4. Sir Charles Trevelyan's _Official Tour in the South of India_.

He says, "It is an important fact that, as regards much the largest portion of this tract, there is no claim to the soil which can interfere with the establishment of the most absolute freehold." [437] For a very interesting account of the Anamallay hills, see _Forests and Gardens of South India_, p. 289-302, by Dr. Cleghorn, Conservator of Forests in the Madras Presidency. [438] Tamil is spoken throughout the Carnatic, in the southern part of Travancore, and north part of Ceylon, by about 10,000,000 souls. Telugu, the first of the Dravidian languages in euphonious sweetness, is spoken in the Ceded districts, Kurnool, part of the Nizam's territory, and part of Nagpore; Canarese in Canara and Mysore; and Malayalam in Malabar. The whole Dravidian race numbers 30,000,000 souls. The Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam languages have each a system of written characters peculiar to itself: the Canarese letters are borrowed from the Telugu. [439] Caldwell's _Comparative Dravidian Grammar_. Preface, p. v. [440] _Lectures on the Science of Language_, p. 341. [441] Adam Smith says that numerals are among the most abstract ideas which the human mind is capable of forming. See a paper read before the Ethnological Society in Feb. 1862, _On the numerals as evidence of the progress of civilization_, by Mr. Crawford. [442] Caldwell, p. 2. [443] _Kolki_ of the Periplus; perhaps _Kilkhar_, on the Coromandel coast, opposite Rameswaram. [444] In Sanscrit. [445] In 1802 a pot of Roman coins was dug up near Dharaparum, in Coimbatore, of the Emperors Augustus and Tiberius, with _Cæsarea_ marked on them, the place where they were struck. Buchanan's _Travels_, ii. p. 318. One coin, a Roman _aureus_, has been found in a cairn on the Neilgherry hills.--Captain H. Congreve's _Antiquities of the Neilgherry Hills_. [446] The author of the Periplus of the Erythræan Sea mentions Nelcynda (Neliceram), Paralia (Malabar), and Comari (Cape Comorin), as under King Pandion (Regio Pandionis); and Dr. Vincent thinks that the Pandyan Kings of Madura lost Malabar between the time of the author of the Periplus and that of Ptolemy; because the latter does not allude to Pandion until Cape Comorin is passed. Chira is the modern Coimbatore, and the capital of the Chira state was at Caroor. The state of Chola is the modern Tanjore. The word _Pandya_ is probably of Sanscrit origin, but the masculine termination of _on_ is Tamil. [447] "In Tamil few Brahmins have written anything worthy of preservation: but the language has been cultivated and developed with immense zeal and success by native Sudras."--_Caldwell_, p. 33. Tamil literature, now extant, dates from the eighth or ninth century: p. 68. [448] Dr. Ainslie, in his _Materia Medica_, gives a list of twenty works by Aghastya, chiefly on medical subjects, some of them translated from Sanscrit. [449] For a list of kings of Madura, of the Pandyan and Naik dynasties, see a paper in the Asiatic Society's Journals, by H. H. Wilson; from MS. collections of the late Colonel Mackenzie. [450] Tanjore was seized by the Mahrattas in 1675. The last Naik sovereign of Madura was installed as a tributary of the Nawab of the Carnatic. [451] Namely the _Michelia Champacca_, a golden-coloured flower with a strong aromatic smell, also dedicated to Krishna; the mango-flower-called _amra_; the _Pavonia odorata_ with a sweet flower, called _bulla_; the _Strychnos potatorum_; and the _Mesua ferea_, a guttiferous plant, with a flower white outside, and yellow inside the tube, with a smell like sweet-briar. [452] While on the subject of sacred Hindu plants, I may also mention the _soma_ juice, so often alluded to in the Vedas, which comes from a leafless asclepiad (_Sarcostemma viminale_) with white flowers in terminal umbels, which appear during the rains, in the Deccan: the holy _kusa_-grass (_Poa cynosuroides_), made into ropes in the N.W. provinces: the peepul-tree, the banyan, the neem (_Melia Azadyraclita_): the _Cratæva religiosa_, specially sacred to Siva: the _Nerium odorum_, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the _Cæsalpinia pulcherrima_, sacred to Siva: the _Guettarda speciosa_, sacred to Siva and Vishnu: the _Origanum marjoranum_, a