Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Armour Plates" to "Arundel, Earls of"

500. This was soon transferred to Cambrai, but brought back to its

1185 words | Chapter 121

original seat about 1100. As the chief town of the province of Artois, Arras passed to Baldwin I., count of Flanders, in 863, and about 880 was ravaged by the Normans. During this troubled period it retained some vestiges of its former trade, and the woollen manufacture was established here at an early date. Early in the 12th century a commune was established here, but the earliest known charter only dates from about 1180; owing to the importance of Arras, this soon became a model for many neighbouring communes. At this time the city appears to have been divided into two parts, one dependent upon the bishop, and the other upon the count. When Philip Augustus, king of France, married Isabella, niece of Philip, count of Flanders, Arras came under the rule of the French king, who confirmed its privileges in 1194. As part of Artois it came in 1237 to Robert, son of Louis VIII., king of France, and in 1384 to Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy, who promised to respect its privileges. Anxious to recover the city for France, Louis XI. placed a garrison therein after the death of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy, in 1477. This was driven out by the inhabitants, and Louis then stormed Arras, razed the walls, deported the citizens, whose places were taken by Frenchmen, and changed the name to _Franchise_. The successor of Louis, Charles VIII., restored the city to its former name and position, and as part of the inheritance of Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, it was contended for by the French king, and his rival, the German king, Maximilian I. The peace of Senlis in 1493 gave Arras to Maximilian, and in spite of attacks by the French, it remained under the rule of the Habsburgs until 1640. Taken in this year by the French, this capture was ratified by the peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, and henceforward it remained part of France. It suffered severely during the French Revolution, especially from Joseph Lebon, who, like the brothers Maximilien and Augustin Robespierre, was a native of the town. Owing to its position and importance, Arras has been the scene of various treaties. In 1414 the peace between the Armagnacs and the Burgundians was made here, and in 1435 a congress met here to make peace between the English and their Burgundian allies on the one side, and the French on the other, and after the English representatives had withdrawn, a treaty was signed on the 20th of September between France and Burgundy. In 1482 Louis XI. made a treaty here with the estates and towns of Flanders about the inheritance of Mary of Burgundy, wife of the German king Maximilian I. See E. Lecesne, _Histoire d'Arras jusqu'en 1789_ (Arras, 1880); _Arras sous la Revolution_ (Arras, 1882-1883). ARRAY (from the O. Fr. _areyer_, Med. Lat. _arredare_, to get ready), an orderly arrangement, particularly the drawing up of an army in position of battle. From the 13th century onwards in England "Commissions of Array" issued from the king for the levy of military forces (see MILITIA). In English law the term is used for the setting in order, name by name, of the panel of a jury, which may be challenged as a whole, "to the array," or individually, "to the polls." ARRENOTOKOUS, ARRENOTOKY (from Gr. [Greek: arraen], male, and [Greek: tokos] from [Greek: tiktein], to beget), biological terms proposed by Leuckart and Eduard von Siebold to denote those parthenogenetic females which produce male young, while "thelytokous" and "thelytoky" would denote their producing female young. ARREST (Fr. _arrester, arreter_, to stop or stay), the restraint of a man's person, for the purpose of compelling him to be obedient to the law. It is defined to be the execution of the command of some court of record or officer of justice. Arrests in England are either in civil or in criminal cases. I. _In Civil Cases._--The arrest must be by virtue of a precept or order out of some court, and must be effected by corporal seizing or touching the defendant's body, or as directed by the writ, _capias et attachias_, take and catch hold of. And if the defendant make