8. Wangkang.

"The chandan (pada tiada champur) is oily, black, and glistening. It sinks in water. "The tadak very closely resembles the chandan. "The menjulong-ulong may be distinguished from the chandan and the tandok by its length and small breadth. Splinters, 36 inches long, have been found evidently from veins, not pockets. [382] "Sikat (bertabun champur kubal dan teras), fibrous, with slight lustre, will just float in water. Black and white streaks. "Sikat lampam--the same as sikat, only white streaks more prominent. "Bulu Rusa will float in water, fibrous, generally of a yellow colour. "Kemandangan floats in water, whitish, fibrous fragments small. "Wangkang floats in water, fibrous blocks whitish in colour. "The chandan tree differs from other gharu-trees in having a maximum diameter of about 1 1/2 feet, and very soft sap-wood. "Gharu varies in price between 200 and 50 dollars a pikul [383] according to the variety. The chandan and the tandok are the most valuable. "Chinese and Malays burn it in their houses on high days and festivals--the latter generally take a supply with them on the pilgrimage to Mecca. The better varieties are used in the manufacture of aromatic oils." [384] Before setting out to search for gharu, the gharu-wizard burns incense and repeats these words, "O Grandsire Duita, Divinity of Eagle-wood, if you are far, be so good as to say so; if you are near, be so good as to say so," and then sets out on his quest. On finding a karas-tree he chops the bark of the trunk lightly with his cutlass, and then puts his ear to the trunk to listen. If he hears a kind of low singing, or rather whispering noise (bunyi ting ting) in the tree, he takes this as a signification that the tree contains gharu (isi), [385] and after marking the bark with a cross (silang ampat) he collects wood to build a temporary shelter (pondong) for himself, and when about to plant the first post repeats the following charm:-- "O Grandsire Batara of the Earth, Earth-Genie, Earth-Spirit, Idol of Iron, Son of Wani, Solitary Wani, Son of Wayah, Bandan the Solitary, I ask you to show me (an eagle-wood tree), If you do not do so You shall be a rebel against God," etc. The result of this invocation is, or should be, that the gharu-spirit appears to the wizard (generally, no doubt, in a dream), and informs him what kind of sacrifice he requires on this particular occasion. Whatever kind of sacrifice is asked for, must of course be given, with the exception of a human sacrifice which, as it is expressly stated, may be compounded by the sacrifice of a fowl. When the tree has been felled you must be exceedingly careful to see that nobody passes between the end of the fallen trunk and the stump; whoever does so will surely be killed by the "eagle-wood spirit," who is supposed to be extremely powerful and dangerous. I myself received a warning to this effect from some Labu Malays when I saw one of these trees felled. Malays maintain that men are frequently killed by this spirit (mati de' Hantu Gharu), but that they may be recalled to life if the following recipe is acted upon:--"Take two 'cubits' (?) of 'Panchong leaves' (daun panchong dua heta), flowers of the sunting mambang, and 'bullock's eye' limes (limau mata kerbau), squeeze [the limes(?)] and rub them over the corpse, saying, 'Sir Allah! Sir Mangga Tangan! God's Essence is in your heart (lit. liver). God's attributes are in your eyes. Go and entertain the male Borer-Bee that is in your heart and liver.' The dead man will then revive and stand upon his feet." The most important point about eagle-wood, however, from the animistic point of view, is the Pawang's use of the gharu merupa, a strangely shaped piece of eagle-wood which possesses a natural resemblance to some animal or bird. It is believed to contain the soul of the tree, and therefore is always, when possible, carried by the collectors of eagle-wood in the belief that it will aid them in their search. I myself once owned one of these gharu merupa, which possessed a remarkable resemblance to a bird. This appears to me very fairly sufficient evidence to prove that the tree-soul is not supposed by the Malays necessarily to resemble a tree. [386] Camphor The following account of the superstitious notions connected with the search for Camphor (kapur Barus) is extracted from a paper by Messrs. H. Lake and H. J. Kelsall [387]:-- "The chief interest attaching to the Kapur Barus in Johor lies in the superstitions connected with the collection of the camphor by the natives, or Orang Hulu. [388] "Amongst