Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Armour Plates" to "Arundel, Earls of"

1848. In 1861 he became a member of the Lower Austrian diet and in 1869

1504 words | Chapter 114

was nominated to the Upper House of the Austrian Reichsrath. In 1879 he was appointed president of the _Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften_ (Academy of Sciences) at Vienna, and in 1896 succeeded von Sybel as chairman of the historical commission at Munich. He died on the 30th of July 1897. Arneth was an indefatigable worker, and, as director of the archives, his broad-minded willingness to listen to the advice of experts, as well as his own sound sense, did much to promote the more scientific treatment and use of public records in most of the archives of Europe. His scientific temper and the special facilities which he enjoyed for drawing from original sources give to his numerous historical works a very special value. Among his publications may be mentioned: _Leben des Feld-marschalls Grafen Guido Starhemberg_ (Vienna, 1863); _Prinz Eueen von Savoyen_ (3 vols., _ib_. 1864); _Gesch. der Maria Theresa_ (10 vols., _ib_. 1863-1879); _Maria Theresa u. Marie Antoinette, ihr Briefwechsel_ (_ib_. 1866); _Marie Antoinette, Joseph II. und Leopold II., ihr Briefwechsel_ (1866); _Maria Theresa und Joseph II., ihre Korrespondenz samt Briefen Josephs an seinen Bruder Leopold_ (3 vols., 1867); _Beaumarchais und Sonnenfels_ (1868); _Joseph II. und Katharina von Russland, ihr Briefwechsel_ (1869); _Johann Christian Barthenstein und seine Zeit_ (1871); _Joseph II. und Leopold von Toskana, ihr Briefwechsel_ (2 vols., 1872); _Briefe der Kaiserin Maria Theresa an ihre Kinder und Freunde_ (4 vols., 1881); _Marie Antoinette: Correspondance secrete entre Marie-Therese et le comte de Mercy-Argenteau_ (3 vols., Paris, 1875), in collaboration with Auguste Geffroy; _Graf Philipp Cobenzl und seine Memoiren_ (1885); _Correspondance secrete du comte de Mercy-Argenteau avec l'empereur Joseph II. et Kaunitz_ (2 vols., 1889-1891), in collaboration with Jules Flammermont; _Anton Ritter von Schmerling. Episoden aus seinem Leben 1835, 1848-1849_ (1895); _Johann Freiherr von Wessenberg, ein osterreichischer Staatsmann des 19. Jahrh._ (2 vols., 1898). Arneth also published in 1893 two volumes of early reminiscences under the title of _Aus meinem Leben_. ARNHEM, or ARNHEIM, the capital of the province of Gelderland, Holland, on the right bank of the Rhine (here crossed by a pontoon bridge), and a junction station 35 m. by rail E.S.E. of Utrecht. Pop. (1900) 57,240. It is connected by tramway with Zutphen and Utrecht, and there is a regular service of steamers to Cologne, Amsterdam, Nijmwegen, Tiel, 's Hertogenbosch and Rotterdam. Arnhem is a gay and fashionable town prettily situated at the foot of the Veluwe hills, and enjoys a special reputation for beauty on account of its wooded and hilly surroundings, which have attracted many wealthy people to its neighbourhood. The Groote Kerk of St Eusebius, built in the third quarter of the 15th century, contains the marble monument to Charles (d. 1538), the last duke of Gelderland of the Egmont dynasty. High up against the wall is an effigy of the same duke in his armour. The fine lofty tower contains a chime of forty-five bells. The Roman Catholic church of St Walburgis is of earlier date, and a new Roman Catholic church dates from 1894. The town hall was built as a palace by Maarten van Rossum, Duke Charles's general, at the end of the 15th century, and was only converted to its present use in 1830. Its grotesque external ornamentation earned for it the name of Duivelshuis, or devil's house. The provincial government house occupies the site of the former palace of the dukes of Gelderland. Other buildings are the court-house, a public library containing many old works, a theatre, a large concert-hall, a museum of antiquities (as well as a separate collection of Spanish antiquities), a gymnasium, a teachers' and art school, a building (1880) to contain the provincial archives, a hospital (1889) and barracks. On account of its proximity to the fertile Betuwe district and its situation near the confluence of the Rhine and Ysel, the markets and shipping of Arnhem are in a flourishing condition. A wharf for building and repairing iron steamers was constructed in 1889. The manufactures include woollen and cotton goods, paper, earthenware, soap, carriages, furniture and tobacco, which is cultivated in the neighbourhood. Wool-combing and dyeing are also carried on, and there are oil and timber mills. The environs of Arnhem are much admired. Following either the Zutphen or the Utrecht road, numerous pleasing views of the Rhine valley present themselves, and country