Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Armour Plates" to "Arundel, Earls of"

76. _The Modern Army._--The college at Addiscombe was closed in 1860,

862 words | Chapter 84

and the direct appointment of British officers to the Indian local forces ceased in 1861. In that year a staff corps was formed by royal warrant in each presidency "to supply a body of officers for service in India, by whom various offices and appointments hitherto held by officers borne on the strength of the several corps in the Indian forces shall in future be held." Special roles were laid down. The corps was at first recruited partly from officers of the Company's service and partly from the royal army, holding staff appointments (the new regimental employment being considered as staff duty) and all kinds of political and civil posts; for the system established later see INDIA: _Army_. The native artillery and sappers and miners were to be officered from the Royal Artillery and Royal Engineers. The only English warrant and non-commissioned officers now to be employed in the native army were to be those of the Royal Engineers with the sappers and miners. A radical change in the regimental organization of all the native armies was effected in 1863. The Punjab Frontier Force was from the first organized on the irregular system, which was there seen at its best, as also were the new regiments raised during the Mutiny. This system was now applied to the whole army, each regiment and battalion having seven British officers attached to it for command and administrative duties, the immediate command of troops and companies being left to the native officers. Thus was the system reverted to, which was initiated by Clive, of a few British officers only being attached to each corps for the higher regimental duties of command and control. Time had shown that this was more effective than the regular system instituted in 1796 of British officers commanding troops and companies. A new spirit was breathed into the army. The supremacy of the commandant was the main principle. He was less hampered by the unbending regulations enjoined upon the old regular regiments, had greater powers of reward and punishment, was in a position to assume larger responsibility and greater freedom of action, and was supported in the full exercise of his authority. The system made the officers. Up to 1881 the native army underwent little change, but in that year 18 regiments of infantry and 4 of cavalry were broken up, almost the same total number of men being maintained in fewer and stronger regiments. The only reduction made in the British troops was in the Royal Artillery, which was diminished by 11 batteries. The events of 1885, however, on the Russo-Afghan frontier, led to augmentations. The 11 batteries Royal Artillery were brought back from England; each of the 9 British cavalry regiments in India received a fourth squadron; each of the British infantry battalions was increased by 100 men, and 3 battalions were added. The native cavalry had a fourth squadron added to each regiment; three of the four regiments broken up in 1881 were re-raised, while the native infantry was increased in regimental strength, and 9 new battalions raised composed of Gurkhas, Sikhs and Punjabis. The addition in all amounted to 10,600 British and 21,200 native troops. In 1890 the strength of the army of India was 73,000 British and, including irregulars, 147,500 native troops. For the Indian volunteers, see VOLUNTEERS. Many important changes took place between 1885 and 1904. Seven Madras infantry regiments were converted into regiments for service in Burma, composed of Gurkhas and hardy races from northern India; six Bengal and Bombay regiments were similarly converted into regiments of Punjabis, Pathans and Gurkhas; the native mountain batteries have been increased to ten; a system of linked battalions has been introduced with the formation of regimental centres for mobilization; and reserves for infantry and mountain artillery have been formed. The number of British officers with each regiment has been increased to nine, and the two wing commands in battalions have been converted into 4 double-company commands of 250 men each, under a British commander, who is responsible to the commandant for their training and efficiency, the command of the companies being left to the native officers. This system, which is analogous to the squadron command in the cavalry, admits of closer individual attention to training, and distributes among the senior British regimental officers effective responsibility of a personal kind. An addition (at the imperial expense) of five battalions of Sikhs, Punjabi Mahommedans, Jats and hillmen in northern India was made in 1900, as the result of India being called upon to furnish garrisons for Mauritius and other stations overseas. The unification of the triplicate army departments in the different presidential armies was completed in 1891, all being brought directly under the supreme government; and the three separate staff corps of Bengal, Madras and Bombay were fused into one in 1891 as the Indian Staff Corps. The term "Indian Staff Corps" was in turn replaced by that of "Indian Army" in 1903. These measures prepared the way for the new system of army organization which, by authority of parliament, abolished divided control and placed the whole army of India under the governor-general and the commander-in-chief in India. CANADIAN FORCES