these superstitions the most important is the use of a special language, the subject of the present paper, which has been the means of preserving some remnants of the aboriginal dialects of this part of the Malay Peninsula. This language is called by the Orang Hulu "Pantang Kapur"; pantang means forbidden or tabooed, and in this case refers to the fact that in searching for the camphor the use of the ordinary Malay language is pantang, or forbidden. In addition to this there are restrictions as to food, etc. "This Camphor language is first referred to by Mr. Logan in his account of the aboriginal tribes of the Malay Peninsula, [389] and he gives a list of eighty words, thirty-three of which are Malay or derived from Malay." "The Jakuns believe that there is a "bisan," or spirit, which presides over the camphor-trees, and without propitiating this spirit it is impossible to obtain the camphor. This bisan makes at night a shrill noise, and when this sound is heard it is a sure sign that there are camphor-trees near at hand. (This bisan is really one of the Cicadas which are so numerous in the Malayan jungles.) "When hunting for camphor the natives always throw a portion of their food out into the jungle before eating, as an offering to the bisan. "No prayers are offered up, but all food must be eaten dry, i.e. without sumbul, [390] or stewed fish, or vegetables. Salt must not be pounded fine; if it is eaten fine, the camphor when found will be in fine grains; but if eaten coarse the grains of camphor will be large. In rainy weather the cry of the bisan is not heard. At certain seasons regular parties of Jakuns, and sometimes Malays, go into the jungle to search for camphor, and they remain there as long as three or four months at a time. Not only must the men who go into the jungle to search for the camphor speak the 'Pantang Kapur,' but also the men and women left at home in the Kampongs. "The camphor occurs in the form of small grains deposited in the cracks in the interior of the trunk of the tree. Camphor is only found in the older trees, and not in all of these, and to obtain it the tree must be cut down and split up. There are certain signs which indicate when a tree contains camphor, one of which is the smell emitted from the wood when chipped. A man who is skilled in detecting the presence of camphor is called Penghulu Kapur. [391] The camphor when taken away from the tree is washed, and all chips of wood and dirt carefully removed, and it is then sold to Chinese traders at Kwala Indau at prices varying according to the quality from $15 to $40 per katti. "The Camphor language consists in great part of words which are either Malay or of Malay origin, but contains, as above mentioned, a large number of words which are not Malay, but which are presumably remnants of the original Jakun dialects, which are apparently almost obsolete otherwise in the Indau and Sembrong districts of Johor." [392] Gutta-percha The trees from which Gutta-percha is taken are also supposed to be inhabited by a spirit; but this, the Gutta-spirit, being far less dangerous than the Eagle-wood spirit, fewer precautions are taken in dealing with it. In the invocation addressed to the Gutta-spirit, the petitioner asks for the boon of a drop of the spirit's blood, which of course is an indirect way of asking for the tree's sap. Here is a specimen of the charms used by the gutta-collectors:-- "Ho, Prince S'ri Bali, Prince S'ri Bandang, I wish to crave the boon of a drop of blood; May the yield be better than from this notch of mine. (Here the speaker notches the tree.) "If it be not better You shall be a rebel unto God," etc. [393] The Cocoa-nut Palm The following instructions to be followed by toddy-collectors (who tap the Cocoa-nut palm for its juice, which is boiled into sugar) were given me by a Kelantan Malay ('Che `Abas of Klanang):-- "When you are about to set foot against the base of the trunk (i.e. to start climbing) repeat these lines:-- "Peace be with you, O Abubakar! Drowse not as you keep watch and ward in the heart of this tree (umbi)." Here climb half-way up and say:-- "Peace be with you, Little Sister, Handmaiden Bidah, Drowse not as you keep watch and ward in the middle of the trunk, Come and accompany me on my way up this tree." Here climb up among the leaf-stalks, lay hold of the central shoot, give it three shakes, and say-- "Peace be with you, Little Sister, Youngest of the Princesses, Drowse not as you keep watch and ward over the central shoot, Do you accompany me on my way down this