CHAPTER LVIII

BOTANY There are many gardeners and lovers of gardens, but comparatively few have even the most elementary knowledge of botany. How many, for instance, know or remember that in the leaves of plants are situated the kitchens in which they prepare their food, or more than vaguely recognize the presence of a nervous system in plant organisms (Vol. 21, p. 747)? The majority, indeed, ignore the fact that a little study will add a hundred-fold to their enjoyment, and that, unlike most scientific subjects, botany can be studied with a minimum of trouble or toil, and with the simplest apparatus. His own garden, the woods and fields, will give the inquirer ample subjects for his investigations, and, as in every other undertaking, the longer he pursues it the more he will see, and the more intense will be his pleasure in the contemplation of the garden of his cultivation. Botany is, of course, one branch of an enormous subject. The student will, therefore, do well to familiarize himself with the general articles which cover the science of living matter, as outlined in the chapter on _Biology_. In that chapter references have in fact already been given to certain sections of the strictly botanical articles. The general arrangement of the subject in the Britannica is as follows:—(i.) articles dealing with the broad aspects of the science; (ii.) articles on “systematic” botany treating of the various families of plants; (iii.) articles describing members of their families. [Sidenote: General Principles] Following the most convenient and at the same time the most logical course, the article BOTANY (Vol. 4, p. 299) gives a key to the treatment of the whole subject in the Britannica. This is by A. B. Rendle, keeper of the Department of Botany, British Museum, who acted as general adviser to the editor in the arrangement of this branch of biology in the Britannica. The main article on the subject is under the heading PLANTS (Vol. 21, p. 728), by a number of eminent authorities. The article is divided as follows: _Classification_, by A. B. Rendle; _Anatomy and History and Bibliography_, by A. G. Tansley, lecturer in botany in the University of Cambridge; _Physiology_, by J. R. Green, formerly lecturer on plant physiology, University of Liverpool; _Pathology_, by H. M. Ward, formerly professor of botany, University of Cambridge; _Ecology_, which comprises the study of the relations of the individual plant, or species, or the plant community, with its habitat, by C. E. Moss, curator of the Cambridge University Herbarium; _Cytology_, which treats of the cell structure of plant organisms, by H. W. T. Wager, president of the Botanical section of the British Association, 1905; _Morphology_, by S. H. Vines, professor of botany, University of Oxford, and president of the Linnean Society, 1900–1904; _Distribution_, by Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, director of the Kew Botanical Gardens. Supplementary to the article PLANTS are the following, which should all be read carefully: ROOT (Vol. 23, p. 712), STEM (Vol. 25, p. 875), LEAF (Vol. 16, p. 322), FLOWER (Vol. 10, p. 553), FRUIT (Vol. 11, p. 254). A very important article is that on PALAEOBOTANY (Vol. 20, p. 524), which treats of the distribution, etc., of plant life in prehistoric periods. The contributor is Clement Reid of the Geological Survey of England and Wales, an original investigator in this important field. The advances in the study of minute plant organisms in the past few years have been very great and they receive treatment in the brilliant article BACTERIOLOGY (Vol. 3, p. 156), by Prof. H. M. Ward of Cambridge University, and V. H. Blackmann, professor of botany in the University of Leeds. Other articles in the Britannica which refer