3. ARTAXERXES III. is the title adopted by Ochus, the son of Artaxerxes

II., when he succeeded his father in 359. The chronographers generally retain the name Ochus, and in the Babylonian inscriptions he is called "Umasu, who is called Artakshatsu." The same form of the name (probably pronounced Uvasu) occurs in the Syrian version of the canon of Ptolemy by Elias of Nisibis (Amos). Artaxerxes III. was a cruel but an energetic ruler. To secure his throne he put to death almost all his relatives, but he suppressed the rebellions also. In 356 he ordered all the satraps to dismiss their mercenaries. Most of them obeyed; Artabazus of Phrygia, who tried to resist and was supported by his brothers-in-law, Mentor and Memnon of Rhodes, was defeated and fled to Philip of Macedon. Athens, whose general Chares had supported Artabazus, was by the threatening messages of the king forced to conclude peace, and to acknowledge the independence of its rebellious allies (355 B.C.). Then the king attempted to subjugate Egypt, but two expeditions were unsuccessful, and, in consequence, Sidon and the other Phoenician towns, and the princes of Cyprus, rebelled against Persia and defeated the Persian generals. After great preparations the king came in person, but again the attack on Egypt was repelled by the Greek generals of Nectanebus (346). One or two years later Artaxerxes, at the head of a great army, began the siege of Sidon. The Sidonian king Tennes considered resistance hopeless, and betrayed the town to the Persian king, assisted by Mentor, who had been sent with Greek troops from Egypt to defend the town. Artaxerxes repressed the rebellion with great cruelty and destroyed the town. The traitor Tennes was put to death, but Mentor rose high in the favour of the king, and entered into a close alliance with the eunuch Bagoas, the king's favourite and vizier. They succeeded in subjecting the other rebels, and, after a hard fight at Pelusium, and many intrigues, conquered Egypt (343); Nectanebus fled to Ethiopia. Artaxerxes used his victory with great cruelty; he plundered the Egyptian temples and is said to have killed the Apis. After his return to Susa, Bagoas ruled the court and the upper satrapies, while Mentor restored the authority of the empire everywhere in the west. He deposed or killed many Greek dynasts, among them the famous Hermias of Atarneus, the protector of Aristotle, who had friendly relations with Philip (342 B.C.). When Philip attacked Perinthus and Byzantium (340), Artaxerxes sent them support, by which they were enabled to withstand the Macedonians; Philip's antagonists in Greece, Demosthenes and his party, hoped to get subsidies from the king, but were disappointed. In 338 Artaxerxes III., with his older sons, was killed by Bagoas, who raised his youngest son Arses to the throne. Artaxerxes III. is said never to have entered the country of Persia proper, because, being a great miser, he would not pay the present of a gold piece for every Persian woman, which it was usual to give on such occasions (Plut. _Alex._ 69). But we have a building inscription from Persepolis, which contains his name and genealogy, and invocations of Ahuramazda and Mithra. For the relations of Artaxerxes I.--III. with the Jews see JEWS, SS 19-21. For bibliographical references see PERSIA: _Ancient History_. The name Artaxerxes was adopted by Bessus when he proclaimed himself king after the assassination of Darius III. It was borne by several dynasts of Persis, when it formed an independent kingdom in the time of the Parthian empire (on their coins they call themselves Artakhshathr; one of them is mentioned by Lucian, _Macrobii_, 15), and by three kings of the Sassanid dynasty, who are better known under the modern form Ardashir (q.v.). (Ed. M.) ARTEDI, PETER (1705-1735), Swedish naturalist, was born in the province of Angermania, in Sweden, on the 22nd of February 1705. Intending to become a clergyman, he went, in 1724, to study theology at Upsala, but he turned his attention to medicine and natural history, especially ichthyology, upon the study of which he exercised great influence (see ICHTHYOLOGY). In 1728 his countryman Linnaeus arrived in Upsala, and a lasting friendship was formed between the two. In 1732 both left Upsala, Artedi for England, and Linnaeus for Lapland; but before parting they reciprocally bequeathed to each other their manuscripts and books in the event of death. He was accidentally drowned on the 27th of September 1735 at Amsterdam, where he was engaged in cataloguing the collections of Albert Seba, a wealthy Dutchman, who had formed what was perhaps the richest museum of his time. According to agreement, his manuscripts came into the hands of Linnaeus, and his _Bibliotheca Ichthyologica_ and _Philosophia Ichthyologica_, together with a life of the author, were published at Leiden in the year 1738. ARTEGA, a tribe of African "Arabs," said to be descendants of a sheik of that name who came from Hadramut in pre-Islamic days, settling near Tokar. The name is said to be "patrician," and the Artega may be regarded as the most ancient stock in the Suakin district. They are now an inferior mixed race. They were all followers of the mahdi and khalifa in the Sudan wars (1883-1898). See _Anglo-Egyptian Sudan_, edited by Count Gleichen (London, 1905). ARTEL (Russ. for "gang"), the name for the co-operative associations in Russia. Originally, the artels were true examples of productive co-operation, bodies of working-men associating together for the purpose of jointly undertaking some piece of work, and dividing the profits. This original form of artel still survives among the fishermen of Archangel. Artels have come, however, to be little more than trade gilds, with mutual responsibility. (For details see RUSSIA.) ARTEMIDORUS. (1) A geographer "of Ephesus" who flourished about 100 B.C. After studying at Alexandria, he travelled extensively and published the results of his investigations in a large work on general geography ([Greek: Ta geographoumena]) in eleven books, much used by Strabo and others. The original work is lost, but we possess many small fragments and larger fragments of an abridgment made by Marcianus of Heracleia (5th century), which contains the periplus of the Euxine and accounts of Bithynia and Paphlagonia. (See Muller, _Geographi Graeci Minores_; Bunbury, _History of Ancient Geography_; Stiehle, "Der Geograph Artemidoros von Ephesos," in _Philologus_, xi., 1856). (2) A soothsayer and interpreter of dreams, who flourished in the 2nd century A.D., during the reigns of Hadrian and the Antonines. He called himself Daldianus from his mother's birthplace, Daldis in Lydia, in order to make its name known to the world. His [Greek: Oneirokritica], or interpretation of dreams, was said to have been written by command of Apollo Daldianus, whose initiated votary he was. It is in four books, with an appendix containing a collection of prophetic dreams which had been realized. The first three books, addressed to Cassius Maximus, a Phoenician rhetorician (perhaps identical with Maximus of Tyre), treat of dreams and divination generally; the fourth--with a reply to his critics--and the appendix are dedicated to his son, also named Artemidorus and an interpreter of dreams. Artemidorus boasts of the trouble expended on his work; he had read all the authorities on dreams, travelled extensively, and conversed with all who had studied the subject. The work is valuable as affording an insight into ancient superstitions. According to Suidas, Artemidorus also wrote on augurs and cheiromancy, but all trace of these works is lost. (Editions: Reiff, 1805, Hercher, 1864; translation and notes, Krauss, 1881; English translation by Wood, 1644, and later editions.) ARTEMIS, one of the principal goddesses in Greek mythology, the counterpart of the Roman Diana. The suggested etymologies of the name (see O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, ii. p. 1267, note 2), as in the case of most of the Olympian deities, are unsatisfactory, and throw no light upon her significance and characteristics. The Homeric and later conception of Artemis, though by no means the original one, may be noticed first. She is the daughter of Zeus and Leto, twin-sister and counterpart of Apollo. She is said to have been born a day before him (on the 6th of the month) and tradition assigns them different birthplaces--Delos to Apollo, Ortygia to Artemis. But Ortygia ("home of quails") applies still to Delos, and may well have been a synonym for that island. In its original sense it does not apply either to the island of Ortygia at Syracuse, or to Ortygia near Ephesus, which also claimed the honour of having been the birthplace of the goddess. Artemis is the goddess of chastity, an aspect of her character which gradually assumed more and more importance--the protectress of young men and maidens, who defies and contemns the power of Aphrodite. Her resemblance to her brother is shown in many ways. Like him, armed with bow and arrows, she deals death to mortals, sometimes gently and suddenly, especially to women, but also as a punishment for offences against herself or morality. With him she takes part in the combat with Python and with