his escape it is a _rescous_, or rescue, and attachment may be had against him, and the bailiff may then justify the breaking open of the house in which he is, to carry him away. _Arrests on mesne process_ (see PROCESS), before judgment obtained, were abolished by the Debtors Act 1869, s. 6; an exception, however, is made in cases in which the plaintiff proves, at any time before final judgment, by evidence on oath to the satisfaction of a judge of one of the superior courts, that he has a good cause of action to the amount of L50, that the defendant is about to quit the country, and that his absence will materially prejudice the plaintiff in prosecuting his action. In such cases an order for arrest may be obtained till security to the amount of the claim be found. Formerly a judgment creditor might arrest his debtor under a writ of _capias ad satisfaciendum_, but since 1869 imprisonment for debt has been abolished in England, except in certain cases, and in these the period of detention must not exceed one year. The following persons are privileged from arrest, viz., 1st, members of the royal family and the ordinary servants of the king or queen regnant, chaplains, lords of the bedchamber, &c. This privilege does not extend to servants of a consort queen or dowager. 2nd, peers of the realm, peeresses by birth, creation or marriage, Scottish and Irish peers and peeresses. 3rd, members of the House of Commons during the session of parliament, and for a convenient time (forty days) before and after it. Members of Convocation appear to have the same privilege. 4th, foreign ambassadors and their "domestics and domestic servants." Temporary privilege from arrest in civil process is enjoyed by barristers travelling on circuit, by parties, witnesses or attorneys connected with a cause, and by clergymen whilst performing divine service. The arrest of any privileged person is irregular _ab initio_, and the party may be discharged on motion. The only exception is as to indictable crimes, such as treason, felony and breach of the peace. There are no longer any places where persons are privileged from arrest, such as the Mint, Savoy, Whitefriars, &c., on the ground of their being ancient palaces. Except in cases of treason, felony or breach of the peace, an arrest cannot be made on a Sunday, and if made it is void (Sunday Observance Act 1677); but it may be made in the night as well as in the day. II. _In Criminal Cases._--All persons whatsoever are, without distinction, equally liable to this arrest, and any man may arrest without warrant or precept, and outer doors may be broken open for that purpose. The arrest may be made,--1st, by warrant; 2nd, by an officer without warrant; 3rd, by a private person without warrant; or, 4th, by a hue and cry.

Chapters

1. Chapter 1 2. 1. _Stone Age._--One of the chief problems which have perplexed 3. 2. _Bronze Age._--It is impossible to assign any date as the beginning 4. 3. _Early Greek Weapons._--The character of the weapons used by the 5. 4. _Greek, Historical._--The equipment does not differ generically from 6. 5. _Roman._--The equipment of the Roman soldier, like the organization 7. 6. _English from the Norman Conquest._--It is unnecessary here to trace 8. 7. _Fire-arms._ (For the development of cannon, see ARTILLERY and 9. 1. _Early Armies._--It is only with the evolution of the specially 10. 2. _Persia._--Drawn from a hardy and nomadic race, the armies of Persia 11. 3. _Greece._--The Homeric armies were tribal levies of foot, armed with 12. 4. _Sparta._--So much is common to the various states. In Sparta the 13. 5. _Greek Mercenaries._--The military system of the 4th century was not 14. 6. _Epaminondas._--Not many years after this, Spartan oppression roused 15. 7. _Alexander._--The reforms of Alexander's father, Philip of Macedon, 16. 8. _Carthage._--The military systems of the Jews present few features of 17. 9. _Roman Army under the Republic._--The earliest organization of the 18. 10. _Characteristics of the Roman Army._--Such in outline was the Roman 19. 11. _Roman Empire._--The essential weaknesses of militia forces and the 20. 12. _The "Dark Ages."_--In western Europe all traces of Roman military 21. 13. _The Byzantines_ (cf. article ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER).--While the west 22. 