houses and villas appear among the woods on every side. At Bronbeek, a short distance east of the town, is a hospital endowed by King William III. for soldiers of the colonial army. Beyond is the popular summer resort of Velp, with the castle of Biljoen built by Charles, duke of Gelderland, in 1530, and the beautiful park of the ancient castle of Rozendaal in the vicinity. The origin of the castle of Rozendaal is unknown. The first account of it is in connexion with a tournament given there by Reinald I., count of Gelderland, in the beginning of the 14th century, and it ever after remained the favourite residence of the counts and dukes of Gelderland. About the beginning of the 18th century fountains and lanes in the style of those at Versailles were laid out in the park, and soon after the castle itself, of which only the round tower remained (and is still standing), was rebuilt. The park is open to the public, and is famous for the beauty of the beech avenues and fir woods. Beyond this is De Steeg, another popular resort, whence stretches the famous Middachten Allee of beech trees to Dieren. On the Apeldoorn road is Sonsbeek, with a wooded park and small lakes, formerly a private seat and now belonging to the municipality. On the west of Arnhem is another pleasure ground, called the Reeberg, with a casino, and the woods of Heienoord. Close by is the ancient and well-preserved castle of Doornwerth with its own chapel. It was the seat of an independent lordship until 1402, after which time it was held in fief from the dukes of Gelderland. Beyond Doornwerth, at Renkum, is the royal country seat called Oranje-Nassau's Oord, which was bought by the crown in 1881. _History._--Arnhem, called _Arnoldi Villa_ in the middle ages, is, according to some, the _Arenacum_ of the Romans, and is first mentioned in a document in 893. In 1233 Otto II., count of Gelderland, chose this spot as his residence, conferred municipal rights on the town, and fortified it. At a later period it entered the Hanseatic League. In 1473 it was captured by Charles the Bold of Burgundy. In 1505 it received the right of coining from Philip, son of the emperor Maximilian I. In 1514 Charles of Egmont, duke of Gelderland, took it from the Spaniards; but in 1543 it fell to the emperor Charles V., who made it the seat of the council of Gelderland. It joined the union of Utrecht in 1579, and came finally under the effective government of the states-general in 1585, all the later attacks of the Spaniards being repulsed. In 1586 Sir Philip Sidney died in the town from the effects of his wound received before Zutphen. The French took the town in 1672, but left it dismantled in 1674. It was refortified by the celebrated Dutch general of engineers, Coehoorn, in the beginning of the 18th century. In 1795 it was again stormed by the French, and in 1813 it was taken from them by the Prussians under Bullow. Gardens and promenades have now taken the place of the old ramparts, the last of which was levelled in 1853. ARNICA, a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Compositae, and containing 18 species, mostly north-west American. The most important species is _Arnicamontana_ (mountain tobacco), a perennial herb found in upland meadows in northern and central Europe (but not extending to Britain), and on the mountains of western and central Europe. A closely allied species (_A. angustifolia_), with very narrow leaves, is met with in Arctic Asia and America. The heads of flowers are large, 2 to 2-1/2 in. across, orange-yellow in colour, and borne on the summit of the stem or branches; the outer ray-flowers are an inch in length. The achenes (fruits) are brown and hairy, and are crowned by a tuft of stiffish hairs (pappus). The root-stock of _A. montana_ is tough, slender, of a dark brown colour and an inch or two in length. It gives off numerous simple roots from its under side, and shows on its upper side the remains of rosettes of leaves. It yields an essential oil in small quantity, and a resinous matter called arnicin, C12H22O2, a yellow crystalline substance with an acrid taste. The tincture prepared from it is an old remedy which has a popular reputation in the treatment of bruises and sprains. The plant was introduced into English gardens about the middle of the 18th century, but is not often grown; it is a handsome plant for a rockery. ARNIM, ELISABETH (BETTINA) VON (1785-1859), German authoress, sister of Klemens Brentano, was born at Frankfort-On-Main on the 4th of April

Chapters