to the general principles of the science will be found enumerated at the end of this chapter. [Sidenote: Divisions and Classification] The student must, of course, make himself familiar with the primary divisions of the vegetable kingdom. These are considered in order below. By far the biggest and the most important is that of the Angiosperms. They will be treated first. [Sidenote: Angiosperms: Dicotyledons] The division ANGIOSPERMS (Vol. 2, p. 9) includes all those flowering plants whose seeds are enclosed in capsules. This division is again divided into two classes: the Dicotyledons (Vol. 8, p. 185), which are distinguished by the presence of a pair of seed-leaves or cotyledons in the embryo contained in the seed; and the Monocotyledons (see Vol. 2, p. 13), which contain only one. The former embraces most of the flowerbearing plants, and includes the following families:—BORAGINACEAE (Vol. 4, p. 242) to which order belongs such plants as forget-me-nots, borage, heliotrope, etc. CAPRIFOLIACEAE (Vol. 5, p. 290), which include elder, honeysuckle, etc. CARYOPHYLLACEAE (Vol. 5, p. 439), with the pinks, carnations, etc. COMPOSITAE (Vol. 6, p. 811), which is the largest order in this division and includes one-tenth of the whole number of flowering plants, with such varieties as lettuce, dandelion, artichoke, sunflower, chrysanthemum, etc. CONVOLVULACEAE (Vol. 7, p. 67), among which are the convolvulus, sweet potato, bindweed. CRASSULACEAE (Vol. 7, p. 380), which include a quantity of African plants. CRUCIFERAE (Vol. 7, p. 521), with the wallflower, stock, mustard, cabbage, radish, nasturtium, etc. CUCURBITACEAE (Vol. 7, p. 611), among which are the cucumber, melon, etc. CUPULIFERAE (Vol. 7, p. 635), with the hazel, oak, beech, alder. ERICACEAE (Vol. 9, p. 739), with the rhododendron, arbutus, whortleberry, heather. EUPHORBIACEAE (Vol. 9, p. 892), which include the castor-oil plant, box, euphorbia, etc. GENTIANACEAE (Vol. 11, p. 601), with the gentian, yellow-wort, bog-bean, etc. GERANIACEAE (Vol. 11, p. 762), whose name is derived from the geranium. LABIATAE (Vol. 16, p. 3), with peppermint, marjoram, thyme, sage, ground-ivy. LEGUMINOSAE (Vol. 16, p. 381), which embrace gorse, furze, scarlet runner, mimosa, acacia, rest-harrow, etc. MALVACEAE (Vol. 17, p. 517), with the mallow, hibiscus, hollyhock. The MORACEAE (Vol. 18, p. 814), with the fig, mulberry, banyan, etc. ONAGRACEAE (Vol. 20, p. 104), including the evening primrose, fuschia, etc. POLYGONACEAE (Vol. 22, p. 26), with dock, rhubarb, buckwheat, etc. PRIMULACEAE (Vol. 22, p. 341), including primrose, cowslip, pimpernel. RANUNCULACEAE (Vol. 22, p. 895), with the varieties buttercup, clematis, aconite, larkspur, columbine, marsh marigold, anemone. ROSACEAE (Vol. 23, p. 722), to which the rose gives the name, and which include strawberry, raspberry, apple, pear, plum, spiraea, blackthorn, etc. RUBIACEAE (Vol. 23, p. 808), with gardenias, chincona, coffee, madder. SAXIFRAGACEAE (Vol. 24, p. 263), saxifrage, japonica, gooseberry, hydrangea. SCROPHULARIACEAE (Vol. 24, p. 485), with veronica, foxglove, snapdragon, etc. SOLANACEAE (Vol. 25, p. 356), which embrace henbane, tobacco, deadly nightshade, cape gooseberry, capsicum. UMBELLIFERAE (Vol. 27, p. 575), to which belong ivy, carrot, hemlock, celery, caraway, parsley. URTICACEAE (Vol. 27, p. 805), which include the nettle tribes. [Sidenote: Angiosperms: Monocotyledons] The Monocotyledons include the ALISMACEAE (Vol. 1, p. 671), to which belong the arrow-head, the water plantain, the butomus (so called because the leaves cut the tongues of oxen feeding on them), and other water plants. AROIDEAE (Vol. 2, p. 640), so called from the Arum family. The BROMELIACEAE (Vol. 4, p. 632), including pineapple, Spanish-moss. CYPERACEAE (Vol. 7, p. 692), with bulrush, cotton grass, etc. GRASSES (Vol. 12, p. 369), a most valuable article. HYDROCHARIDEAE (Vol. 14, p. 112), which include a number of water plants. Iridaceae (Vol. 14, p. 793), which include besides the iris, the crocus, gladiolus, etc. The JUNCACEAE (Vol. 15, p. 555), or Rush family; and the LILIACEAE (Vol. 16, p. 683), which include asparagus, hyacinth, star of Bethlehem, fritillary, bluebell, etc. [Sidenote: Other Divisions] Another big division is that of the GYMNOSPERMS (Vol. 12, p. 754). These have naked seed pods; that is to say, the seeds are not enclosed in capsules. The best known and largest division of this class contains the conifers: pines, firs, cedars, larches, etc. PTERIDOPHYTA (Vol. 22, p. 605), or spore-producing plants, including the fern families as the largest and most important of its members. BRYOPHYTA (Vol. 4, p. 700), the second great sub-division of the vegetable kingdom, comprises the mosses and liverworts. ALGAE (Vol. 1, p. 585), plants usually devoid of differentiation into roots, stem, and leaf, coming under the general class of Bryophyta, and including sea-weeds as the main group. LICHENS (Vol. 16, p. 578), compound dual organisms, part algae and part fungus, interesting because the dual organism enables the plant to live where neither of its compounds could live alone. Iceland moss, valuable both for its nutritive and medicinal qualities, comes under this division. FUNGI (Vol. 11, p. 333), an enormous class, comprising, according to Saccardo, 32,000 different species. Bacteria (see BACTERIOLOGY, Vol. 3, p. 156), minute organisms, also known as microbes, bacilli, etc., technically called Schizomycetes. INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS (Vol. 14, p. 644), more correctly termed Carnivorous, belong to a number of distinct natural orders, but agree in the extraordinary habit of adding to the supplies of nitrogenous material offered them by the soil and atmosphere by the capture and consumption of insects and other small animals. These are the main divisions, and from the articles describing them the student will acquire a sound knowledge of the characteristics which distinguish each. As a matter of fact, interest in botany as a subject is first inspired by the particular rather than the general—that is to say, the love of individual flowers leads to the study of their habits and life history, thence to a comparison which leads to the recognition of similar characteristics in plants having apparently widely different functions, so that the following section of the subject, touching the natural history of plants, though really placed last in a logical course of reading in botany, will contain much that is already known to the student who wishes to pursue the subject systematically. [Sidenote: Natural History] In the Britannica from the various articles concerning the natural history of individual plants it is easy to trace back to what family and main division each plant belongs. To the student beginning the subject it will be most suggestive to look up the accounts of the plants which are cultivated in his garden, or which he can find near his home, and find out the family relationship between subjects which appear to differ very widely both in habits and characteristics. From the outline given above in the paragraph devoted to systematic botany an indication will be given him of the surprises which are in store for him as he pursues his investigation. He would not at first suspect, for example, that asparagus and hyacinths were cousins, that roses, apples, and blackthorn are closely related, or that chrysanthemums and artichokes have any connection with one another, let alone cabbage and wallflowers. An excellent