14. _Feudalism._--From the military point of view the change under 23. 15. _Medieval Mercenaries._--It was natural, therefore, that a sovereign 24. 16. _Infantry in Feudal Times._--These mercenary foot soldiers came as a 25. 17. _The Crusades._--It is an undoubted fact that the long wars of the 26. 18. _The Period of Transition_ (1290-1490).--Besides the infantry 27. 19. _The Condottieri._--The immediate result of this confused period of 28. 20. _The Swiss._--The best description of a typical European army at the 29. 21. _The Landsknechts._--The modern army owes far more of its 30. 22. _The Spanish Army._--The tendencies towards professional soldiering 31. 23. _The Sixteenth Century._--The battle of St Quentin (1557) is usually 32. 24. _Dutch System._--The most interesting feature of the Dutch system, 33. 25. _The Thirty Years' War._--Hitherto all armies had been raised or 34. 26. _The Swedish Army._--The Swedish army was raised by a carefully 35. 27. _The English Civil War_ (see GREAT REBELLION).--The armies on either 36. 28. _Standing Armies._--Nine years after Nordlingen, the old Spanish 37. 29. _Character of the Standing Armies._--A peculiar character was from 38. 30. _Organization in the 18th Century._--All armies were now almost 39. 31. _Frederick the Great._--The military career of Frederick the Great 40. 32. _The French Revolution._--Very different were the armies of the 41. 33. _The Conscription._--In 1793, at a moment when the danger to France 42. 34. _Napoleon._--Revolutionary government, however, gave way in a few 43. 35. _The Grande Armee._--In 1805-1806, when the older spirit of the 44. 36. _The Wars of Liberation._--The Prussian defeat at Jena was followed 45. 37. _European Armies 1815-1870._--The events of the period 1815-1859 46. 38. _Modern Developments._--Since 1870, then, with the single exception 47. 39. The main principles of all military organization as developed in 48. 40. _Compulsory Service._--Universal liability to service (_allgemeine 49. 41. _Conscription_ in the proper sense, i.e. selection by lot of a 50. 42. _Voluntary Service._--Existing voluntary armies have usually 51. 43. The militia idea (see MILITIA) has been applied most completely in 52. 44. _Arms of the Service._--Organization into "arms" is produced by the 53. 45. _Command._--The first essential of a good organization is to ensure 54. 46. A _brigade_ is the command of a brigadier or major-general, or of a 55. 47. A _division_ is an organization containing troops of all arms. Since 56. 48. _Army Corps._--The "corps" of the 18th century was simply a large 57. 49. _Constitution of the Army Corps._--In 1870-71 the III. German army 58. 50. _Army._--The term "army" is applied, in war time, to any command of 59. 51. _Chief Command._--The leading of the "group of armies" referred to 60. 52. The _Chief of the General Staff_ is, as his title implies, the chief 61. 53. _First and Second Lines._--The organization into arms and units is 62. 54. _War Reserves._--In war, the reserves increase the field armies to 63. 55. The military characteristics of the various types of regular troops 64. 56. The transfer of troops from the state of peace to that of war is 65. 57. _Territorial System._--The feudal system was of course a territorial 66. 58. _Army Administration._--The existing systems of command and 67. 59. _Branches of Administration._--In these circumstances the only 68. 60. Prior to the Norman Conquest the armed force of England was 69. 61. It is difficult to summarize the history of the army between the 70. 62. The first years of the Great Rebellion (q.v.) showed primarily the 71. 63. James II., an experienced soldier and sailor, was more obstinate 72. 64. Under William the army was considerably augmented. The old regiments 73. 65. Before passing to the great French Revolutionary wars, from which a 74. 66. The first efforts of the army in the long war with France did not 75. 67. The period which elapsed between Waterloo and the Crimean War is 76. 68. The Indian Mutiny of 1857, followed by the transference of the 77. 69. The period of reform commences therefore with 1870, and is connected 78. 70. Historically, the Indian army grew up in three distinct divisions, 79. 71. _Madras._--The first armed force in the Madras presidency was the 80. 72. _Bombay._--The island of Bombay formed part of the marriage 81. 