tree." Now commence by bending down one of the blossom-sheaths, lay hold of the central shoot, and thrice repeat the following lines:-- "Peace be with your Highnesses, Princesses of the Shorn Hair and (perpetual) Distillation, Who are (seen) in the curve (lit. swell) and the ebbing away of the Blossom-sheath, Of the Blossom-sheath Si Gedebeh Mayang, Seven Princesses who are the Handmaidens of Si Mayang." (Here the speaker addresses the soul (or rather souls) of the tree.) "Come hither, Little One, come hither, Come hither, Tiny One, come hither, Come hither, Bird, come hither, Come hither, Filmy One, come hither. Thus I bend your neck, Thus I roll up your hair, And here is an Ivory Toddy-knife to help the washing of your face. Here is an Ivory Toddy-knife to cut you short, And here is an Ivory Cup to hold under you, And there is an Ivory Bath that waits below for you. Clap your hands and splash in the Ivory Bath, For it is called the 'Sovereign Changing Clothes.'" [394] Rules for planting various Crops The following rules have an evident bearing upon the subject of vegetable animism. They were collected at Langat, in Selangor:-- The time to plant Sugar-cane is at noon: this will make it sweeter, by drying up the juice and leaving the saccharine matter. If you plant it in the early morning its joints will be too long, if in the middle of the day they will be short. Plant Maize with a full stomach, and let your dibble be thick, as this will swell the maize ear. For Plantains (or Bananas) you must dig a big hole, and the evening is the time to plant them. The evening is the quicker, and if planted after the evening meal they fill out better. Plant Sweet Potatoes on a starry night to ensure their filling out properly (by getting plenty of eyes?) Plant Cucumbers and Gourds on a dark moonless night, to prevent them from being seen and devoured by fire-flies (api-api). Plant Cocoa-nuts when the stomach is overburdened with food (kalau kita 'nak sangat berak); run quickly and throw the cocoa-nut into the hole prepared for it without straightening the arm; if you straighten it the fruit-stalk will break. Plant them in the evening, so that they may bear fruit while they are still near the ground. When you pick seed cocoa-nuts off the tree somebody should stand at the bottom of the tree and watch whether the "monkey-face" of each seed cocoa-nut, as it is thrown down, turns either towards himself or the base of the tree, or whether it looks away from both. In the former case the seed will be good, in the latter it is not worth planting. Plant Rice in the early morning, about five, because that is the hour at which infants (the Rice Soul being considered as an infant) get up. The Cultivation of Rice The most important contribution of the Malays to the animistic theory of vegetation is perhaps to be found in the many strange ceremonies with which they surround the culture of Rice. In order to properly understand the significance of these ceremonies, however, a proper understanding of the Malay system of rice-planting is essential, and I therefore quote in extenso a description of rice-culture, which possesses the additional interest of being translated from the composition of a Malay: [395]-- "It is the established custom in Malacca territory to plant rice once a year, and the season for doing so generally falls about the month of Zilka`idah or Zilhijah. [396] "In starting planting operations, however, the object is, if possible, to coincide with the season when the West wind blows, because at that time there are frequent rains, and accordingly the earth of the rice-field becomes soft and easy to plough. Moreover, in planting rice it is an invariable rule that there must be water in the field, in order that the rice may sprout properly; though, on the other hand, if there is too great a depth of water the rice is sure to die. It has also been observed that as a rule the season of the West wind coincides with the fourth month [397] of the Chinese calendar, and sometimes also with the month of Zilka`idah or Zilhijah. [398] "2. In olden time the order of planting operations was as follows:--First, the elders had to hold a consultation with the Pawang; then the date was fixed; then Maulud [399] prayers were read over the 'mother-seed,' and benzoin, (incense) supplied by the Pawang, was burned; then all the requisites for rice-planting were got ready, viz.:-- "(1) A strong buffalo (to pull the plough). (2) A plough with its appurtenances (to turn over the earth and the short weeds). (3) A harrow with its