1. Chapter 1 2. 1. _Stone Age._--One of the chief problems which have perplexed 3. 2. _Bronze Age._--It is impossible to assign any date as the beginning 4. 3. _Early Greek Weapons._--The character of the weapons used by the 5. 4. _Greek, Historical._--The equipment does not differ generically from 6. 5. _Roman._--The equipment of the Roman soldier, like the organization 7. 6. _English from the Norman Conquest._--It is unnecessary here to trace 8. 7. _Fire-arms._ (For the development of cannon, see ARTILLERY and 9. 1. _Early Armies._--It is only with the evolution of the specially 10. 2. _Persia._--Drawn from a hardy and nomadic race, the armies of Persia 11. 3. _Greece._--The Homeric armies were tribal levies of foot, armed with 12. 4. _Sparta._--So much is common to the various states. In Sparta the 13. 5. _Greek Mercenaries._--The military system of the 4th century was not 14. 6. _Epaminondas._--Not many years after this, Spartan oppression roused 15. 7. _Alexander._--The reforms of Alexander's father, Philip of Macedon, 16. 8. _Carthage._--The military systems of the Jews present few features of 17. 9. _Roman Army under the Republic._--The earliest organization of the 18. 10. _Characteristics of the Roman Army._--Such in outline was the Roman 19. 11. _Roman Empire._--The essential weaknesses of militia forces and the 20. 12. _The "Dark Ages."_--In western Europe all traces of Roman military 21. 13. _The Byzantines_ (cf. article ROMAN EMPIRE, LATER).--While the west 22. 14. _Feudalism._--From the military point of view the change under 23. 15. _Medieval Mercenaries._--It was natural, therefore, that a sovereign 24. 16. _Infantry in Feudal Times._--These mercenary foot soldiers came as a 25. 17. _The Crusades._--It is an undoubted fact that the long wars of the 26. 18. _The Period of Transition_ (1290-1490).--Besides the infantry 27. 19. _The Condottieri._--The immediate result of this confused period of 28. 20. _The Swiss._--The best description of a typical European army at the 29. 21. _The Landsknechts._--The modern army owes far more of its 30. 22. _The Spanish Army._--The tendencies towards professional soldiering 31. 23. _The Sixteenth Century._--The battle of St Quentin (1557) is usually 32. 24. _Dutch System._--The most interesting feature of the Dutch system, 33. 25. _The Thirty Years' War._--Hitherto all armies had been raised or 34. 26. _The Swedish Army._--The Swedish army was raised by a carefully 35. 27. _The English Civil War_ (see GREAT REBELLION).--The armies on either 36. 28. _Standing Armies._--Nine years after Nordlingen, the old Spanish 37. 29. _Character of the Standing Armies._--A peculiar character was from 38. 30. _Organization in the 18th Century._--All armies were now almost 39. 31. _Frederick the Great._--The military career of Frederick the Great 40. 32. _The French Revolution._--Very different were the armies of the 41. 33. _The Conscription._--In 1793, at a moment when the danger to France 42. 34. _Napoleon._--Revolutionary government, however, gave way in a few 43. 35. _The Grande Armee._--In 1805-1806, when the older spirit of the 44. 36. _The Wars of Liberation._--The Prussian defeat at Jena was followed 45. 37. _European Armies 1815-1870._--The events of the period 1815-1859 46. 38. _Modern Developments._--Since 1870, then, with the single exception 47. 39. The main principles of all military organization as developed in 48. 40. _Compulsory Service._--Universal liability to service (_allgemeine 49. 41. _Conscription_ in the proper sense, i.e. selection by lot of a 50. 42. _Voluntary Service._--Existing voluntary armies have usually 51. 43. The militia idea (see MILITIA) has been applied most completely in 52. 44. _Arms of the Service._--Organization into "arms" is produced by the 53. 45. _Command._--The first essential of a good organization is to ensure 54. 46. A _brigade_ is the command of a brigadier or major-general, or of a 55. 47. A _division_ is an organization containing troops of all arms. Since 56. 48. _Army Corps._--The "corps" of the 18th century was simply a large 57. 49. _Constitution of the Army Corps._--In 1870-71 the III. German army 58. 50. _Army._--The term "army" is applied, in war time, to any command of 59. 51. _Chief Command._--The leading of the "group of armies" referred to 60. 52. The _Chief of the General Staff_ is, as his title implies, the chief 61. 53. _First and Second Lines._--The organization into arms and units is 62. 54. _War Reserves._--In war, the reserves increase the field armies to 63. 55. The military characteristics of the various types of regular troops 64. 56. The transfer of troops from the state of peace to that of war is 65. 57. _Territorial System._--The feudal system was of course a territorial 66. 58. _Army Administration._--The existing systems of command and 67. 59. _Branches of Administration._--In these circumstances the only 68. 60. Prior to the Norman Conquest the armed force of England was 69. 