73. _Consolidation of the Army._--In 1796 a general reorganization 82. 74. _The Army before the Mutiny._--The officering and recruiting of 83. 75. _The Reorganization._--By the autumn of 1858 the mutiny was 84. 76. _The Modern Army._--The college at Addiscombe was closed in 1860, 85. 77. In the earliest European settlements in Canada, the necessity of 86. 78. The _Landsknecht_ infantry constituted the mainstay of the imperial 87. 79. The Austrians, during the short peace which preceded the war of 88. 80. The Austrian system has conserved much of the peculiar tone of the 89. 81. The French army (see for further details FRANCE: _Law and 90. 82. The artillery had been an industrial concern rather than an arm of 91. 83. The last half of the 17th century is a brilliant period in the 92. 84. If Louis was the creator of the royal army, Carnot was so of the 93. 85. One of the first acts of the Restoration was to abolish the 94. 86. At the outbreak of the Franco-German War (q.v.) the French field 95. 87. The German army, strictly speaking, dates only from 1871, or at 96. 88. The bitter humiliation and suffering endured under the French yoke 97. 89. The _Saxon Army_ formerly played a prominent part in all the wars of 98. 90. The _Bavarian Army_ has perhaps the most continuous record of good 99. 91. _Wurttemberg_ furnishes one army corps (XIII.; headquarters, 100. 92. The old _Hanoverian Army_ disappeared, of course, with the 101. 93. The old conscription law of the kingdom of Sardinia is the basis of 102. 94. The history of the Russian army begins with the abolition of the 103. 95. The feudal sovereignties of medieval Spain differed but little, in 104. 96. With the Italian wars of the early 16th century came the 105. 97. The military history of Spain from 1650 to 1700 is full of 106. 98. The writers who have left the most complete and trustworthy 107. 99. The regular army of the United States has always been small. From 108. 100. _Dutch and Belgian Armies._--The military power of the "United 109. 101. _Swiss Army._--The inhabitants of Switzerland were always a hardy 110. 102. The _Swedish Army_ can look back with pride to the days of 111. 103. The existing Army of _Portugal_ dates from the Peninsular War, 112. 104. The _Rumanian, Bulgarian_ and _Servian_ armies are the youngest 113. 1804. Arnault died at Goderville on the 16th of September 1834. 114. 1848. In 1861 he became a member of the Lower Austrian diet and in 1869 115. 1785. After being educated at a convent school in Fritzlar, she lived 116. 1822. When it is said that he was the son of the famous Dr Arnold of 117. 1827. In June 1828 he received priest's orders; in April end November of 118. 4. Spike of fruits. Showing in succession (from below) female flowers, 119. 3000. It lies in a pleasant undulating country at an elevation of 900 120. introduction of European spirits and methods of manufacture is gradually 121. 500. This was soon transferred to Cambrai, but brought back to its 122. 1. Warrants are ordinarily granted by justices of the peace on 123. 2. The officers who may arrest without warrant are,--justices of the 124. 3. A private person is bound to arrest for a felony committed in his 125. 4. The arrest by hue and cry is where officers and private persons are 126. 1826. They are under the direction of maritime prefects, who, by a 127. 1. Daughter of Lysimachus, king of Thrace, first wife of Ptolemy II. 128. 2. Daughter of Ptolemy I. Soter and Berenice. Born about 316 B.C., she 129. 3. Daughter of Ptolemy III. Euergetes, sister and wife of Ptolemy IV. 130. 4. Youngest daughter of Ptolemy XIII. Auletes, and sister of the famous 131. 819. The streets of the town were widened and improved in 1869. 132. 1. Brother of Darius I., and, according to Herodotus, the trusted 133. 2. Vizier of Xerxes (Ctesias, _Pers_. 20), whom he murdered in 465 B.C. 134. 3. A satrap of Bactria, who revolted against Artaxerxes I., but was 135. 4. ARTABANUS I., successor of his nephew Phraates II. about 127 B.C., 136. 5. ARTABANUS II. c. A.D. 10-40, son of an Arsacid princess (Tac. _Ann_. 137. 18. 9). In A.D. 35 he tried anew to conquer Armenia, and to establish 138. 6. ARTABANUS III. reigned a short time in A.D. 80 (on a coin of this 139. 7. ARTABANUS IV., the last Parthian king, younger son of Vologaeses IV., 140. 