1850. Bustamante says that, at the time of his visit, there were a

hundred people at the _lavaderos_ of the Challuma, and that the Indians received 4 rials a day. [307] _On the Geology of Bolivia and Southern Peru_, by David Forbes, Esq., in the Journal of the Geological Society for Feb. 1861, p. 53. Mr. Forbes had, of course, personally examined only a portion of this great Silurian region. At Tipuani, in Bolivia, there is a very rich auriferous country, composed of blue-clay slates, with no fossils; while the beds near Sorata contain fossils, and consist of blue-clay shales, micaceous slates, grauwacke, and clay slates, with gold-bearing quartz, metallic bismuths, iron-ore, and argentiferous galena. "The whole of this Silurian formation is eminently auriferous, and contains everywhere frequent veins of auriferous quartz, usually associated with iron pyrites." [308] The thermometer was at 25° Fahr. inside the hut. [309] Observations by Negretti and Zambra's boiling-point thermometer. [310] Titulo 14, s. 104. [311] The _Juntas Departmentales_ have since been abolished by the Reformed Constitution, promulgated in Nov. 1860. Up to May, 1860, Gen. Castilla, the President, had never permitted them to meet. [312] Titulo 15, s. 114. [313] _La Revista de Lima_, tom. i. p. 159-60. Nov. 15, 1859. An article by G. A. Flores. [314] The same was once the case all over Peru, in the good old days of the Incas, as we know from the curious dying confession of the last of the conquerors, Marcio Serra de Lejesama, addressed to Philip II., A.D. 1589. "Your Majesty must understand that my reason for making this statement is to relieve my conscience, for we have destroyed the government of this people by our bad example. Crimes were once so little known among them, that an Indian with 100,000 pieces of gold and silver in his house left it open, only placing a little stick across the door, as a sign that the master was out; and nobody went in. But when they saw that we placed locks in our doors, they understood that it was from fear of theft; and when they saw that we had thieves amongst us, they thought little of us; but now these natives, through our bad example, have come to such a pass that no crime is unknown to them."--_Calancha_, lib. i. cap. 15, p. 98. [315] G. de la Vega, _Com. Real._ i. lib. viii. cap. 15. [316] _Acosta_, lib. iv. cap. 22, who cannot agree with those who believe its reputed virtues to be the effects of imagination. [317] _Cedula_, 18 Oct. 1569. [318] _Solorzano_, _Polit. Ind._, lib. ii. cap. 10, quoted by Unanue. [319] J. de Jussieu was the first botanist who sent specimens of coca to Europe, in 1750. Dr. Weddell suggests that the word comes from the Aymara _khoka_, a tree, i. e. _the_ tree _par excellence_, like _yerba_, _the_ plant of Paraguay. The Inca historian Garcilasso, however, spells the word _cuca_. [320] The cesto of coca sells at 8 dollars in Sandia. In Huanuco it is 5 dollars the arroba of 25 lbs. [321] Report of the Prince of Esquilache. [322] Poeppig calculates the yield of Huanuco at 500,000 lbs. [323] Poeppig, _Reise_, ii. p. 252; also Van Tschudi, p. 455. [324] In Caravaya the _llipta_ is made into a pointed lump, and kept in a horn, or sometimes in a silver receptacle, in the _chuspa_. With it there is also a pointed instrument, with which the _llipta_ is scratched, and the powder is applied to the pellet of coca-leaves. In some provinces they keep a small calabash full of lime in their _chuspas_, called _iscupurus_. [325] _Bonplandia_, viii. p. 355-78. [326] The information in this chapter is derived from personal observation; from the essay on coca by Dr. Don Hipolito Unanue, in Nos. 3 to 8 of the _Museo Erudito_; and from the works treating of coca, by Van Tschudi, _Travels in Peru_, p. 455; Dr. Poeppig, _Reise in Peru_, ii. p. 248; Dr. Weddell, _Voyage dans le Nord de Bolivie_, p. 516; the _Bonplandia_; and a memorandum by Dr. Booth, of La Paz. These are the best authorities on the subject. [327] Dr. Weddell, the discoverer of this species, had never seen it in flower. I brought home leaves, flowers, and fruit of the _C. Caravayensis_, which are now in the herbarium at Kew. [328] An Umbellifer. The roots taste something like a parsnip, and there are four kinds--white, yellow, brown, and reddish. [329] _Lenco_ appears to mean "sticky mud," and _huayccu_ is a ravine, in Quichua. [330] _Com. Real._ i. lib. viii. cap. 15. [331] Lib. iv. cap. 29. [332] Not, of course, the famous gold-bearing river of the same name. [333] _Carhua-carhua-blanca (Lasionema ?) Tree._--30 or 40 feet high, growing in moist parts of the valley of Tambopata. _Leaves._--Opposite, entire, petiolate, oblong, acute, smooth on both sides, dark green above, lighter beneath, with veins and midrib nearly white. 