Tityus, in the slaughter of the children of Niobe, while alone she executes vengeance on Orion. Although Apollo has nothing to do with the earlier cult of Artemis, nor Artemis with that of Delphi, their association was a comparatively early one, and probably originated in Delos. Here the connexion of Artemis with the Hyperborean legend (see APOLLO) is shown in the names of the maidens (Opis, Hecaerge) who were supposed to have brought offerings from the north to Delos, where they were buried. Both Opis (or Oupis) and Hecaerge are names of Artemis, the latter being the feminine of Hecaergos, an epithet of Apollo. Like her brother, she is not only a goddess who deals death, but she is also a healing and a purifying divinity, [Greek: oulia] ("the healer," cf. Apollo Oulios), [Greek: luae, luaia] ("purifier,") and [Greek: soteira], "she who saves from all evils" (cf. Apollo [Greek: apotropaios]). Her connexion with the prophetic art is doubtful, although mention is made of an Artemis Sibylla. To her association with Apollo are certainly to be referred the names Delphinia and Pythia, and the titles referring to state and family life--[Greek: prostataeria], [Greek: patriotis], [Greek: boulaia]. It probably accounts for her appearance as a goddess of seafarers, the bestower of fair weather and prosperous voyages. At Phigalia in Arcadia, Eurynome, represented as half woman and half fish, was probably another form of Artemis. To the same association may be traced her slight connexion with music, song and dance. It is in the Arcadian and Athenian rites and legends, however, which are certainly earlier than Homer, that the original conception of the goddess is to be found. These tend to show that Artemis was first and foremost a nature goddess, whose cult shows numerous traces of totemism. As a goddess of fertilizing moisture, lakes, rivers, springs, and marshy lowlands are brought into close connexion with her. Thus she is [Greek: limnaia, despoina limnaes] ("lady of the lake"), [Greek: eleia] ("of marshes"), [Greek: potamia] ("of rivers," especially of the Cladaus and Alpheus, whence her name [Greek: Alpheiaia]). Her influence is very active in promoting the increase of the fruits of the field, hence she is specially a goddess of agriculture. She drives away the mice (cf. Apollo Smintheus) and slays the Aloidae, the corn spirits; she is the friend of the reapers, and requires her share of the first fruits. Her character as a harvest goddess is clearly shown in the legend of the Calydonian boar, sent by her to ravage the fields out of resentment at not having received a harvest offering from Oeneus (see MELEAGER). As [Greek: epimulios] and [Greek: epiklibanios] ("presiding over the mill and the oven") she extends her protection over the further development of the grain for the use of man. Artemis was naturally also a goddess of trees and vegetation. Near Orchomenus her wooden image stood in a large cedar-tree--an indication that her worship was originally that of the tree itself ([Greek: kedreatis], "the cedar goddess"); at Caryae there was an image of Artemis [Greek: karuatis] ("the nut-tree goddess"). Two curious epithets in this connexion deserve notice: [Greek: lugodesma] ("bound with withies"), derived from the legend that the image of Artemis Orthia was found in a thicket of withies, which twined round it and kept it upright ([Greek: lugos] is the _agnus castus_, and points to Artemis in her relation to women); and [Greek: apagchomenae] ("the suspended"), probably a reference to the custom of hanging the mask or image of a vegetation-divinity on a tree to obtain fertility (Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, ii. p. 429; cf. the "swing" festival ([Greek: aiora]) of the Greeks, and the _oscilla_ of the Romans). The functions of the goddess extended from the vegetable to the animal world, to the inhabitants of the woods and mountains. This is clearly expressed in the cult of Artemis Laphria (possibly connected with [Greek: laphura], "spoils"), at whose festivals all kinds of animals, both wild and tame, as well as fruits, were thrown together on a huge wood fire. Her general name in this connexion was [Greek: agrotera] ("roaming the wilds," not necessarily "goddess of the chase," an aspect less familiar in the older religion), to whom five hundred goats were offered every year by the Athenians as a thanksgiving in commemoration of the victory at Marathon. Numerous animals were sacred to her, and at Syracuse all kinds of wild beasts, including a lioness, were carried in procession in her honour. It has been observed that she is rather the patroness of the wild beasts of the field than of the more agricultural or domestic animals (Farnell, _Cults_, ii. p. 431), although the epithet [Greek: Haemerasia] ("the tamer," according to others, the "gentle" goddess of healing) seems to refer to her connexion with the latter. The bear was especially associated with her in Arcadia, and in her worship as Artemis Brauronia at Brauron in Attica. According to the legend, Callisto, an Arcadian nymph, became by Zeus the mother of Arcas, the eponymous hero of the Arcadians. Zeus, to conceal the amour, changed Callisto into a she-bear; Hera, however, discovered it, and persuaded Artemis to slay Callisto, who was placed amongst the stars as [Greek: arktos] ("the bear"). There is no doubt that Callisto is identical with Artemis; her name is an obvious variation of [Greek: kallistae], a frequent epithet of the goddess, to whom a temple was erected on the hill where Callisto was supposed to be buried. It is suggested by M. Kraus in _Classical Review_, February 1908, that Aphaea, the cult-name of Artemis at Aegina, is of Semitic origin and means "beautiful." Closely connected with this legend is the worship of Artemis Brauronia. The accounts of its institution, which differ in detail, agree that it was intended to appease the wrath of the goddess at the killing of a bear. A number of young girls, between five and ten years of age, wearing a bear-skin (afterwards a saffron-coloured robe) danced a bear-dance, called [Greek: arkteia], the girls themselves being called [Greek: arktoi]. In one account, a maiden was ordered to be sacrificed to the bear Artemis, but a certain man who had a goat called it his daughter and offered it up in secret, just as at Munychium a fawn dressed up as a girl was sacrificed to the goddess. In place of the goat or fawn a bear might have been expected, but the choice may have been influenced by the animal totem of the tribe into whose hands the ritual fell. The whole is a reminiscence of earlier times, when the goddess herself was a bear, to whom human sacrifice was offered. Callisto was originally a bear-goddess worshipped in Arcadia, identified with Artemis, when nothing remained of the original animal-worship but name and ritual. The worship of Callisto being merged in that of the greater divinity, she became the handmaid and companion of Artemis. A stone figure of a bear found on the Acropolis seems to point to the worship of Artemis Brauronia. Her death at the hands of the latter was explained by the wrath of the goddess--in her later aspect as goddess of chastity--at Callisto's amour with Zeus (see A. Lang, _Myth, Ritual and Religion_, ii.; Farnell, _Cults_, ii. p. 437). The custom of flogging youths at the altar of Artemis Orthia[1] at Limnaeum in Laconia, and the legend of Iphigeneia (q.v.), herself another form of Artemis, connected with Artemis Taurica of the Tauric Chersonese, are usually supposed to point to early human sacrifice (but see Farnell). Various explanations have been given of the epithet [Greek: orthia]: (1) that it refers to the primitive type of the "erect" wooden idol; (2) that it means "she who safely rears children after birth," or "heals the sick" (cf. [Greek: orthios] applied to Asclepius); (3) that it has a phallic significance (Schreiber in Roscher's _Lexikon_). Scholars differ as to whether Artemis Taurica is identical with Artemis Tauropolos, worshipped chiefly at Samos with a milder ritual, but it is more probable that [Greek: Tauropolos] simply means "protectress of bulls." The protecting influence of Artemis was extended, like that of Apollo, to the highest animal, man. She was especially concerned in the bringing up of the young. Boys were brought by their nurses to the temple of Artemis [Greek: koruthalia] (= [Greek: kourotrophos]) and there consecrated to her; at the Apaturia, on the day called [Greek: koureotis], boys cut off and dedicated their hair to her. Girls as well as boys were under her protection. Her function as a goddess of marriage is less certain, and the cult-titles adduced in support of it are hardly convincing; such are [Greek: Haegemonae], interpreted as "she who leads home the bride," [Greek: selasphoros], "bearer of light," that is, of torches at the marriage procession. On the other hand, her connexion with childbirth is clearly shown: in many places she is even called Eilithyia, who in the earlier poets was regarded as distinct from her. In one version of the story of her birth she is said to have been born a day before Apollo, in order to assist Leto at his birth; women in childbirth invoked her aid, and after delivery