scheme to arouse the interest of the young student would therefore be to encourage him to pick out from the list below the names of plants with which he is familiar and of which he can get specimens, and thence work backward until the meanings of the main divisions of the vegetable kingdom are clear to him. In the natural history section of the following list will be found in alphabetical order the plants which have separate articles in the Britannica. Many plants besides these are of course described. They will be found in the Index, where the volume and page on which a description will be found are given. CLASSIFIED LIST OF ARTICLES IN THE BRITANNICA ON BOTANY (For biographies of botanists, see the end of the chapter on Biology) =Botany: General= Acaulescent Acerose Acinus Acorn Alburnum Angulate Ascus Autogamy Auxanometer Axile, or Axial Bacteriology Botany Boll Bur, or Burr Caducous Caespitose Cane Capsule Cataphyll Chlorosis Colleter Corn Cystolith Deciduous Fairy Ring Flower Fruit Galls Glaucous Graft Herb Herbarium Humus Idioblast Leaf Marcescent Meristem Nut Palaeobotany Pin-eyed Pistil Plants Pollination Root Ruderal Sap Sarcocarp Sarmentose Scion Secund Seed Stem Synanthy Thorn Thrum-eyed Tree Vegetable Witch brooms =Botany: Systematic= Acotyledones Acrogenae Algae Alismaceae Amentiferae, or Amentaceae Angiosperms Aroideae (Arum family) Boraginaceae Bromeliaceae Bryophyta Caprifoliaceae Caryophyllaceae Compositae Convolvulaceae Crassulaceae Cruciferae Cucurbitaceae Cupuliferae Cyperaceae Diatomaceae Dicotyledons Dictyogens Ericaceae Euphorbiaceae Fungi Gentianaceae Geraniaceae Grasses Gymnosperms Hydrocharideae Insectivorous Plants Iridaceae Juncaceae Labiatae Leguminosae Lichens Liliaceae Malvaceae Moraceae Onagraceae Polygonaceae Primulaceae Pteridophyta Ranunculaceae Rosaceae Rubiaceae Saxifragaceae Scrophulariaceae Solanaceae Umbelliferae Urticaceae =Botany: Natural History= Aal Aaron’s Rod Abaca Abutilon Acacia Acanthus Achimenes Acorus Calamus Adonis African Lily Agave Agrimony Ailanthus Alder Aleurites Alexanders Algum, or Almug Tree Allamanda Alliaria officinalis Allium Almond Aloe Amadou Amanita Amaranth Amaryllis Ammoniacum, or Gum Ammoniac Ampelopsis Anatto Anemone Angelica Animé Anise Apple Apricot Araucaria Arbor Vitae Archil Aristolochia Arrowroot Artichoke Ash Asparagus Aspen Asphodel Aspidistra Aster Aubergine Aucuba Auricula Avocado Pear Azalea Bael Fruit Balm Bamboo Banana Baneberry Banksia Baobab Barberry Barley Bdellium Bean Beech Beet Begonia Benzoin, or Gum Benjamin Betel Nut Bilberry Birch Bird’s Eye Blackberry Bladder-wort Boletus Borage Botrytis Bottle-brush Plants Bouvardia Boxwood Bracket-fungi Brazil Nuts Brazil Wood Bread-fruit Brooklime Broom Broom-rape Buchu, or Buka Leaves Buck-bean, or Bog-Bean Buckthorn Buckwheat Bulrush Burnet Buttercup Butter-nut Butterwort Cabbage Cactus Calabash Calabash Tree Calceolaria Camellia Campanula Candytuft Cannon-ball Tree Capers Caraway Cardamom Cardoon Carnation Carrot Cashew Nut Cassava Cassia Casuarina Catalpa Catha Cayenne Pepper Ceanothus Cecropia Cedar Celandine Celery Centaurea Centaury Chantarelle Chenopodium Cherry Chestnut Chicory Chive Chrysanthemum Cicely Cimicifuga Cinchona Cineraria Cinnamon Citron Cleavers Clematis Climbing Fern Cloudberry Clover Cloves Coca, or Cuca Cocculus Indicus Cock’s-comb Cocoa Coco de Mer Coco-nut Palm Codiaeum Coffee Colchicum Coleus Colocynth Colt’s-foot Columbine Compass Plant Cotton Copaiba, or Copaiva Copal Coriander Cork Corn-salad Correa Cotoneaster Cow-tree Cranberry Cress Crinum Crocus Crowberry Cryptomeria Cucumber Cumin, or Cummin Currant Custard Apple Cyclamen Cypress Daffodil Dahlia Daisy Dame’s Violet Dammar, or Dammer Dandelion Daphne Darlingtonia Date Palm Dewberry Dividivi Dock