appurtenances (to level and break up small the clods of earth left by the plough). (4) A roller with its appurtenances (to knock down the long weeds, such as sedges, in fields that have lain fallow for a long while). (5) A wood-cutter's knife, to mend any of the implements that may get out of order at the time of ploughing. (6) A hoe to repair the embankments and level the higher grounds. (7) A scythe [400] to cut the long weeds. (8) And a whip to urge the buffalo on if he is lazy. "3. When the proper season has arrived for beginning the work of planting, and the elders have come to an agreement with the Pawang, then on some Friday after the service in the Mosque the Penghulu addresses all the people there present, saying that on such a day of the month every one who is to take part in rice-cultivation must bring to the Mosque half a quart of grain (for 'mother-seed') in order that Maulud prayers may be read over it. (At that time ketupats [401] and lepats [402] are prepared for the men who are to read those prayers.) "When the Maulud prayers are over, every man goes down to the rice-field, if possible on the same day or the next one, in order to begin ploughing the nursery plot, that is, the plot which is near his house or in which he has been in the habit of sowing the seed every year. "But if a man has a great number of plots, he will begin by ploughing half of them, and then at the end of the month of Zilhijah he must diligently prepare the nursery plot so as to be ready in about ten days' time. Of Sowing "4. Before sowing one must first of all lay out the grain, both the seed-grain and the 'mother-seed,' each separately, to dry. It must then be soaked in a vessel (a bucket or pot) for two days and two nights, after which it is taken out, strained and spread quite evenly on a mat with fresh leaves (areca-nut fronds are best), and every afternoon one must sprinkle water on it in order that the germ may quickly break through, which will happen probably in two days' time or thereabouts. "5. While the seed is soaking, the nursery plot must be carefully prepared; that is to say, it must be ploughed over again, harrowed, levelled, ditched, and the soil allowed to settle; the embankments must be mended, and the surface made smooth. When the germs have sprouted the seed is taken to the nursery plot. Benzoin supplied by the Pawang is burnt, and the plot sprinkled with tepong tawar. [403] Then a beginning is made by sowing the 'chief of the seed,' i.e. 'mother-seed,' in one corner of the nursery prepared for the purpose, and about two yards square; afterwards the rest of the seed is sown all over the plot. It is well to sow when the plot contains plenty of water, so that all the germs of the seed may be uppermost, and the roots may not grow long, but may be pulled up easily. The time for sowing must be during the dark half of the month, so that the seedlings may be preserved from being eaten by insects. [404] "Three days after the seed is sown the young shoots begin to rise like needles, and at that time all the water should be drawn off the plot; after seven days they are likened to a sparrow's tail, and about the tenth or fifteenth day they break out into blades. At that period the water is again let into the plot, little by little, in order that the stalks of the seedlings may grow thick. "The seedlings have to remain in the nursery for at least forty or forty-four days from the time of sowing before they are sufficiently grown; it is best to let them remain till they are about seventy days old. "6. While the seedlings are in the nursery the other plots are being ploughed, one after another; and this is called the first ploughing. Then the embankments are mended and re-formed with earth, so that the water in the field may not escape and leave it dry. After the embankments have been mended the harrowing begins: a start is made with the plot that was first ploughed (other than the nursery plot), for there the earth will have become soft, and the weeds being rotten after many days of soaking in the water will form a sort of manure. Each plot is so dealt with in its turn. Then all have to be ploughed once more (which is called the second ploughing) and harrowed again; for the first harrowing merely breaks up the clods of earth, and a second is required to reduce them to a fine state and to kill the weeds. Most people, having first used an iron harrow, use a wooden one for the second harrowing, in order that the earth may be broken up quite fine. Their rice is sure to thrive better than that