offered up their clothes or a lock of hair. As already noticed, in Homer Artemis appears as a goddess of death; closely akin to this is the conception of her as a goddess of war. As such she is [Greek: nikaephoros] ("bringer of victory"); the title [Greek: kolainis] is possibly connected with [Greek: koleos] ("sword-sheath"); and [Greek: laphria] (see above) may refer to the spoils of war as well as the chase. The idea of Artemis as a virgin goddess, the "queen and huntress, chaste and fair," which obtained great prominence in early times, and seems inconsistent with her association with childbirth, is generally explained as due to her connexion with Apollo, but it is suggested by Farnell that [Greek: parthenos] originally meant "unmarried," and that "[Greek: Artemis parthenos] may have been originally the goddess of a people who had not yet the advanced Hellenic institutions of settled marriage ... and when society developed the later family system the goddess remained celibate, though not opposed to childbirth." Another view of the original character of Artemis, which has found much support in modern times, is that she was a moon-goddess. But there is no trace of Artemis as such in the epic period, and the Homeric hymn knows nothing of her identification with Selene. The attribute of the torch will apply equally well to the goddess of the chase, and epithets such as [Greek: phosphoros, selasphoros, aithopia], although applicable, are by no means convincing. The idea dates from the 5th century, and was due to her connexion with Hecate and Apollo. When the latter came to be identified by philosophical speculation with the sun-god Helios, it was natural that his sister and counterpart should be identified with the moon-goddess Selene. But she is nowhere recognized in cult as such (see Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, ii. p. 1297, note 2). It has been mentioned that Callisto, Iphigeneia, Eilithyia, are only Artemis under different names; to these may be added Adrasteia, Atalanta, Helen, Leto and others (see Wernicke in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_). Again, various non-Hellenic divinities were identified with Artemis, and their cult gradually amalgamated with hers. The most important of these was Artemis of Ephesus, whose seat was in the marshy valley of the Caystrus. Like the Greek Artemis, she was essentially a nature goddess, the great foster-mother of the vegetable and animal kingdom. A number of officials were engaged in the performance of her temple service. Her eunuch priests, [Greek: megabyzoi] (a name which points to a Persian origin), were under the control of a high priest called Essen (according to others, there was a body of priests called Essenes). There were also three classes of priestesses, Mellierae, Hierae, Parierae; there is no evidence that they were called Melissae ("bees"), although the bee is a frequent symbol on the coins of the city. Her chief festival, Ephesia or Artemisia, was held in the spring, at which games and various contests took place after the Greek fashion, although the ritual continued to be of a modified oriental, orgiastic type. This goddess is closely connected with the Amazons (q.v.), who are said to have built her temple and set up her image in the trunk of a tree. The Greeks of Ephesus identified her with their own Artemis, and claimed that her birthplace Ortygia was near Ephesus, not in Delos. She has much in common with the oriental prototype of Aphrodite, and the Cappadocian goddess Ma, another form of Cybele. The usual figure of the Ephesian Artemis, which was said in the first instance to have fallen from heaven, is in the form of a female with many breasts, the symbol of productivity or a token of her function as the all-nourishing mother. From the waist to the feet her image resembles a pillar, narrowing downwards and sculptured all round with rows of animals (lions, rams and bulls). Mention may also be made of the following non-Hellenic representatives of Artemis. Leucophryne (or Leucophrys), whose worship was brought by emigrants from Magnesia in Thessaly to Magnesia on the Maeander, was a nature goddess, and her representation on coins exactly resembles that of the Ephesian Artemis. Her cult, however, from the little that is known of it appears to have been more Hellenic. There was an altar and temple of Artemis Pergaea at Perga in Pamphylia, where a yearly festival was held in her honour. As in the case of Cybele, mendicant priests were attached to her service. Similar figures were Artemis Coloene, worshipped at Lake Coloe near Sardis; Artemis Cordax, celebrated in wanton dances on Mount Sipylus; the Persian Artemis, identical with Anaitis Bendis, was a Thracian goddess of war and the chase, whose cult was introduced into Attica in the middle of the 5th century B.C. by Thracian metics. At her festival called Bendidea, held at the Peiraeus, there was a procession of Thracians who were settled in the district, and a torch-race on horseback. (For Britomartis see separate article.) Among the chief attributes of Artemis are: the hind, specially regarded as her sacred animal; the bear, the boar and the goat; the zebu (Artemis Leucophrys); the lion, one of her oldest animal symbols; bow and arrows, as goddess of the chase and death; a mural crown, as the protectress of cities; the torch, originally an attribute of the goddess of the chase or marriage, but, like the crescent (originally an attribute of the Asiatic nature goddesses), transferred to Artemis, when she came to be regarded as a moon-goddess. The Greek Artemis was usually represented as a huntress with bow and quiver, or torch in her hand, in face very like Apollo, her drapery flowing to her feet, or, more frequently, girt high for speed. She is accompanied often by a deer or a dog. Perhaps the finest existing statue of her is the Diana of Versailles from Hadrian's Villa (now in the Louvre), in which she wears a short tunic drawn in at the waist and sandals on her feet; her hair is bound up into a knot at the back of her head, with a band over the forehead. With her left hand she holds a stag, while drawing an arrow from the quiver on her shoulder with the right. Another famous statue is one from Gabii, in which she is finishing her toilet and fastening the chlamys over her tunic. In older times her figure is fuller and stronger, and the clothing more complete; certain statues discovered at Delos, imitated from wooden models (xoana), are supposed to represent Artemis; they are described as stiff and rigid, the limbs as it were glued to the body without life or movement, garments closely fitting, the folds of which fall in symmetrical parallel lines. As a goddess of the moon she wears a long robe, carries a torch, and her head is surmounted by a crescent. On the coins of Arcadia, Aetolia, Crete and Sicily, are to be seen varied and beautiful representations of her head as conceived by the Greek artists in the best times. AUTHORITIES.--Articles in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_; Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_, and Daremberg and Saglio's _Dictionnaire des antiquites_ (s.v. Diana, with well-arranged bibliography); L. Preller, _Griechische Mythologie_ (4th ed. by C. Robert); L.R. Farnell, _The Cults of the Greek States_, ii. (1896); O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie und Religions-Geschichte_, ii. (1906); A. Claus, _De Dianae antiquissima apud Graecos natura_ (Breslau, 1880). In the article GREEK ART, fig. 11 (a gold ornament from Camirus) represents the Oriental goddess identified by the Greeks with Artemis. For the Roman goddess identified with Artemis see DIANA. (J. H. F.) FOOTNOTE: [1] The site of the temple of Artemis Orthia was excavated by the British School of Archaeology at Athens (see _Annual_, 1906). The flogging ([Greek: diamastigosis]) is explained by R.C. Bosanquet as a late institution of decadent Sparta, an exaggeration of an old ritual practice of whipping away boys who tried to steal cheeses from the altar (see _The Year's Work in Classical Studies_, ed. W.H.D. Rouse, 1907). ARTEMISIA, daughter of Lygdamis, was queen of Halicarnassus and Cos about 480 B.C. Being a dependent of Persia, she took part in person in the expedition of Xerxes against the Greeks, and fitted out five ships, with which she distinguished herself in the sea-fight near Salamis (480). When closely pursued by the Athenians she escaped by the stratagem of attacking one of the Persian vessels, whereupon the Athenians concluded that she was an ally, and gave up the pursuit (Herod. vii. 99, viii. 68). After the battle Xerxes declared that the men had fought like women, and the women like men. By her advice he did not risk another battle, but at once retired from Greece. She is said to have loved a young man named Dardanus, of Abydos, and, enraged at his neglect of her, to have put out his eyes while he was asleep. The gods, as a punishment for this, ordered her, by an oracle, to take the famous but rather mythical _lover's leap_ from the Leucadian promontory (Photius, _Cod. 153a_). ARTEMISIA, the sister and wife of Mausolus (or Maussollus), king of Caria, was sole ruler from about 353 to 350 B.C. She has