, Mechanical Sawing Machines Scalpers Screw cutting Screw-Gill Drawing Frames Screw-thread gauge Screw Screwing Machine Scutcher Separators Sewing Machines Shaping Machines Shearing and Punching Machines Shuttles Signal Lever Silk-reeling Machine Slide-rule Slime-tables Slotter Tools Sowing Machines Spinning-jinny Splitting Machine Steam Engine Steam Hammers Steam Plough Steam Turbines Stentering Frame Still Stocking Frame Strength of Materials Sugar-making Machinery Sugar Weighing Machine, Automatic Sulphuric-Acid Plant Sun Copying Swathe Turners Sweep Rake Table, Mathematical Tea-weighing Machine Teasel Technical Education Testing Machines Thermodynamics Thrashing Machines Throstle Tool Tractors, Steam and Oil Trepans Turbine Turning Lathes Turret Lathe Type-setting Machines Typewriter Units, Physical Vacuum brake Valve Vanners Vernier Voting Machines Vulcanizer Washing Machines Wash Mill Watch Water Motors Water-pressure Engines Water Wheels Weaving Machinery Weighing Machines Welder, Automatic Welding Welding, Electric Winding Machines Windmill Wire-winding Machine Wiring Machine Wood-working Machines Woolen Mule