of people who are less careful; for in rice-planting, as the saying goes, there is 'the plighted hope of good that is to come,' in the way of bodily sustenance I mean. So day by day the different plots are treated in the way that has been described in connection with the nursery plot in paragraph 5 above. Of Planting "7. When the seedling rice has been in the nursery long enough, and the fields are clean and ready for planting (which will be about the month of Safar, or August) the seedlings are pulled up and tied together with strips of dried palas [405] leaves into bundles of the size known as sachekak (i.e. the space enclosed by the thumb and the index finger when their ends meet). If the roots and blades are long the ends can be clipped a little, and the roots are then steeped in manure. This manure is made of buffalo bones burnt with chaff till they are thoroughly calcined, and then pounded fine, passed through a sieve and mixed with mud: that is the best kind of manure for rice-planting, and is known as 'stock manure.' (It can also be applied by merely scattering it in the fields. In that case, after cutting off the ends of the blades, the seedlings are planted, and afterwards, when they are green again and appear to be thriving, the manure is scattered over the whole field. There are some places, too, where no manure at all is used because of the perennial richness of the soil.) "Afterwards the seedlings are allowed to remain exposed to the air for about two nights, and then taken to the field to be planted. The bundles are broken up, and bunches of four or five plants together are planted at intervals of a span all over the different plots till all are filled up. If there are very many plots, ten or fifteen female labourers can be engaged to assist in planting, and likewise in pulling up the seedlings, at a wage of four cents for every hundred bundles. Of the Rice after it has been Transplanted "8. Ten days after the young rice has been transplanted it recovers its fresh green colour; in thirty days the young shoots come out; in the second month it increases more and more, and in the third it becomes even all over. After three months and a half its growth is stayed, and in the fourth month it is styled bunting kechil. "At that stage the stalk has only five joints, and from that period it must be fumigated daily till the grain appears. "About the time when the stalk has six joints it is called bunting besar; in forty days more the grain is visible here and there, and twenty days later it spreads everywhere. At this time all the water in the field must be drawn off so that the grain may ripen quickly. After five or six days it ripens in patches, and a few days later the rice is altogether ripe. "From the time of transplanting to the time when it is ripe is reckoned six months, not counting the days spent in ploughing and in growing it in the nursery, which may be a month or two, or even (if there are many plots) as much as three months to the end of the ploughing. Of Reaping and taking the Soul of the Rice "9. When one wishes to begin reaping the grain one must first have the Pawang's permission, and burn benzoin supplied by him in the field. "The following implements must be got ready, viz.:-- "(1) A small basket to hold the rice cut first, known as the 'Soul of the Rice' (semangat padi). (2) A jari lipan [406] to put round the small basket. (3) A string of terap [407] bark to tie up the rice that is cut first. (4) A small stem of bamboo, of the variety known as buloh kasap, with a flag attached, which is to be planted in the small basket as a sign of the 'Soul of the Rice' that has been cut first. (5) A small white cloth to wrap up the 'Soul of the Rice.' (6) An anchak [408] to hold the brasier. (7) A brasier, in which to burn the incense provided by the Pawang. (8) A nail and a kind of nut, known as buah keras, [409] to be put into the anchak together with the brasier. "When the rice is ripe all over, one must first take the 'Soul' out of all the plots of one's field. You choose the spot where the rice is best and where it is 'female' (that is to say, where the bunch of stalks is big) and where there are seven joints in the stalk. You begin with a bunch of this kind and clip seven stems to be the 'soul of the rice'; and then you clip yet another handful to be the 'mother-seed' for the following year. The 'Soul' is wrapped in a white cloth tied with a cord of terap bark, and made into the shape of a little child in swaddling clothes, and put into the small basket. The 