immortalized herself by the honours paid to the memory of her husband. She built for him, in Halicarnassus, a very magnificent tomb, called the Mausoleum, which was one of the seven wonders of the world, and from which the name mausoleum was afterwards given to all tombs remarkable for their grandeur. She appointed panegyrics to be composed in his honour, and offered valuable prizes for the best oratorical and tragic compositions. She also erected a monument, or trophy, in Rhodes, to commemorate her conquest of that island. When the Rhodians regained their freedom they built round this trophy so as to render it inaccessible, whence it was known as the _Abaton_. There are statues of Mausolus and Artemisia in the British Museum. Vitruvius ii. 8; Diodorus Siculus xvi. 36; Cicero, _Tusc._ iii. 31; Val. Max. iv. 6. ARTEMON (fl. c. A.D. 230), a prominent Christian teacher at Rome, who held Adoptianist (see ADOPTIANISM), or humanitarian views, of the same type as his elder contemporaries the Theodotians, though perhaps asserting more definitely than they the superiority of Christ to the prophets in respect of His supernatural birth and sinlessness. He was excommunicated by Zephyrinus, despite his remarkable claim that all that bishop's predecessors in the see of Rome had held the humanitarian position. (See also MONARCHIANISM.) ARTENA, a village of Italy, in the province of Rome, situated at the N.N.W. extremity of the Volscian Mountains; it is 36 m. S.E. by rail, and 24 m. direct from Rome. Pop. (1901) 5016. On the mountain above it (2073 ft.) are the fine remains of the fortifications of a city built in a very primitive style, in cyclopean blocks of local limestone; within the walls are traces of buildings, and a massive terrace which supported some edifice of importance. The name of this city is quite uncertain; Ecetra is a possible suggestion. The modern village, which was called Monte Fortino until 1870, owes its present name to an unwarrantable identification of the site with the ancient Volscian Artena, destroyed in 404 B.C. Another Artena, which belonged to the district of Caere, and lay between it and Veii, was destroyed in the period of the kings, and its site is quite unknown. See T. Ashby and G.J. Pfeiffer in _Supplementary Papers of the American School in Rome_, i. 87 seq. ARTERIES (Gr. [Greek: artaeria], probably from [Greek: airein], to raise, but popularly connected by the ancients with [Greek: aaer], air), in anatomy, the elastic tubes which carry the blood away from the heart to the tissues. As, after death, they are always found empty, the older anatomists believed that they contained air, and to this belief they owe the name, which was originally given to the windpipe (_trachea_). Two great trunks, the aorta and pulmonary artery, leave the heart and divide again and again, until they become minute vessels to which the name of arterioles is given. The larger trunks are fairly constant in position and receive definite names, but as the smaller branches are reached there is an increasing inconstancy in their position, and anatomists are still undecided as to the normal, i.e. most frequent, arrangement of many of the smaller arteries. From a common-sense point of view it is probably of greater importance to realize how variable the distribution of small arteries is than to remember the names of twigs which are of neither surgical nor morphological importance. Arteries adapt themselves more quickly than most other structures to any mechanical obstruction, and many of the differences between the arterial systems of Man and other animals are due to the assumption of the erect position. Many arteries are tortuous, especially when they supply movable parts such as the face or scalp, but when one or two sharp bends are found they are generally due to the artery going out of its way to give off a constant and important branch. Small arteries unite or anastomose with others near them very freely, so that when even a large artery is obliterated a collateral circulation is carried on by the rapid increase in size of the communications between the branches coming off above and below the point of obstruction. Some branches, however, such as those going to the basal ganglia of the brain and to the spleen, are known as "end arteries," and these do not anastomose with their neighbours at all; thus, if one is blocked, arterial blood is cut off from its area of supply. As a rule, there is little arterial anastomosis across the middle line of the body near the surface, though the scalp, lips and thyroid body are exceptions. The distribution of the pulmonary artery is considered in connexion with the anatomy of the lungs (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). That of the aorta will now be briefly described. Aorta. The _Aorta_ lies in the cavities of the thorax and abdomen, and arises from the base of the left ventricle of the heart. It ascends forward, upward, and to the right as far as the level of the second right costal cartilage, then runs backward, and to the left to reach the left side of the body of the 4th thoracic vertebra, and then descends almost vertically. It thus forms the _arch of the aorta_, which arches over the root of the left lung, and which has attached to its concave surface a fibrous cord, known as the obliterated _ductus arteriosus_, which connects it with the left branch of the pulmonary artery. The aorta continues its course downward in close relation to the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae, then passes through an opening in the diaphragm (q.v.), enters the abdomen, and descends in front of the bodies of the lumbar vertebrae as low as the 4th, where it usually divides into two terminal branches, the common iliac arteries. Above and behind the angle of bifurcation, however, a long slender artery, called the _middle sacral_, is prolonged downward in front of the sacrum to the end of the coccyx. It will be convenient to describe the distribution of the arteries under the following headings:--(1) Branches for the head, neck and upper limbs; (2) branches for the viscera of the thorax and abdomen; (3) branches for the walls of the thorax and abdomen; (4) branches for the pelvis and lower limbs. The branches for the head, neck and upper limbs arise as three large arteries from the transverse part of the aorta; they are named _innominate, left common carotid_ and _left subclavian_. The innominate artery is the largest and passes upward and to the right, to the root of the neck, where it divides into the right common carotid and the right subclavian. The carotid arteries supply the two sides of the head and neck; the subclavian arteries the two upper extremities. Carotid system. The _common carotid_ artery runs up the neck by the side of the windpipe, and on a level with the upper border of the thyroid cartilage divides into the internal and external carotid arteries. The _internal carotid_ artery ascends through the carotid canal in the temporal bone into the cranial cavity. It gives off an _ophthalmic_ branch to the eyeball and other contents of the orbit, and then divides into the _anterior_ and _middle cerebral_ arteries. The middle cerebral artery extends outward into the Sylvian fissure of the brain, and supplies the island of Reil, the orbital part, and the outer face of the frontal lobe, the parietal lobe, and the temporo-sphenoidal lobe; it also gives a choroid branch to the choroid plexus of the velum interpositum. The anterior cerebral artery supplies the inner face of the hemisphere from the anterior end of the frontal lobe as far back as the internal parieto-occipital fissure. At the base of the brain not only do the two internal carotids anastomose with each other through the _anterior communicating_ artery, which passes between their anterior cerebral branches, but the internal carotid on each side anastomoses with the posterior cerebral branch of the basilar, by a _posterior communicating_ artery. In this manner a vascular circle, the _circle of Willis_, is formed, which permits of freedom of the arterial circulation by the anastomoses between arteries not only on the same side, but on opposite sides of the mesial plane. The vertebral and internal carotid arteries, which are the arteries of supply for the brain, are distinguished by lying at some depth from the surface in their course to the organ, by having curves or twists in their course, and by the absence of large collateral branches. The _external carotid_ artery ascends through the upper part of the side of the neck, and behind the lower jaw into the parotid gland, where it divides into the internal maxillary and superficial temporal branches. This artery gives off the following branches:--(a) _Superior thyroid_ to the larynx and thyroid body; (b) _Lingual_ to the tongue and sublingual gland; (c) _Facial_ to the face, palate, tonsil and sub-maxillary gland; (d) _Occipital_ to the sterno-mastoid muscle and back of the scalp; (e) _Posterior auricular_ to the back of the ear and the adjacent part of the scalp; (f) _Superficial temporal_ to the scalp in front of the ear, and by its _transverse facial_ branch to the back part of the face; (g) _Internal maxillary_, giving _muscular_ branches to the muscles of mastication, _meningeal_ branches to the dura mater, _dental_ branches to the teeth, and other branches to the nose, palate and tympanum; (h) _Ascending pharyngeal_, which gives branches to the pharynx, palate, tonsils and dura mater. Subclavian system. The _subclavian_ artery is the commencement of the great arterial trunk for the upper limb. It passes across the root of the neck and behind the clavicle, where it enters the armpit, and becomes the _axillary_ artery; by that name it extends as far as the posterior fold of the axilla, where it enters the upper arm, takes the name of brachial, and courses as far as the bend of the elbow; here it bifurcates into the _radial_ and _ulnar_ arteries. From the subclavian part of the trunk the following branches arise:--(a) _Vertebral_, which enters the foramen at the root of the transverse process of the 6th cervical vertebra, ascends through the corresponding foramina in the vertebrae above, lies in a groove on the arch of the atlas, and enters the skull through the foramen magnum, where it joins its fellow to form the _basilar_ artery; it gives off _muscular_ branches to the deep muscles of the neck, _spinal_ branches to the spinal cord, _meningeal_ branches to the dura mater, and an _inferior cerebellar_ branch to the under surface of the cerebellum. The _basilar_ artery, formed by the junction of the two vertebrals, extends from the lower to the upper border of the pons Varolii; it gives off _transverse_ branches to the pons, _auditory_ branches to the internal ear, _inferior cerebellar_ branches to the under surface of the cerebellum, whilst it breaks up into four terminal branches, viz. two _superior cerebellar_ to the upper surface of the cerebellum, and two _posterior cerebral_ which supply the tentorial and mesial aspects of the temporo-sphenoidal lobes, the occipital lobes, and the posterior convolutions of the parietal lobes. (b) _Thyroid axis_, which immediately divides into the _inferior thyroid_, the _supra-scapular_, and the _transverse cervical_ branches; the _inferior thyroid_ supplies the thyroid body, and gives off an _ascending cervical_ branch to the muscles of the neck; the _supra-scapular_ supplies the muscles on the dorsum scapulae; the _transverse cervical_ supplies the trapezius and the muscles attached to the vertebral border of the scapula. (c) _Internal mammary_ supplies the anterior surface of the walls of the chest and abdomen, and the upper surface of the diaphragm. (d) _Superior intercostal_ supplies the first intercostal space, and by its deep _cervical_ branch the deep muscles of the back of the neck. The _axillary_ artery supplies _thoracic_ branches to the wall of the chest, the pectoral muscles, and the fat and glands of the axilla; an _acromio-thoracic_ to the parts about the acromion; _anterior_ and _posterior circumflex_ branches to the shoulder joint and deltoid muscle; a _subscapular_ branch to the muscles of the posterior fold of the axilla. The _brachial_ artery supplies _muscular_ branches to the muscles of the upper arm; a _nutrient_ branch to the humerus; _superior_ and _inferior profunda_ branches and an _anastomotic_ to the muscles of the upper arm and the region of the elbow joint. The _ulnar_ artery extends down the ulnar side of the front of the fore-arm to the palm of the hand, where it curves outward toward the thumb, and anastomoses with the superficial volar or other branch of the radial artery to form the _superficial palmar arch_. In the fore-arm the ulnar gives off the _interosseous_ arteries, which supply the muscles of the fore-arm and give _nutrient_ branches to the bones; two _recurrent_ branches to the region of the elbow; _carpal_ branches to the wrist joint: in the hand it gives a _deep_ branch to the deep muscles of the hand, and from the superficial arch arise _digital_ branches to the sides of the little, ring, and middle fingers, and the ulnar border of the index finger. The _radial_ artery extends down the radial side of the front of the fore-arm, turns round the outer side of the wrist to the back of the hand, passes between the 1st and 2nd metacarpal bones to the palm, where it joins the deep branch of the ulnar, and forms the _deep palmar arch_. In the fore-arm it gives off a _recurrent_ branch to the elbow joint; _carpal_ branches to the wrist joint; and _muscular_ branches, one of which, named superficial volar, supplies the muscle of the thumb and joins the ulnar artery: in the hand it gives off a branch to the thumb, and one to the radial side of the index, _interosseous_ branches to the interosseous muscles, _perforating_ branches to the back of the hand, and _recurrent_ branches to the wrist. Visceral branches. The branches of the aorta which supply the viscera of the thorax are the coronary, the oesophageal, the bronchial and the pericardiac. The _coronary_ arteries, two in number, are the first branches of the aorta, and arise opposite the anterior and left posterior segments of the semilunar valve, from the wall of the aorta, where it dilates into the sinuses of Valsalva. They supply the tissue of the heart. The _oesophageal, bronchial_ and _pericardiac_ branches are sufficiently described by their names. The branches of the aorta which supply the viscera of the abdomen arise either singly or in pairs. The single arteries are the coeliac axis, the superior mesenteric, and the inferior mesenteric, which arise from the front of the aorta; the pairs are the capsular, the two renal, and the two spermatic or ovarian, which arise from its sides. The single arteries supply viscera which are either completely or almost completely invested by the peritoneum, and the veins corresponding to them are the roots of the vena portae. The pairs of arteries supply viscera developed behind the peritoneum, and the veins corresponding to them are rootlets of the inferior vena cava. The _coeliac axis_ is a thick, short artery, which almost immediately divides into the gastric, hepatic and splenic branches. The _gastric_ gives off oesophageal branches and then runs along the lesser curvature of the stomach. The _hepatic_ artery ends in the substance of the liver; but gives off a _cystic_ branch to the gall bladder, a _pyloric_ branch to the stomach, a _gastro-duodenal_ branch, which divides into a _superior pancreatico-duodenal_ for the pancreas and duodenum, and a _right gastro-epiploic_ for the stomach and omentum. The _splenic_ artery ends in the substance of the spleen; but gives off _pancreatic_ branches to the pancreas, _vasa brevia_ to the left end of the stomach, and a _left gastro-epiploic_ to the stomach and omentum. The _superior mesenteric_ artery gives off an _inferior pancreatico-duodenal_ branch to the pancreas and duodenum; about twelve _intestinal_ branches to the small intestines, which form in the substance of the mesentery a series of arches before they end in the wall of the intestines; an _ileocolic_ branch to the end of the ileum, the caecum, and beginning of the colon; a _right colic_ branch to the ascending colon; and a _middle colic_ branch to the transverse colon. The _inferior mesenteric_ artery gives off a _left colic_ branch to the descending colon, a _sigmoid_ branch to the iliac and pelvic colon, and ends in the superior _haemorrhoidal_ artery, which supplies the rectum. The arteries which supply the coats of the alimentary tube from the oesophagus to the rectum anastomose freely with each other in the wall of the tube, or in its mesenteric attachment, and the anastomoses are usually by the formation of arches or loops between adjacent branches. The _capsular arteries_, small in size, run outward from the aorta to end in the supra-renal capsules. The _renal_ arteries pass one to each kidney, in which they for the most part end, but in the substance of the organ they give off small _perforating_ branches, which pierce the capsule of the kidney, and are distributed in the surrounding fat. Additional renal arteries are fairly common. The _spermatic_ arteries are two long slender arteries, which descend, one in each spermatic cord, into the scrotum to supply the testicle. The corresponding ovarian arteries in the female do not leave the abdomen. Parietal branches. The branches of the aorta which supply the walls of the thorax, abdomen and pelvis, are the intercostal, the lumbar, the phrenic, and the middle sacral. [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagram of a pair of intercostal arteries. Ao, The aorta transversely divided, giving off at each side an intercostal artery. PB, The posterior or dorsal branch. AB, The anterior or proper intercostal branch. IM, A transverse section through the internal mammary artery.] The _intercostal_ arteries arise from the back of the thoracic aorta, and are usually nine pairs. They run round the sides of the vertebral bodies as far as the commencement of the intercostal spaces, where each divides into a _dorsal_ and a _proper intercostal_ branch; the dorsal branch passes to the back of the thorax to supply the deep muscles of the spine; the proper intercostal branch (AB.) runs outward in the intercostal space to supply its muscles, and the lower pairs of intercostals also give branches to the