1. ARTAXERXES I., surnamed _Macrocheir, Longimanus_, "Longhand," because 141. 2. ARTAXERXES II., surnamed _Mnemon_, the eldest son of Darius II., whom 142. 3. ARTAXERXES III. is the title adopted by Ochus, the son of Artaxerxes 143. 1876. Since 1905 the Art Collections Fund, a society of private 144. part ii. of Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_). 145. 5. Lankester, "Observations and Reflections on the Appendages and 146. 1622. Of the numerous later editions, the best is that of Achille le 147. 1. _Early Artillery._--Mechanical appliances for throwing projectiles 148. 2. _The Beginnings of Field Artillery._--It is clear, from such evidence 149. 3. _The 16th Century._--In the Italian wars waged by Charles VIII., 150. 4. _The Thirty Years' War._--Such, in its broadest outlines, is the 151. 5. _Personnel and Classification._--More than 300 years after the first 152. 6. _The English Civil War._--Even in the English Civil War (Great 153. 7. _Artillery Progress, 1660-1740._--Cromwell's practice of relegating 154. 8. _Artillery in the Wars of Frederick the Great._--By the time of 155. 9. _Gribeauval's Reforms._--At the commencement of the 18th century, 156. 10. _British Artillery, 1793-1815._--Meanwhile the numbers of the 157. 11. _French Revolutionary Wars._--During the long wars of the French 158. 12. _Napoleon's Artillery Tactics._--During the war the French artillery 159. 13. _Artillery, 1815-1865._--Henceforward, therefore, the history of 160. 14. _The Franco-German War, 1870-71._--In the next great war, that of 161. 15. _Results of the War._--The tactical lessons of the war, so far as 162. 16. _Quick-firing Field Guns._--In 1891, a work by General Wille of the 163. 17. _Time Shrapnel._--The power of modern artillery owes even more to 164. 18. _Heavy Field, Siege and Garrison Artillery._--Amongst other results 165. 19. _Field Artillery Organization._--A _battery_ of field artillery 166. introduction of the quick-firing gun, the tendency towards small 167. 20. _Ammunition._--The vehicles of a battery include (besides guns and 168. 21. _Interior Economy._--The organization and interior economy of a 169. 22. _Special Natures of Field Artillery._--_Horse Artillery_ differs 170. 23. _Heavy Ordnance._--_Heavy Field Artillery_, officially defined as 171. 24. _Higher Organization of Artillery._--The higher units, in almost 172. 25. _Grouping of the Artillery._--The "corps artillery" (formerly the 173. 26. _General Characteristics of Field Artillery Action._--The duty of 174. 27. _Occupation of a Position._--This depends primarily upon 175. introduction of the shield. A great advantage of retired positions is 176. introduction of the shield. The disadvantage of extra weight and 177. 28. _Laying._--"Elevation" may be defined as the vertical inclination of 178. 29. _Ranging_[4] (except on the French system alluded to below) is, 179. 30. An example of the ordinary method of ranging, adapted from _Field 180. 31. _Observation of Fire_, on the accuracy of which depends the success 181. 32. _Fire._--Field Artillery ranges are classed in the British service 182. 33. _Projectiles Employed._--"Time shrapnel," say the German Field 183. 34. _Tactics of Field Artillery._--On the march, the position and 184. 35. Field artillery in _defence_, which would presumably be inferior to 185. 36. _Marches._--The importance of having the artillery well up at the 186. 37. _Power and Mobility._--It will have been made clear that every gun 187. 38. _Concentration and Dispersion._--The use of their artillery made by 188. 39. _Horse Artillery_ is to be regarded as field artillery of great 189. 40. _Field Howitzers_ are somewhat less mobile than field guns; they 190. 41. _Heavy Field Artillery_, alternatively called _Artillery of 191. 1. As regards the teeth, we have the passage of a simply tubercular, or 192. 2. As regards the limbs. Reduction of the ulna from a complete and 193. 3. Change of form of the odontoid process of the second or axis 194. 4. Development of horns or antlers on the frontal bones, and gradual 195. 5. By inference only, increasing complication of stomach with ruminating 196. 1907. In every direction there has been a tendency to increase prices 197. 1884. The Artists' Society, formed in 1830, has for its object the

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