'mother-seed' is put into another basket, and both are fumigated with benzoin, and then the two baskets are piled the one on the other and taken home, and put into the kepuk (the receptacle in which the rice is stored). "10. One must wait three days (called the pantang tuai) before one may clip or cut any more of the rice. At first only one or two basketfuls of rice are cut; the rice is dried in the sun, winnowed in a winnowing basket, and cleaned in a fanning machine, pounded to free it from the husk, so that it becomes beras (husked rice), and then boiled so that it becomes nasi (cooked rice), and people are invited to feast on it. "11. Then a bucket is made for the purpose of threshing the rest of the rice, and a granary built to keep it in while it remains in the field, and five or six labourers are engaged to reap and thresh it (banting). [410] Their hours of working are from 6 to 11.30 A.M., and all the rice they thresh they put into the granary. "12. If the crop is a good one a gallon of seed will produce a hundredfold. Each plot in a field takes about a gallon of seed. "13. When the rice has all been cut it is winnowed in order to get rid of the chaff, and then laid out in the sun till quite dry, so that it may not get mouldy if kept for a year. "Then the wages of the labourers are taken out of it at the rate of two gallons out of every ten. When that is settled, if the rice is not to be sold, it is taken home and put into the rice-chest. "Whenever you want to eat of it, you take out a basketful at a time and dry it in the sun. Then you turn it in the winnowing basket, and clean it in the fanning machine, pound it to convert it into beras, and put a sufficiency of it in a pot and wash it. Enough water is then poured over it to cover it, and it is put on the kitchen fire till it is boiled and becomes nasi, when it can be eaten. "14. The custom of reaping with a sickle (sabit) and threshing the rice as described in paragraph 11 is a modern method, and is at present mainly practised by the people living in the neighbourhood of the town of Malacca, in order to get the work done quickly; but in olden times it was not allowed, and even to this day the people who live in the inland parts of the territory of Malacca prefer to clip their rice with a tuai, [411] and put it into their baskets a handful at a time [i.e. without threshing it]. (If labourers are employed to do this their wage is one-tenth of the rice cut.) It takes ever so many days to get the work done, but the idea is that this method is the pious one, the 'Soul of the Rice' not being disturbed thereby. A good part of the people hold this belief, and assert that since the custom of threshing the rice has been introduced, the crops have been much less abundant than in years of olden time when it was the custom to use the tuai only. "15. If a man has broad fields so that he is unable to plant them all by his own labour, he will often allow another to work them on an agreement, either of equal division of the produce (each bearing an equal share of the hire of a buffalo and all other expenses incidental to rice-planting), or of threefold division (that is, for example, the owner bears all expenses, in which case the man who does the work can get a third of the produce; or the latter bears all expenses, in which case the owner only gets a third of the produce). Or again, the land can be let; for instance, a field which ordinarily produces a koyan [412] of rice a year will fetch a rent of about two hundred gallons more or less. "16. Every cultivator who does not act in accordance with the ordinance laid down in paragraphs 9 and 10 above, will be in the same case as if he disregarded all the prohibitions laid down in connection with planting. If a man does not carry out this procedure he is sure to fail in the end; his labour will be in vain and will not fulfil his desires, for the virtue of all these ordinances and prohibitions lies in the fact that they protect the rice, and drive away all its enemies, such as grubs, rats, swine, and the like." [413] I will now deal with the ceremonies indicated in the foregoing article from the ceremonial point of view exclusively. The Sowing of the Rice-Seed The ceremony to be observed at the sowing of the rice-seed was thus described to me by the Pawang who performed the reaping ceremony described below:-- "First arrange four poles upon the ground, so as to form a rectangular frame (galang dapor), in the middle of the clearing. Then plant in succession at the four corners-- "1. A young banana-tree.