labiate plant sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the _Caryophyllum inophyllum_, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the _Pandanus odoratissimus_, sacred to Vishnu and Mariama, but offensive to Siva: the _Artemisia astriaka_, sacred to Vishnu and Siva: the _Ocimum sanctum_ or _toolsu_, a labiate plant with a white flower, specially sacred to Vishnu and Krishna: and the _Chrisanthemum Indicum_, a yellow flower, sacred to Vishnu and Siva. [453] Mr. Caldwell considers that these lines do not allude to any of the avaturs of the Hindu Deities, but that they are borrowed, in some unexplained way, from Christianity. [454] In Fergusson's _Architecture_, i. p. 105, the hall is represented with an arched roof, in a sketch from Daniell's _Views of Hindostan_. [455] There was a Portuguese Jesuit mission, with two Christian churches, established at Madura during the reign of Tirumalla Naik. It was founded by Robert de Nobilibus, a nephew of Cardinal Bellarmin, and the missionaries wore the sacred thread, declaring themselves to be Brahmins from the West. [456] The Brahmins of course are of mixed blood, through intercourse with Tamil women. Children are therefore Sudras, and are not Brahmins until they are invested with the sacred thread. [457] From _Parei_, a drum, as they act as drummers at funerals. [458] Caldwell's _Comparative Dravidian Grammar_, Appendix, p. 491. [459] _Proceedings of the South India Missionary Conference_, 1858, p. 283. [460] _Reports connected with the duties of the Corps of Engineers of the Madras Presidency_, 1846, vol. ii., p. 108. _Report of Captain Bell_, p. 117. [461] There was formerly a peculiar system of collecting land revenue prevalent in Tanjore and part of Tinnevelly, called _Oolungoo_, by which the Government demand was dependent on the current price of grain. A standard grain assessment was fixed on each village, and also a standard rate according to which the grain demand was to be commuted into money; but if prices rose more than 10 per cent. above the standard commutation rate, or fell more than 5 per cent. below it, the Government, and not the cultivator, was to receive the profit and to bear the loss. The advantage of the system was that the Government participated in the benefit of high prices with the cultivator, while the latter was relieved from loss when prices were much depressed.--Mill's _India in 1858_, p. 119. This Oolungoo system was introduced into Tanjore in 1825. It was found that the system was fertile in fraud and corruption, especially in connection with the determination of the annual price, and with claims for alleged deficiency of produce. In July, 1859, the Government resolved to abolish the Oolungoo system, and to substitute a fixed money demand, similar to that which prevails in all other districts. By 1860 this change had been completed, both in Tanjore and Tinnevelly.--_Principal Measures of Sir Charles Trevelyan's Administration at Madras_ (_Madras_, 1860), p. 55. [462] The largest temple in Southern India, next to that of Madura. [463] From _Kar_, black, and _ur_ a town, in Tamil. [464] Hooker's _Flora Indica_, i. p. 124. [465] Ibid., i. p. 133. [466] Dr. Cleghorn states that the Seegoor forest has been much exhausted by unscrupulous contractors. "It is important," he adds, "that it should be allowed to recover, as it is the main source of supply to Ootacamund for housebuilding purposes." Captain Morgan has been placed in charge of it, and it is hoped that the sale of sandal and jungle-wood will cover the expenses, while the young teak is coming on for future supply, P. 36. [467] The areca-palm requires a low moist situation, with rather a sandy soil, either under the _bund_ of a tank, or in a position otherwise favourable for irrigation. The seeds are put into holes six feet apart, and the tree comes into bearing in about eight years. It yields fruit for fifty years, and, when in full bearing, produces 1-1/2 lbs. of nuts. [468] The Lingayets are members of the _Vira Saiva_ sect, or worshippers of Siva as the _Linga_, a representation of which they carry round their necks. The sect is numerous in the central and southern parts of the peninsula. It is of modern origin, having been founded by a Brahmin of Kalyan in the middle of the 12th century. Its members deny the sanctity of the Brahmins and the authority of the Vedas, recognize various divinities, and virtually abolish the distinction of castes and the inferiority of women. They are divided into _Aradhyas_, by birth Brahmins, and often well versed in Sanscrit literature; _Jangamas_, who have a literature of their own, written in Karnata and Telugu; and Bhaktas.