Chapters

1. Chapter 1 2. 1. _Stone Age._--One of the chief problems which have perplexed 3. 2. _Bronze Age._--It is impossible to assign any date as the beginning 4. 3. _Early Greek Weapons._--The character of the weapons used by the 5. 4. _Greek, Historical._--The equipment does not differ generically from 6. 5. _Roman._--The equipment of the Roman soldier, like the organization 7. 6. _English from the Norman Conquest._--It is unnecessary here to trace 8. 7. _Fire-arms._ (For the development of cannon, see ARTILLERY and 9. 1. _Early Armies._--It is only with the evolution of the specially 10. 2. _Persia._--Drawn from a hardy and nomadic race, the armies of Persia 11. 3. _Greece._--The Homeric armies were tribal levies of foot, armed with 12. 4. _Sparta._--So much is common to the various states. In Sparta the 13. 5. _Greek Mercenaries._--The military system of the 4th century was not 14. 6. _Epaminondas._--Not many years after this, Spartan oppression roused 15. 7. _Alexander._--The reforms of Alexander's father, Philip of Macedon, 16. 8. _Carthage._--The military systems of the Jews present few features of 17. 9. _Roman Army under the Republic._--The earliest organization of the 18. 10. _Characteristics of the Roman Army._--Such in outline was the Roman 19. 11. _Roman Empire._--The essential weaknesses of militia forces and the 20. 12. _The "Dark Ages."_--In western Europe all traces of Roman military 21. 13. _The Byzantines_ (cf. article ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER).--While the west 22. 14. _Feudalism._--From the military point of view the change under 23. 15. _Medieval Mercenaries._--It was natural, therefore, that a sovereign 24. 16. _Infantry in Feudal Times._--These mercenary foot soldiers came as a 25. 17. _The Crusades._--It is an undoubted fact that the long wars of the 26. 18. _The Period of Transition_ (1290-1490).--Besides the infantry 27. 19. _The Condottieri._--The immediate result of this confused period of 28. 20. _The Swiss._--The best description of a typical European army at the 29. 21. _The Landsknechts._--The modern army owes far more of its 30. 22. _The Spanish Army._--The tendencies towards professional soldiering 31. 23. _The Sixteenth Century._--The battle of St Quentin (1557) is usually 32. 24. _Dutch System._--The most interesting feature of the Dutch system, 33. 25. _The Thirty Years' War._--Hitherto all armies had been raised or 34. 26. _The Swedish Army._--The Swedish army was raised by a carefully 35. 27. _The English Civil War_ (see GREAT REBELLION).--The armies on either 36. 28. _Standing Armies._--Nine years after Nordlingen, the old Spanish 37. 29. _Character of the Standing Armies._--A peculiar character was from 38. 30. _Organization in the 18th Century._--All armies were now almost 39. 31. _Frederick the Great._--The military career of Frederick the Great 40. 32. _The French Revolution._--Very different were the armies of the 41. 33. _The Conscription._--In 1793, at a moment when the danger to France 42. 34. _Napoleon._--Revolutionary government, however, gave way in a few 43. 35. _The Grande Armee._--In 1805-1806, when the older spirit of the 44. 36. _The Wars of Liberation._--The Prussian defeat at Jena was followed 45. 37. _European Armies 1815-1870._--The events of the period 1815-1859 46. 38. _Modern Developments._--Since 1870, then, with the single exception 47. 39. The main principles of all military organization as developed in 48. 40. _Compulsory Service._--Universal liability to service (_allgemeine 49. 41. _Conscription_ in the proper sense, i.e. selection by lot of a 50. 42. _Voluntary Service._--Existing voluntary armies have usually 51. 43. The militia idea (see MILITIA) has been applied most completely in 52. 44. _Arms of the Service._--Organization into "arms" is produced by the 53. 45. _Command._--The first essential of a good organization is to ensure 54. 46. A _brigade_ is the command of a brigadier or major-general, or of a 55. 47. A _division_ is an organization containing troops of all arms. Since 56. 48. _Army Corps._--The "corps" of the 18th century was simply a large 57. 49. _Constitution of the Army Corps._--In 1870-71 the III. German army 58. 50. _Army._--The term "army" is applied, in war time, to any command of 59. 51. _Chief Command._--The leading of the "group of armies" referred to 60. 52. The _Chief of the General Staff_ is, as his title implies, the chief 61. 53. _First and Second Lines._--The organization into arms and units is 62. 