diaphragm and wall of the abdomen. Below the last rib a subcostal artery runs. The _lumbar_ arteries arise from the back of the abdominal aorta, and are usually four pairs. They run round the sides of the lumbar vertebrae, and divide into a _dorsal_ branch which supplies the deep muscles of the back of the loins, and an _abdominal_ branch which runs outward to supply the wall of the abdomen. The distribution of the lumbar and intercostal arteries exhibits a transversely segmented arrangement of the vascular system, like the transversely segmented arrangement of the bones, muscles and nerves met with in these localities, but more especially in the thoracic region. The _phrenic_ arteries, two in number, pass to supply the under surface of the diaphragm. The _middle sacral_ artery, as it runs down the front of the sacrum, gives branches to the back of the pelvic wall. Injections made by Sir W. Turner have shown that, both in the thoracic and abdominal cavities, slender anastomosing communications exist between the visceral and parietal branches. The arteries to the pelvis and hind limbs begin at the bifurcation of the aorta into the two common iliacs. Iliac system. The _common iliac_ artery, after a short course, divides into the internal and external iliac arteries. The _internal iliac_ enters the pelvis and divides into branches for the supply of the pelvic walls and viscera, including the organs of generation, and for the great muscles of the buttock. The _external iliac_ descends behind Poupart's ligament into the thigh, where it takes the name of _femoral_ artery. The femoral descends along the front and inner surface of the thigh, gives off a _profunda_ or deep branch, which, by its _circumflex_ and _perforating_ branches, supplies the numerous muscles of the thigh; most of these extend to the back of the limb to carry blood to the muscles situated there. The femoral artery then runs to the back of the limb in the ham, where it is called _popliteal_ artery. The popliteal divides into two branches, of which one, called _anterior tibial_, passes between the bones to the front of the leg, and then downward to the upper surface of the foot; the other, _posterior tibial_, continues down the back of the leg to the sole of the foot, and divides into the _internal_ and _external plantar_ arteries; branches proceed from the external plantar artery to the sides of the toes, and constitute the _digital_ arteries. From the large arterial trunks in the leg many branches proceed, to carry blood to the different structures in the limb. Structure of arteries. The wall of an artery consists of several coats (see fig. 2). The outermost is the _tunica adventitia_, composed of connective tissue; immediately internal to this is the _yellow elastic_ coat; within this again the _muscular coat_, formed of involuntary. muscular tissue, the contractile fibre-cells of which are for the most part arranged transversely to the long axis of the artery; in the larger arteries the elastic coat is much thicker than the muscular, but in the smaller the muscular coat is relatively strong; the vaso-motor nerves terminate in the muscular coat. In the first part of the aorta, pulmonary artery and arteries of the retina there is no muscular coat. Internal to the muscular coat is the _elastic fenestrated coat_, formed of a smooth elastic membrane perforated by small apertures. Most internal of all is a layer of _endothelial cells_, which form the free surface over which the blood flows. The arteries are not nourished by the blood which flows through them, but by minute vessels, _vasa vasorum_, distributed in their external, elastic and muscular coats. [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagram of the structure of an artery. A, tunica adventitia; E, elastic coat; M, muscular coat; F, fenestrated coat; En, endothelium continuous with the endothelial wall of C, the capillaries.] EMBRYOLOGY [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Diagram of the Embryonic Arterial Arches. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, point to the six arches. (The black parts are obliterated in the adult human subject.) V.Ao. Ventral Aorta. A.Ao. Arch of Aorta. D.Ar. Ductus Arteriosus. In. Innominate Artery. R.I.C.-L.I.C. Right and Left Internal Carotid Arteries. D.B. Duct of Botalli. R.S.-L.S. Right and Left Subclavian Arteries. R.V.-L.V. Right and Left Vertebral Arteries. P.A. Posterior Auricular Artery. Oph. Ophthalmic Artery. D.Ao. Dorsal Aorta. P.T. Pulmonary trunk. R.P.A.-L.P.A. Right and Left Pulmonary Arteries. R.C.C.-L.C.C. Right and Left Common Carotid Arteries. E.C. External Carotid Artery. Oc. Occipital Artery. I.M. Internal Maxillary Artery.] [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Diagram of the Human Aorta and its branches. S.T., Superficial Temporal Artery.] The earliest appearance of the blood vessels is dealt with under VASCULAR SYSTEM. Here will be briefly described the fate of the main vessel which carries the blood away from the truncus arteriosus of the developing heart (q.v.). This ventral aorta, if traced forward, soon divides into two lateral parts, the explanation being that there were originally two vessels, side by side, which fused to form the heart, but continued separate anteriorly. The two parts run for a little distance toward the head of the embryo, ventral to the alimentary canal, and then turn toward the dorsum, passing one on either side of that tube to form the first aortic arch. Having reached the dorsum they turn backward toward the tail end and form the dorsal aortae; here, according to A.H. Young (_Studies in Anatomy_, Owens College, 1891 and 1900) they again turn toward the ventral side and become, after a transitional stage, the _hypogastric, placental, allantoic_ or _umbilical_ arteries. This authority does not believe that the middle sacral artery of the adult is the real continuation of the single median dorsal aorta into which the two parallel dorsal vessels just mentioned soon coalesce, though until recently it has always been so regarded. The anterior loop between the ventral and dorsal aortae already described as the first aortic arch is included in the _maxillary_ or _first visceral arch_ of the soft parts (see fig. 3, _1_). Later, four other well-marked aortic arches grow behind this in the more caudal visceral arches, so that there are altogether five arterial arches on each side of the pharynx, through which the blood can pass from the ventral to the dorsal aorta. Of these arches the first soon disappears, but is probably partly represented in the adult by the _internal maxillary_ artery, one branch of which, the _infraorbital_, is enclosed in the upper jaw, while another, the _inferior dental_, is surrounded by the lower jaw. Possibly the ophthalmic artery also belongs to this arch. The second arch also disappears, but the _posterior auricular_ and _occipital_ arteries probably spring from it, and at an early period it passed through the stapes as the transitory stapedial artery. The third arch forms the beginning of the internal carotid. The fourth arch becomes the arch of the adult aorta, between the origins of the left carotid and left subclavian, on the left side, and the first part of the right subclavian artery on the right. The apparent fifth arch on the left side (fig. 3, _6_) remains all through foetal life as the _ductus arteriosus_, and, as the lungs develop, the _pulmonary_ arteries are derived from it. J.E.V. Boas and W. Zimmermann have shown that this arch is in reality the sixth, and that there is a very transitory true fifth arch in front of it (fig. 3, _5_). The part of the ventral aorta from which this last arch rises is a single median vessel due to the same fusion of the two primitive ventral aortae which precedes the formation of the heart, but a spiral septum has appeared in it which divides it in such a way that while the anterior or cephalic arches communicate with the left ventricle of the heart, the last one communicates with the right (see HEART). The fate of the ventral and dorsal longitudinal vessels must now be followed. The fused part of the two ventral aortae, just in front of the heart, forms the ascending part of the adult aortic arch, and where this trunk divides between the fifth and fourth arches (strictly speaking, the sixth and fifth), the right one forms the _innominate_ (fig. 3, In.) and the left one a very short part of the _transverse arch_ of the aorta until the fourth arch comes off (see fig. 4). From this point to the origin of the third arch is _common carotid_, and after that, to the head, _external carotid_ on each side. The _dorsal longitudinal_ arteries on the head side of the junction with the third arch form the _internal carotids_. Between the third and fourth arches they are obliterated, while on the caudal side of this, until the point of fusion is reached on the dorsal side of the heart, the left artery forms the upper part of the dorsal aorta while the right entirely disappears. Below this point the _thoracic_ and _abdominal aortae_ are formed by the two _primitive dorsal aortae_ which have fused to form a single median vessel. As the limbs are developed, vessels bud out in them. The _subclavian_ for the arm comes from the fourth aortic arch on each side, while in the leg the main artery is a branch of the _caudal arch_ which is curving ventralward to form the umbilical artery. From the convexity of this arch the internal iliac and sciatic at first carry the blood to the limb, as they do permanently in reptiles, but later the external iliac and femoral become developed, and, as they are on the concave side of the bend of the hip, while the sciatic is on the convex, they have a mechanical advantage and become the permanent main channel. For further details see O. Hertwig, _Handbuch der vergleichenden und experimentellen Entwickelungslehre der Wirbeltiere_ (Jena, 1905). COMPARATIVE ANATOMY In the Acrania the lancelet (Amphioxus) shows certain arrangements of its arteries which are suggestive of the embryonic stages of the higher vertebrates and Man. There is a median ventral aorta below the pharynx, from which branchial arteries run up on each side between the branchial clefts, where the blood is aerated, to join two dorsal aortae which run back side by side until the hind end of the pharynx is reached; here they fuse to form a median vessel from which branches are distributed to the straight intestine. There is no heart, but the ventral aorta is contractile, and the blood is driven forward in it and backward in the dorsal aortae. The branchial arteries are very numerous, and cannot be homologized closely with the five (originally six) pairs of aortic arches in Man. In the fish the ventral aorta gives rise to five afferent branchial arteries carrying the blood to the gills, though these may not all come off as independent trunks from the aorta. From the gills the afferent branchials carry the blood to the median dorsal aorta. As pectoral and pelvic fins are now developed, subclavian and iliac arteries are found rising from the dorsal aorta, though the aorta itself is continued directly backward as the caudal artery into the tail. In the Dipnoi or mud fish, in which the swim bladder is converted into a functional lung, the hindmost afferent branchial artery, corresponding to the fifth (strictly speaking the sixth) aortic arch of the human embryo, gives off on each side a pulmonary artery to that structure. The arrangement of the branchial aortic arches in the tailed Amphibia (Urodela), and in the tadpole stage of the tailless forms (Anura), makes it probable that the generalized vertebrate has six (if not more) pairs of these instead of the five which are evident in the human embryo. Four pairs of arches are present, the first of which is the carotid and corresponds to the third of Man; the second is the true aortic arch on each side; the third undergoes great reduction or disappears when the gills atrophy, and is very transitory in the Mammalia (fig. 3, _5_), while the fourth is the one from which the pulmonary artery is developed when the lungs appear, and corresponds to the nominal fifth, though really the sixth arch, of the higher forms (fig. 3, _6_). The dorsal part of this sixth arch remains as a pervious vessel in the Urodela, joining the pulmonary arch to the dorsal aorta. In the central part of the carotid arch the vessel breaks up into a plexus, for a short distance forming the so-called carotid gland, which has an important effect upon the adult circulation of the Amphibia. In the Reptilia the great arteries are arranged on the same plan as in the adult Amphibia, but the carotid arch retains its dorsal communication with the systematic aortic arch on each side, and this communication is known as the duct of Botalli (fig. 3, D.B.). In this class, as in the Amphibia, one great artery, the coeliaco-mesenteric, usually supplies the liver, spleen, stomach and anterior part of the intestines; this is a point of some interest when it is noticed how very close together the coeliac axis and superior mesenteric arteries rise from the abdominal aorta in Man. In the Birds the right fourth arch alone remains as the aorta, the dorsal part of the left corresponding arch being obliterated. From the arch of the aorta rise two symmetrical innominates, each of which divides later into a carotid and subclavian. The blood path from the aorta to the hind limb in the Amphibia, Reptilia and Aves, is a dorsal one, and passes through the internal iliac and sciatic to the back of the thigh, and so to the popliteal space; the external iliac is, if it is developed at all, only a small branch to the pelvis. In the Mammalia the fourth left arch becomes the aorta, the corresponding right one being obliterated, but several cases have been recorded in Man in which both arches have persisted, as they do in the reptiles (H. Leboucq, _Ann. Sci. Med. Gand_, 1894, p. 7). Examples have also been found of a right aortic arch, as in birds, while a very common human abnormality is that in which the dorsal part of the fourth right arch persists, and from it the right subclavian artery arises (see fig. 3). The commonest arrangement of the great branches of the aortic arch in Mammals is that in which the innominate and left carotid arise by a single short trunk, while the left subclavian comes off later; this is also Man's commonest abnormality. Sometimes, especially among the Ungulata, all the branches may rise from one common trunk; at other times two innominate arteries may be present; this is commonest in the Cheiroptera, Insectivora and Cetacea. It is extremely rare to find all four large arteries rising independently from the aorta, though it has been seen in the Koala (F.G. Parsons, "Mammalian Aortic Arch," _Journ. of Anat._ vol. xxxvi. p. 389). The human arrangement of the common iliacs is not constant among mammals, for in some the external and internal iliacs rise independently from the aorta, and this is probably the more primitive arrangement. The middle sacral artery has already been referred to. A.H. Young and A. Robinson believe, on embryological grounds, that this artery in mammals is not homologous with the caudal artery of the fish, and is not the direct continuation of the aorta; it is an artery which usually gives off two or more collateral branches, and sometimes, as in the Ornithorynchus and some edentates, breaks up into a network of branches which reunite and so form what is known as a _rete mirabile_. These retia mirabilia are often found in other parts of the mammalian body, though their function is still not satisfactorily explained. The way in which the blood is carried to the foot in the pronograde mammals differs from that of Man; a large branch called the internal saphenous comes off the common femoral in the lower third of the thigh, and this runs down the inner side of the leg to the foot. This arrangement is quite convenient as long as the knee is flexed, but when it comes to be extended, as in the erect posture, the artery is greatly stretched, and it is much easier for the blood to pass to the foot through the anterior and posterior tibials. A vestige of this saphenous artery, however, remains in Man as the anastomotica magna. The literature of the Comparative Anatomy of the Arteries up to 1902 will be found in R. Wiedersheim's _Vergleichende Anatomie der Wirbeltiere_ (Jena, 1902). The morphology of the Iliac Arteries is described by G. Levi, _Archivio Italiano di Anat. ed Embriol._, vol. i. (1902). (F. G. P.) ARTERN, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the Unstrut, at the influx of the Helme, at the junction of railways to Erfurt, Naumburg and Sangerhausen, 8 m. S. of the last named. Pop. 5000. It has an Evangelical church, an agricultural college and some manufactures of machinery, sugar and boots. Its brine springs, known as early as the 15th century, are still frequented. ARTESIAN WELLS, the name properly applied to water-springs rising above the surface of the ground by natural hydrostatic pressure, on boring a small hole down through a series of strata to a water-carrying bed enclosed between two impervious layers; the name is, however, sometimes loosely applied to any deep well, even when the water is obtained by pumping. In Europe this mode of well-boring was first practised in the French province of Artois, whence the name of Artesian is derived. At Aire, in that province, there is a well from which the water has continued steadily to flow to a height of 11 feet above the ground for more than a century; and there is, within the old Carthusian convent at Lillers, another which dates from the 12th century, and which still flows. But unmistakable traces of much more ancient bored springs appear in Lombardy, in Asia Minor, in Persia, in China, in Egypt, in Algeria, and even in the great desert of Sahara. (See WELL.) ARTEVELDE, JACOB VAN (c. 1290-1345), Flemish statesman, was born at Ghent about 1290. He sprang from one of the wealthy commercial families of this great industrial city, his father's name being probably William van Artevelde. His brother John, a rich cloth merchant, took a leading part in public affairs during the first decades of the 14th century. Jacob, who according to tradition was a brewer by trade, spent three years in amassing quietly a large fortune. He was twice married, the second time to Catherine de Coster, whose family was of considerable influence