--Wilson's _Indian Glossary_, p. 311. [469] The whole population of Coorg is about 119,160. [470] Namely, the _Amma Kodagas_ or Cauvery Brahmins; the _Kodagas_ or chief tribe; the _Himbokulu_ or herdsmen; the _Heggade_ or cultivators; the _Ari_ or carpenters; the _Badige_ or smiths; the _Kuruba_ or honey gatherers; the _Kavati_ or jungle cultivators; the _Budiya_ or drawers of toddy from the _Caryota urens_ palm; the _Meda_ or basket-makers; the _Kaleya_ or farm-labourers; the _Holeya_ or slaves; and the _Yerawa_ or slaves from Malabar, cheaper than cattle. [471] _Coorg_, by Rev. H. Moegling. (Mangalore, 1855.) [472] Observations by Dr. R. Baikie. _Madras Journal_, 1837, vi. p. 342. [473] 1860-61. _Revenue of Coorg._ | _Expenditure._ | Land revenue £14,727 | General expenditure £10,211 Excise and stamps 3,611 | Public works 1,153 Income tax 98 | Miscellaneous 8,300 | ------ | ------ £26,736 | £11,364 ------ | ------ [474] Seemann's _Popular History of the Palms_, p. 134. [475] Moegling's _Coorg_, pp. 74-77; also Buchanan's _Travels_, ii. p. 511, and Drury's _Useful Plants of India_. [476] Cleghorn's _Forests and Gardens of South India_, pp. 126-44, where the official correspondence respecting _kumari_ will be found. [477] _Cleghorn_, p. 11. Poon spars are also obtained from _Stercula fœtida_, a tree with brownish flowers, emitting a most horrible smell. [478] Hooker's _Flora Indica_, i. p. 126. [479] The inhabitants of the Laccadive islands are Sooni Mussulmans. They have some songs commemorating the introduction of Islam 500 years ago, but do not know when the Beebee of Cannanore got possession. Menakoy, the largest island, is a mass of coral 5-1/2 miles in diameter. The land is less than a mile wide, the rest being a reef encircling a large lagoon. Within a hundred yards of the reef there is no bottom. The lagoon, which abounds in turtle and fish, has three entrances from the sea, one of which has a depth of two fathoms. The soil of the island is a coarse powdered coral, with a little vegetable matter. It is quite flat, no part being destitute of vegetation; the south thickly covered with cocoanut-trees and underwood, and the north more sparingly. Rats abound, there are some cats, a few cows and goats, large grey cranes, ducks occasionally, and the mosquitos are fearful. The population is 2500; of these 116 are _Malikans_, the aristocracy of the islands, who own vessels trading to Bengal. The _Koornakar_, or agent of the Beebee, is generally a _Malikan_; he collects rents, and superintends her traffic. The _Malikans_ have the exclusive privilege of wearing shoes, live in large houses built round courtyards, and possess English quadrants, charts, compasses, and telescopes. Below them are 180 _Malummies_, or pilots, a rank obtained by merit. Then 1107 _Klasies_, forming the bulk of the population, who are small landed proprietors, go to sea for regular wages, but are very independent. Then 583 _Maylacherries_, or tree-climbers for hire. The head-men are elected by the people. The islanders have six or seven vessels fit for the Bengal trade, and three or four for coasting. They go with money to Goa and Mangalore for salt and rice, with coir to Bengal, with cocoanuts to Galle, and bring Calcutta cloths home.--Mr. Thomas's _Report_. [480] The gross exports of cotton from the ports in the various districts of the Madras Presidency in 1859-60 were as follows:-- Vizagapatam 40,758 lbs. Valued at £783 Gosavery 3,000 " 36 Krishna 198,670 " 1,591 Nellore 21,075 " 230 Fort St. George 7,960,368 " 128,648 Tinnevelly 18,562,546 " 274,380 Malabar 2,509,132 " 49,900 N. and S. Canara 33,264,498 " 504,905 ----------- -------- Total 62,560,047 " 960,473 ----------- -------- In 1860-61 the total export of cotton from Bombay amounted to 355,393,894 lbs.; of which 278,868,126 lbs. went to Great Britain. In the same year the ports of Malabar and Canara sent 55,182,181 lbs. to Bombay. [481] In lat. 15° N. the western ghauts are not more than 1100 feet above the sea. [482] The trap formation of the northern part of the ghauts terminates in 18° N., and is succeeded by laterite. [483] _Transactions of the Medical and Physical Society of Bombay for 1838_, i. p. 92. [484] Or _Gnidia eriocephala_ of Graham.