54. _War Reserves._--In war, the reserves increase the field armies to 63. 55. The military characteristics of the various types of regular troops 64. 56. The transfer of troops from the state of peace to that of war is 65. 57. _Territorial System._--The feudal system was of course a territorial 66. 58. _Army Administration._--The existing systems of command and 67. 59. _Branches of Administration._--In these circumstances the only 68. 60. Prior to the Norman Conquest the armed force of England was 69. 61. It is difficult to summarize the history of the army between the 70. 62. The first years of the Great Rebellion (q.v.) showed primarily the 71. 63. James II., an experienced soldier and sailor, was more obstinate 72. 64. Under William the army was considerably augmented. The old regiments 73. 65. Before passing to the great French Revolutionary wars, from which a 74. 66. The first efforts of the army in the long war with France did not 75. 67. The period which elapsed between Waterloo and the Crimean War is 76. 68. The Indian Mutiny of 1857, followed by the transference of the 77. 69. The period of reform commences therefore with 1870, and is connected 78. 70. Historically, the Indian army grew up in three distinct divisions, 79. 71. _Madras._--The first armed force in the Madras presidency was the 80. 72. _Bombay._--The island of Bombay formed part of the marriage 81. 73. _Consolidation of the Army._--In 1796 a general reorganization 82. 74. _The Army before the Mutiny._--The officering and recruiting of 83. 75. _The Reorganization._--By the autumn of 1858 the mutiny was 84. 76. _The Modern Army._--The college at Addiscombe was closed in 1860, 85. 77. In the earliest European settlements in Canada, the necessity of 86. 78. The _Landsknecht_ infantry constituted the mainstay of the imperial 87. 79. The Austrians, during the short peace which preceded the war of 88. 80. The Austrian system has conserved much of the peculiar tone of the 89. 81. The French army (see for further details FRANCE: _Law and 90. 82. The artillery had been an industrial concern rather than an arm of 91. 83. The last half of the 17th century is a brilliant period in the 92. 84. If Louis was the creator of the royal army, Carnot was so of the 93. 85. One of the first acts of the Restoration was to abolish the 94. 86. At the outbreak of the Franco-German War (q.v.) the French field 95. 87. The German army, strictly speaking, dates only from 1871, or at 96. 88. The bitter humiliation and suffering endured under the French yoke 97. 89. The _Saxon Army_ formerly played a prominent part in all the wars of 98. 90. The _Bavarian Army_ has perhaps the most continuous record of good 99. 91. _Wurttemberg_ furnishes one army corps (XIII.; headquarters, 100. 92. The old _Hanoverian Army_ disappeared, of course, with the 101. 93. The old conscription law of the kingdom of Sardinia is the basis of 102. 94. The history of the Russian army begins with the abolition of the 103. 95. The feudal sovereignties of medieval Spain differed but little, in 104. 96. With the Italian wars of the early 16th century came the 105. 97. The military history of Spain from 1650 to 1700 is full of 106. 98. The writers who have left the most complete and trustworthy 107. 99. The regular army of the United States has always been small. From 108. 100. _Dutch and Belgian Armies._--The military power of the "United 109. 101. _Swiss Army._--The inhabitants of Switzerland were always a hardy 110. 102. The _Swedish Army_ can look back with pride to the days of 111. 103. The existing Army of _Portugal_ dates from the Peninsular War, 112. 104. The _Rumanian, Bulgarian_ and _Servian_ armies are the youngest 113. 1804. Arnault died at Goderville on the 16th of September 1834. 114. 1848. In 1861 he became a member of the Lower Austrian diet and in 1869 115. 1785. After being educated at a convent school in Fritzlar, she lived 116. 1822. When it is said that he was the son of the famous Dr Arnold of 117. 1827. In June 1828 he received priest's orders; in April end November of 118. 4. Spike of fruits. Showing in succession (from below) female flowers, 119. 3000. It lies in a pleasant undulating country at an elevation of 900 120. introduction of European spirits and methods of manufacture is gradually 121. 500. This was soon transferred to Cambrai, but brought back to its 122. 1. Warrants are ordinarily granted by justices of the peace on 123. 2. The officers who may arrest without warrant are,--justices of the 124. 3. A private person is bound to arrest for a felony committed in his 125. 4. The arrest by hue and cry is where officers and private persons are 126. 1826. They are under the direction of maritime prefects, who, by a 127. 1. Daughter of Lysimachus, king of Thrace, first wife of Ptolemy II. 128. 2. Daughter of Ptolemy I. Soter and Berenice. Born about 316 B.C., she 129. 3. Daughter of Ptolemy III. Euergetes, sister and wife of Ptolemy IV. 130. 4. Youngest daughter of Ptolemy XIII. Auletes, and sister of the famous 131. 