in Ghent. Not till 1337, when the outbreak of hostilities between France and England threatened to injure seriously the industrial welfare of his native town, did Jacob van Artevelde make his first appearance as a political leader. As the Flemish cities depended upon England for the supply of the wool for their staple industry of weaving, he boldly came forward, as a tribune of the people, and at a great meeting at the monastery of Biloke unfolded his scheme of an alliance of the Flemish towns, with those of Brabant, Holland and Hainaut, to maintain an armed neutrality in the dynastic struggle between Edward III. and Philip VI. of France. His efforts were successful. Bruges, Ypres and other towns formed a league with Ghent, in which town Artevelde, with the title of captain-general, henceforth until his death exercised almost dictatorial authority. His first step was to conclude a commercial treaty with England. The efforts of the count of Flanders to overthrow the power of Artevelde by force of arms completely failed, and he was compelled at Bruges to sign a treaty (June 21, 1338) sanctioning the federation of the three towns, Ghent, Bruges and Ypres, henceforth known as the "Three members of Flanders." This was the first of a series of treaties, made during the year 1339-1340, which gradually brought into the federation all the towns and provinces of the Netherlands. The policy of neutrality, however, proved impracticable, and the Flemish towns, under the leadership of Artevelde, openly took the side of the English king, with whom a close alliance was concluded. Artevelde now reached the height of his power, concluding alliances with kings, and publicly associating with them on equal terms. Under his able administration trade flourished, and Ghent rose rapidly in wealth and importance. His well-nigh despotic rule awoke at last among his compatriots jealousy and resentment. The proposal of Artevelde to disown the sovereignty of Louis, count of Flanders, and to recognize in its place that of Edward, prince of Wales (the Black Prince), gave rise to violent dissatisfaction. A popular insurrection broke out in Ghent, and Artevelde fell into the hands of the crowd and was murdered on the 24th of July 1345. The great services that he rendered to Ghent and to his country have in later times been recognized. A statue was erected in his native town on the Marche du Vendredi, and was unveiled by Leopold I., king of the Belgians, on the 13th of September 1863. See J. Hutten, _James and Philip van Artevelde_ (London, 1882); W.J. Ashley, _James and Philip van Artevelde_ (London, 1883); P. Nameche, _Les van Artevelde et leur epoque_ (Louvain, 1887); L. Vanderkindere, _Le Siecle des Arteveldes_ (Brussels, 1879). ARTEVELDE, PHILIP VAN (c. 1340-1382), youngest son of the above, and godson of Queen Philippa of England, who held him in her arms at his baptism, lived in retirement until 1381. The Ghenters had in that year risen in revolt against the oppression of the count of Flanders, and Philip, now forty years of age, and without any military or political experience, was offered the supreme command. His name awakened general enthusiasm. At first his efforts were attended by considerable success. He defeated Louis de Male, count of Flanders, before Bruges, entered that city in triumph, and was soon master of all Flanders. But France took up the cause of the Flemish count, and a splendid French army was led across the frontier by the young king Charles VI. in person. Artevelde advanced to meet the enemy at the head of a burgher army of some 50,000 Flemings. The armies met at Roosebeke near Courtrai, with the result that the Flemings were routed with terrible loss, Philip himself being among the slain. This happened on the 27th of November 1382. The brief but stirring career of this popular leader is admirably treated in Sir Henry Taylor's drama, _Philip van Artevelde_. ART GALLERIES. An art gallery (by which, as distinguished from more general MUSEUMS OF ART, q.v., is here meant one specially for pictures) epitomizes so many phases of human thought and imagination that it connotes much more than a mere collection of paintings. In its technical and aesthetic aspect the gallery shows the treatment of colour, form and composition. In its historical aspect we find the true portraits of great men of the past; we can observe their habits of life, their manners, their dress, the architecture of their times, and the religious worship of the period in which they lived. Regarded collectively, the art of a country epitomizes the whole development of the people that produced it. Most important of all is the emotional aspect of painting, which must enter less or more into every picture worthy of notice. To take examples from the British National Gallery: pathos in its most intense degree will be found in Francia's "Pieta"; dignity in Velasquez' portrait of Admiral Pareja; homeliness in Van Eyck's portrait of Jan Arnolfini and his wife; the interpretation of the varying moods of nature in the work of Turner or Hobbema; nothing can be more devotional than the canvases of Bellini or his Umbrian contemporaries. So also the ruling sentiments of mankind--mysticism, drama and imagination--are the keynotes of other great conceptions of the artist. All this may be at the command of those who visit the art gallery; but without patience, care and study the higher meaning will be lost to the spectator. The picture which "tells its own story" is often the least didactic, for it has no inner or deeper lesson to reveal; it gives no stimulus or training to the eye, quick as that organ may be--_segnius irritant animos_--to translate sight into thought. In brief, the painter asks that his [Greek: aethos] may be shared as much as possible by the man who looks at the painting--the art above all others in which it is most needful to share the master's spirit if his work is to be fully appreciated. So, too, the art gallery, recalling the gentler associations of the past amidst surroundings of harmonious beauty and its attendant sense of comfort, is essentially a place of rest for the mind and eye. In the more famous galleries where the wealth of paintings allows a grouping of pictures according to their respective schools, one may choose the country, the epoch, the style or even the emotion best suited to one's taste. According to this theory, though imperfectly realized owing to the paucity of examples, the philosophic influence of art galleries is becoming more widely extended; and in its further development will be found an ever-growing source of interest, instruction and scholarship to the community. The most suitable method of describing art galleries is to classify them by their types and contents rather than by the various countries to which they belong. Thus the great representative galleries of the world which possess works of every school are grouped together, followed by state galleries which are not remarkable for more than one school of national art. Municipal galleries are divided into those which have general collections, and those which are notable for special collections. Churches which have good paintings, together with those which are now secularized, are treated separately; while the collections in the Vatican and private houses are described together. The remaining galleries, such as the Salon or the Royal Academy, are periodical or commercial in character, and are important in the development of modern art. [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Plan of the National Gallery, London. North Vestibule, Early Italian Schools: I. Tuscan School (15th and 16th centuries). II. Sienese School, &c. III. Tuscan School. IV. Lombard School. V. Ferrarese and Bolognese Schools. VI. Umbrian School, &c. VII. Venetian and Brescian Schools. VIII. Paduan and Early Venetian Schools. IX. Later Venetian School. X. Flemish School. XI. Early Dutch and Flemish Schools. XII. Dutch and Flemish Schools. XIII. Flemish School. XIV. Spanish School. XV. German Schools. XVI. French School. XVII. French School. XVIII. British School. XIX. Old British School. XX. British School. XXI. British School. XXII. Turner Collection. Octagonal Hall: Miscellaneous. East Vestibule: British School. West Vestibule: Italian School.] State galleries of international schools. The collections most worthy of attention are the state galleries representative of international schools. Among these the British National Gallery holds a high place. The collection was founded in 1824 by the acquisition of the Angerstein pictures. Its accessions are mainly governed by the parliamentary grant of L5000 to L10,000 a year, a sum which has occasionally been enlarged to permit special purchases. Thus, in 1871, the Peel collection of seventy-seven pictures was bought for L75,000, and in 1885 the Ansidei Madonna (Raphael) and Van Dyck's portrait of Charles I. were bought, the one for L70,000 and the other for L17,500. In 1890 the government gave L25,000 to meet a gift of L30,000 made by three gentlemen to acquire three portraits by Moroni, Velazquez and Holbein. The most important private gifts were the Vernon gift in 1847, the Turner bequest in 1856 and the Wynne-Ellis legacy in