Dodder Dogwood Dracaena Dragon’s Blood Dropwort Duckweed Dulse Duramen Durian Durra Earth-nut Earth-star Ebony Edelweiss Eglantine Elder Elecampane Elephant’s Foot Elm Endive Entada Esparto, or Spanish Grass Eucharis Euonymus Euphorbia Evergreen Everlasting, or Immortelle Fennel Fenugreek Fern Fig Filmy Ferns Finger-and-toe Fir Flax Fool’s Parsley Forget-me-not Foxglove Freesia Fritillary Frog-bit Fuchsia Fumitory Funkia Furze, Gorse, or Whin Fustic Gale Gardenia Garlic Genista Gentian Geranium Geum Gillyflower Ginger Gladiolus Glasswort Gloriosa Gloxinia Golden Rod Gooseberry Gourd Grains of Paradise Gram, or Chick-pea Granadilla Grass of Parnassus Greenheart Ground Nut Groundsel Guava Guelder Rose Gulfweed Gum Gumbo, or Okra Gutta Percha Hackberry Harebell Hawthorn Hazel Heath Heliotrope, or Turnsole Hellebore Hemlock Hemp Henbane Henna Hickory Hippeastrum Holly Hollyhock Honey Locust Honeysuckle Hop Horehound Hornbeam Horseradish Horsetail Houseleek Huckleberry Huon Pine Hyacinth Hydrangea Hyssop Iceland Moss Ice-plant Impatiens Iris Irish Moss, or Carrageen Iron-wood Ivy Jarrah Wood Jasmine, or Jessamine Jew’s Ears Job’s Tears Judas Tree Jujube Juniper Jute Kaffir Bread Kauri Pine Kerguelen’s Land Cabbage Kumquat Labrador Tea Laburnum Lac Lace-bark Tree Lancewood Larch Larkspur Lattice Leaf Plant Laurel Laurustinus Lavender Leek Lemon Lentil Lettuce Lilac, or Pipe Tree Lily Lime, or Linden Liquidambar, or Sweet Gum Litchi, or Lee-Chee Lobelia Loco-weeds, or Crazy Weeds Locust-tree Loosestrife Loquat Lotus Lucerne Lupine Lycopodium Madder, or Dyer’s Madder Magnolia Mahogany Maidenhair Maize, or Indian Corn Mallow Mammee Apple Mandrake Mangel-Wurzel Mango Mangosteen Mangrove Manila Hemp Manna Maple Mare’s-tail Marguerite Marigold Marjoram Mastic, or Mastich Maté, or Paraguay Tea Medlar Melon Mesquite, or Honey Locust Mignonette Mildew Milkwort Millet Mimosa Mimulus Mint Mistletoe Moly Momordica Moonseed Moonwort, or Moonfern Moreton Bay Chestnut Mucuna Mulberry Mushroom Mustard Myrobalans Myrrh Myrtle Narcissus Nasturtium Nettle Nettle Tree Nightshade Nutmeg Oak Oat Oleander Oleaster Olive Onion Orach, or Mountain Spinach Orange Orchids Orris-Root Osier Oxalis Paeony Palm Palmetto Pansy, or Heartsease Papyrus Parsley Parsnip Passionflower Pea Peach Pear Pellitory Pennyroyal Pentstemon Pepper Peppermint Pepper Tree Persimmon Petunia Phlox Phormium, or New Zealand Flax Pimento Pine Pine-apple Pink Pistachio Nut Pitcher-plants Plane Plantain Plum Poinsettia Pokeberry, or Pokeweed Polyanthus Polypodium Pomegranate Pondweed Poplar Poppy Potato Potentilla Primrose Privet Puff-ball Pumpkin Purslane Pyrethrum Quince Radish Ramie Ramsons Ranunculus Rape Raspberry Reed Rhododendron Rice Richardia Robinia, or Locust-tree Rocambole Rose Rosemary Rosewood Rosin, or Colophony Royal Fern Rubber Rue Rush Rye Sabicu Wood Safflower Saffron Sago Sainfoin St. John’s Wort Salsafy, or Salsify Salvia Sapan Wood Sarracenia Satin Wood Saxifrage Scammony Scorzonera Screw-pine Sea-kale Seawrack Sedum Sequoia Service Tree Sesame Shaddock Shallot Sisal Hemp Skirret Snake-root Snapdragon Snowdrop Soap-bark Sorghum Sorrel Spanish Broom Spikenard, or Nard Spinach Spruce Stink-wood Strawberry Strophanthus Sudd Sumach Sundew Sunflower Sunn, or India Hemp Sweet Potato Sweet-sop Switch Plants Tallow Tree Tamarind Tamarisk Tea Teak Teasel Terebinth Thistle Thyme Tiger-flower Toadstool Tobacco Tomato Tonqua Bean Toothwort Traveller’s Tree Tree-fern Truffle Tuberose Tulip Tulip Tree Tumble-weed Turmeric Turnip Vanilla Vegetable Marrow Venus’s Fly-trap Venus’s Looking-glass Veratrum Verbena Vetch Vine Violet Walnut Water-lily Water-thyme Wax-tree Wheat Willow Willow-herb Wintergreen Winter’s-bark Witch-hazel Woad Wormwood Yam Yew Yucca Zinnia