819. The streets of the town were widened and improved in 1869. 132. 1. Brother of Darius I., and, according to Herodotus, the trusted 133. 2. Vizier of Xerxes (Ctesias, _Pers_. 20), whom he murdered in 465 B.C. 134. 3. A satrap of Bactria, who revolted against Artaxerxes I., but was 135. 4. ARTABANUS I., successor of his nephew Phraates II. about 127 B.C., 136. 5. ARTABANUS II. c. A.D. 10-40, son of an Arsacid princess (Tac. _Ann_. 137. 18. 9). In A.D. 35 he tried anew to conquer Armenia, and to establish 138. 6. ARTABANUS III. reigned a short time in A.D. 80 (on a coin of this 139. 7. ARTABANUS IV., the last Parthian king, younger son of Vologaeses IV., 140. 1. ARTAXERXES I., surnamed _Macrocheir, Longimanus_, "Longhand," because 141. 2. ARTAXERXES II., surnamed _Mnemon_, the eldest son of Darius II., whom 142. 3. ARTAXERXES III. is the title adopted by Ochus, the son of Artaxerxes 143. 1876. Since 1905 the Art Collections Fund, a society of private 144. part ii. of Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_). 145. 5. Lankester, "Observations and Reflections on the Appendages and 146. 1622. Of the numerous later editions, the best is that of Achille le 147. 1. _Early Artillery._--Mechanical appliances for throwing projectiles 148. 2. _The Beginnings of Field Artillery._--It is clear, from such evidence 149. 3. _The 16th Century._--In the Italian wars waged by Charles VIII., 150. 4. _The Thirty Years' War._--Such, in its broadest outlines, is the 151. 5. _Personnel and Classification._--More than 300 years after the first 152. 6. _The English Civil War._--Even in the English Civil War (Great 153. 7. _Artillery Progress, 1660-1740._--Cromwell's practice of relegating 154. 8. _Artillery in the Wars of Frederick the Great._--By the time of 155. 9. _Gribeauval's Reforms._--At the commencement of the 18th century, 156. 10. _British Artillery, 1793-1815._--Meanwhile the numbers of the 157. 11. _French Revolutionary Wars._--During the long wars of the French 158. 12. _Napoleon's Artillery Tactics._--During the war the French artillery 159. 13. _Artillery, 1815-1865._--Henceforward, therefore, the history of 160. 14. _The Franco-German War, 1870-71._--In the next great war, that of 161. 15. _Results of the War._--The tactical lessons of the war, so far as 162. 16. _Quick-firing Field Guns._--In 1891, a work by General Wille of the 163. 17. _Time Shrapnel._--The power of modern artillery owes even more to 164. 18. _Heavy Field, Siege and Garrison Artillery._--Amongst other results 165. 19. _Field Artillery Organization._--A _battery_ of field artillery 166. introduction of the quick-firing gun, the tendency towards small 167. 20. _Ammunition._--The vehicles of a battery include (besides guns and 168. 21. _Interior Economy._--The organization and interior economy of a 169. 22. _Special Natures of Field Artillery._--_Horse Artillery_ differs 170. 23. _Heavy Ordnance._--_Heavy Field Artillery_, officially defined as 171. 24. _Higher Organization of Artillery._--The higher units, in almost 172. 25. _Grouping of the Artillery._--The "corps artillery" (formerly the 173. 26. _General Characteristics of Field Artillery Action._--The duty of 174. 27. _Occupation of a Position._--This depends primarily upon 175. introduction of the shield. A great advantage of retired positions is 176. introduction of the shield. The disadvantage of extra weight and 177. 28. _Laying._--"Elevation" may be defined as the vertical inclination of 178. 29. _Ranging_[4] (except on the French system alluded to below) is, 179. 30. An example of the ordinary method of ranging, adapted from _Field 180. 31. _Observation of Fire_, on the accuracy of which depends the success 181. 32. _Fire._--Field Artillery ranges are classed in the British service 182. 33. _Projectiles Employed._--"Time shrapnel," say the German Field 183. 34. _Tactics of Field Artillery._--On the march, the position and 184. 35. Field artillery in _defence_, which would presumably be inferior to 185. 36. _Marches._--The importance of having the artillery well up at the 186. 37. _Power and Mobility._--It will have been made clear that every gun 187. 38. _Concentration and Dispersion._--The use of their artillery made by 188. 39. _Horse Artillery_ is to be regarded as field artillery of great 189. 40. _Field Howitzers_ are somewhat less mobile than field guns; they 190. 41. _Heavy Field Artillery_, alternatively called _Artillery of 191. 1. As regards the teeth, we have the passage of a simply tubercular, or 192. 2. As regards the limbs. Reduction of the ulna from a complete and 193. 3. Change of form of the odontoid process of the second or axis 194. 4. Development of horns or antlers on the frontal bones, and gradual 195. 5. By inference only, increasing complication of stomach with ruminating 196. 1907. In every direction there has been a tendency to increase prices 197. 1884. The Artists' Society, formed in 1830, has for its object the

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