61. It is difficult to summarize the history of the army between the 70. 62. The first years of the Great Rebellion (q.v.) showed primarily the 71. 63. James II., an experienced soldier and sailor, was more obstinate 72. 64. Under William the army was considerably augmented. The old regiments 73. 65. Before passing to the great French Revolutionary wars, from which a 74. 66. The first efforts of the army in the long war with France did not 75. 67. The period which elapsed between Waterloo and the Crimean War is 76. 68. The Indian Mutiny of 1857, followed by the transference of the 77. 69. The period of reform commences therefore with 1870, and is connected 78. 70. Historically, the Indian army grew up in three distinct divisions, 79. 71. _Madras._--The first armed force in the Madras presidency was the 80. 72. _Bombay._--The island of Bombay formed part of the marriage 81. 73. _Consolidation of the Army._--In 1796 a general reorganization 82. 74. _The Army before the Mutiny._--The officering and recruiting of 83. 75. _The Reorganization._--By the autumn of 1858 the mutiny was 84. 76. _The Modern Army._--The college at Addiscombe was closed in 1860, 85. 77. In the earliest European settlements in Canada, the necessity of 86. 78. The _Landsknecht_ infantry constituted the mainstay of the imperial 87. 79. The Austrians, during the short peace which preceded the war of 88. 80. The Austrian system has conserved much of the peculiar tone of the 89. 81. The French army (see for further details FRANCE: _Law and 90. 82. The artillery had been an industrial concern rather than an arm of 91. 83. The last half of the 17th century is a brilliant period in the 92. 84. If Louis was the creator of the royal army, Carnot was so of the 93. 85. One of the first acts of the Restoration was to abolish the 94. 86. At the outbreak of the Franco-German War (q.v.) the French field 95. 87. The German army, strictly speaking, dates only from 1871, or at 96. 88. The bitter humiliation and suffering endured under the French yoke 97. 89. The _Saxon Army_ formerly played a prominent part in all the wars of 98. 90. The _Bavarian Army_ has perhaps the most continuous record of good 99. 91. _Wurttemberg_ furnishes one army corps (XIII.; headquarters, 100. 92. The old _Hanoverian Army_ disappeared, of course, with the 101. 93. The old conscription law of the kingdom of Sardinia is the basis of 102. 94. The history of the Russian army begins with the abolition of the 103. 95. The feudal sovereignties of medieval Spain differed but little, in 104. 96. With the Italian wars of the early 16th century came the 105. 97. The military history of Spain from 1650 to 1700 is full of 106. 98. The writers who have left the most complete and trustworthy 107. 99. The regular army of the United States has always been small. From 108. 100. _Dutch and Belgian Armies._--The military power of the "United 109. 101. _Swiss Army._--The inhabitants of Switzerland were always a hardy 110. 102. The _Swedish Army_ can look back with pride to the days of 111. 103. The existing Army of _Portugal_ dates from the Peninsular War, 112. 104. The _Rumanian, Bulgarian_ and _Servian_ armies are the youngest 113. 1804. Arnault died at Goderville on the 16th of September 1834. 114. 1848. In 1861 he became a member of the Lower Austrian diet and in 1869 115. 1785. After being educated at a convent school in Fritzlar, she lived 116. 1822. When it is said that he was the son of the famous Dr Arnold of 117. 1827. In June 1828 he received priest's orders; in April end November of 118. 4. Spike of fruits. Showing in succession (from below) female flowers, 119. 3000. It lies in a pleasant undulating country at an elevation of 900 120. introduction of European spirits and methods of manufacture is gradually 121. 500. This was soon transferred to Cambrai, but brought back to its 122. 1. Warrants are ordinarily granted by justices of the peace on 123. 2. The officers who may arrest without warrant are,--justices of the 124. 3. A private person is bound to arrest for a felony committed in his 125. 4. The arrest by hue and cry is where officers and private persons are 126. 1826. They are under the direction of maritime prefects, who, by a 127. 1. Daughter of Lysimachus, king of Thrace, first wife of Ptolemy II. 128. 2. Daughter of Ptolemy I. Soter and Berenice. Born about 316 B.C., she 129. 3. Daughter of Ptolemy III. Euergetes, sister and wife of Ptolemy IV. 130. 4. Youngest daughter of Ptolemy XIII. Auletes, and sister of the famous 131. 819. The streets of the town were widened and improved in 1869. 132. 1. Brother of Darius I., and, according to Herodotus, the trusted 133. 2. Vizier of Xerxes (Ctesias, _Pers_. 20), whom he murdered in 465 B.C. 134. 