--Dalzell's _Bombay Flora_, p. 221. [485] Dalzell's _Bombay Flora_, p. 93. [486] Ibid., p. 275. [487] The following list of shrubs, trees, and ferns growing at Mahabaleshwur has been kindly furnished by Mr. Dalzell. LIST OF SHRUBS AND TREES GROWING ON THE HIGHEST GROUND AT MAHABALESHWUR. Eugenia Jambolanum. Memecylon tinctorium. Mæsa Indica. Pygeum Zeylanicum. Indigofera pulchella. Actinodaphne (2 sp.). Bradleia lanceolaria. Elæagnus Kologa. Osyris Wightiana. Lasiosiphon speciosus. Salix tetrasperma. Callicarpa cana. Strobilanthus asperrimus and callosus. Ligustrum Neilgherrense. Olea dioica and Roxburgiana. Ilex Wightiana. Maba nigrescens. Diospyros (3 sp.) Hopea spicata and racemosa. Embelia ribes and glandulifera. Notonia grandiflora. Artemisia parviflora and Indica. CHINCHONACEÆ. Grumilea vaginans. Pavetta Indica. Ixora nigricans and parviflora. Canthium umbellatum. Vangueria edulis. Santia venulosa. Wendlandia Notoniana. Hymenodictyon obovatum and excelsum. Griffithia fragrans. Randia dumetorum. FERNS AT MAHABALESHWUR. Lastrea densa and cochleata. Nephrodium molle. Sagenia hippocrepis. Athyrium filix fœmina. Asplenium planicaule and erectum. Diplazium esculentum. Pteris quadrialata, lucida, and aquilina. Campteria Rottleriana. Adiantum lunulatum. Cheilanthes farinosa. Polypodium quercifolium. Pleopeltis nuda. Pœcilopteris virens. Leptochilus lanceolatus. Acrostichum aureum. Lygodium scandens. Osmunda regalis. [488] Every Hindu wears a sect-mark on his forehead. These marks are thick daubs of white earth, red ochre, or sandal-wood, and there are several forms according to the different sects. The grand distinctions are between worshippers of Vishnu and Siva, the latter wearing his mark horizontal, and the former perpendicular. Any conical or triangular mark is a symbol of the _linga_. Two perpendicular lines and a dot between, denotes a worshipper of Vishnu as Rama or Krishna, &c. &c. [489] Cleghorn, p. 222. Dalzell, p. 86. [490] Or _Euphorbia neriifolia_. Dalzell, p. 226. [491] _Account of the village of Lony_, by T. Coats. _Transactions of the Bombay Literary Society_, 1823, vol. iii. p. 172. [492] The _cumboo_ of the Madras Presidency (_Holcus spicatus_). [493] The _cholum_ of Madras (_Sorghum vulgare_). [494] The natives of India are supplied, by Nature, with an endless variety of condiments to season their food, many of them growing wild. In the different parts of India I noticed as many as twenty-five ingredients used in curries and porridges. The tender leaves and legumes of the _agati_ (_Agati grandiflora_); oil from the _elloopa_ fruit (_Bassia longifolia_); young unripe gourds of the _Benincasa cerifera_; the _papaw_ fruit; cocoanut-oil; the leaves of _Canthium parviflorum_; capsicums; cinnamon; leaves of _Cocculus villosus_; turmeric; cardamoms; _jhingo_ (_Luffa acutangula_); the fruit of _Momordica charantia_; green fruit of _Morinda citrifolia_; the legumes of the horse-radish-tree (_Hyperanthera Moringa_); the plantain; the tender shoots of the lotus; the pickled seeds of a _Nymphæa_; the leaves of _Premna latifolia_; berries of _Solanum verbascifolium_; legumes of _Trigonella tetrapetala_; the white centre of the leaf culms of lemon-grass; the _Lablab cultratus_; onions; the fruit of _Sapota elingoides_ in the Neilgherries; the _moong_ (_Phaseolus mungo_); and many other pulses. [495] The ploughs, and the carts on wheels bringing home the food from the fields, are mentioned in the 1st Ashtaka of the Rig Veda. [496] Dr. Forbes Watson has made some very interesting calculations on the amount of pulses rich in nitrogen, which must be added to rice and other cereals comparatively poor in that constituent, in order that the mixture may contain the same proportion of carbonous to nitrogenous matter as is found in wheat, namely six to one. (See Table, next page.) The cereals which I saw growing in the peninsula of India, besides rice, maize, wheat, and barley, were:--