3. A satrap of Bactria, who revolted against Artaxerxes I., but was 135. 4. ARTABANUS I., successor of his nephew Phraates II. about 127 B.C., 136. 5. ARTABANUS II. c. A.D. 10-40, son of an Arsacid princess (Tac. _Ann_. 137. 18. 9). In A.D. 35 he tried anew to conquer Armenia, and to establish 138. 6. ARTABANUS III. reigned a short time in A.D. 80 (on a coin of this 139. 7. ARTABANUS IV., the last Parthian king, younger son of Vologaeses IV., 140. 1. ARTAXERXES I., surnamed _Macrocheir, Longimanus_, "Longhand," because 141. 2. ARTAXERXES II., surnamed _Mnemon_, the eldest son of Darius II., whom 142. 3. ARTAXERXES III. is the title adopted by Ochus, the son of Artaxerxes 143. 1876. Since 1905 the Art Collections Fund, a society of private 144. part ii. of Lankester's _Treatise on Zoology_). 145. 5. Lankester, "Observations and Reflections on the Appendages and 146. 1622. Of the numerous later editions, the best is that of Achille le 147. 1. _Early Artillery._--Mechanical appliances for throwing projectiles 148. 2. _The Beginnings of Field Artillery._--It is clear, from such evidence 149. 3. _The 16th Century._--In the Italian wars waged by Charles VIII., 150. 4. _The Thirty Years' War._--Such, in its broadest outlines, is the 151. 5. _Personnel and Classification._--More than 300 years after the first 152. 6. _The English Civil War._--Even in the English Civil War (Great 153. 7. _Artillery Progress, 1660-1740._--Cromwell's practice of relegating 154. 8. _Artillery in the Wars of Frederick the Great._--By the time of 155. 9. _Gribeauval's Reforms._--At the commencement of the 18th century, 156. 10. _British Artillery, 1793-1815._--Meanwhile the numbers of the 157. 11. _French Revolutionary Wars._--During the long wars of the French 158. 12. _Napoleon's Artillery Tactics._--During the war the French artillery 159. 13. _Artillery, 1815-1865._--Henceforward, therefore, the history of 160. 14. _The Franco-German War, 1870-71._--In the next great war, that of 161. 15. _Results of the War._--The tactical lessons of the war, so far as 162. 16. _Quick-firing Field Guns._--In 1891, a work by General Wille of the 163. 17. _Time Shrapnel._--The power of modern artillery owes even more to 164. 18. _Heavy Field, Siege and Garrison Artillery._--Amongst other results 165. 19. _Field Artillery Organization._--A _battery_ of field artillery 166. introduction of the quick-firing gun, the tendency towards small 167. 20. _Ammunition._--The vehicles of a battery include (besides guns and 168. 21. _Interior Economy._--The organization and interior economy of a 169. 22. _Special Natures of Field Artillery._--_Horse Artillery_ differs 170. 23. _Heavy Ordnance._--_Heavy Field Artillery_, officially defined as 171. 24. _Higher Organization of Artillery._--The higher units, in almost 172. 25. _Grouping of the Artillery._--The "corps artillery" (formerly the 173. 26. _General Characteristics of Field Artillery Action._--The duty of 174. 27. _Occupation of a Position._--This depends primarily upon 175. introduction of the shield. A great advantage of retired positions is 176. introduction of the shield. The disadvantage of extra weight and 177. 28. _Laying._--"Elevation" may be defined as the vertical inclination of 178. 29. _Ranging_[4] (except on the French system alluded to below) is, 179. 30. An example of the ordinary method of ranging, adapted from _Field 180. 31. _Observation of Fire_, on the accuracy of which depends the success 181. 32. _Fire._--Field Artillery ranges are classed in the British service 182. 33. _Projectiles Employed._--"Time shrapnel," say the German Field 183. 34. _Tactics of Field Artillery._--On the march, the position and 184. 35. Field artillery in _defence_, which would presumably be inferior to 185. 36. _Marches._--The importance of having the artillery well up at the 186. 37. _Power and Mobility._--It will have been made clear that every gun 187. 38. _Concentration and Dispersion._--The use of their artillery made by 188. 39. _Horse Artillery_ is to be regarded as field artillery of great 189. 40. _Field Howitzers_ are somewhat less mobile than field guns; they 190. 41. _Heavy Field Artillery_, alternatively called _Artillery of 191. 1. As regards the teeth, we have the passage of a simply tubercular, or 192. 2. As regards the limbs. Reduction of the ulna from a complete and 193. 3. Change of form of the odontoid process of the second or axis 194. 4. Development of horns or antlers on the frontal bones, and gradual 195. 5. By inference only, increasing complication of stomach with ruminating 196. 1907. In every direction there has been a tendency to increase prices 197. 1884. The Artists' Society, formed in 1830, has for its object the

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