2-1/2 feet long by 9 or 10 inches broad. Coarse, bulging, and wrinkled between the veins. _Calyx._--Deep purple and green, leathery, 5-toothed, teeth rounded. _Corolla._--Tube white, tinged with light purple, leathery, 5 laciniæ, smooth and reflexed. _Stamens._--5, attached to the middle of the tube of the corolla, exserted. Filaments pillose at the base, tinged with purple. Anthers a little shorter than the filaments, all lying on the lower sides of the tube of the corolla, light brown. _Style._--Exserted, but a little shorter than the stamens, light green colour. _Stigma_, bi-cleft. _Panicles._--Corymbose and multiflor, in threes, 6 to 15 buds on each. _Pedicels_ a brownish purple. I have attempted to describe this tree, because I have been unable to identify it with any of the chinchonaceous plants in Dr. Weddell's work. [334] _Yana_, in Quichua, is black; and _mayu_ a river. [335] _Rupicola Peruviana_ (family of _Ampelidæ_). Van Tschudi says that they feed on the seeds of chinchona-trees.--_Travels in Peru_, p. 427. [336] The bark, leaves, and capsules from this tree are deposited in the herbarium and museum at Kew. [337] I brought home a bunch of the capsules, now in the herbarium at Kew. [338] There we also found the _Trichomanes muscoides_, a pretty little fern which, I am informed by Mr. J. Smith, of Kew, though common in the West Indies, was not previously known to be a native of Peru. [339] Specimens from this locality were examined and reported upon at 28, Jermyn-street. [340] Described by Dr. Weddell, in his _Histoire Naturelle des Quinquinas_, in a note under the genus _Pimentelia_. [341] In Peru the father of a child is _compadre_ to its godfather. It is considered a very close and sacred relationship. [342] Hence the name _Lenco-huayccu_. _Lenqui_ is anything sticky in Quichua, and _huayccu_ a ravine. [343] _Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society_, Feb. 1, 1860, p. 59. [344] Dr. Weddell believes it to be a distinct species from the _C. Micrantha_ of Huanuco, and has named it _C. Affinis_. [345] "_Alcalde Municipal del Distrito de Quiaca, al Señor Juez de Paz Don Juan de la Cruz Gironda._ _"6 de Mayo de 1860._ "Teniendo positivas noticias de que sea internado a los puntos de Tambopata un estranjero Ingles, con objeto de estraer plantas de cascarilla, me es de absoluta necesidad pasarle a vm esta nota, para que sin permitir que en grave perjuicio de los hijos del pais, lo tome ni una planta, por lo que como autoridad debe vm de aberiguar bien para capturar a el y al persona quien se propone a facilitarle dichas plantas, y conducirlos a este. "Dios guarde a vm., "JOSÉ MARIANO BOBADILLA." [346] Hence the name of the Peruvian province of _Parinacochas_. _Parihuana-cocha_, the Flamingo lake.--G. de la Vega, _Comm. Real._ i. lib. iii. cap. ix. p. 83. [347] "We give here the notices which we have collected respecting the existence and position of a lake which is not to be found in any map, and which bears the name of Arapa. It is said to be 6 leagues to the north of lake Titicaca, and is 30 leagues in circumference. It extends from the foot of a very abrupt chain of mountains, and its figure is that of a half-moon. It contains some islands. Its waters, having traversed two other smaller lakes to the west, fall into the Ramiz, which is thus rendered navigable at all seasons. The principal villages around the lake of Arapa are Chacamana, Chupan, Arapa, and Vetansas. Round the latter place it is said that there are many veins of silver and mines of precious stones."--_Castelnau_, tom. iii. chap. xxxix. p. 420. [348] _Taya_ is an Aymara word, meaning "cold." [349] _La Balsa de Arequipa_, Junio 15. "Las cuestiones municipales han hecho gran daño al puerto de Islay, pues todo va mal con el desacuerdo que reina entre el cuerpo y las demas autoridades que lo combaten escandalosamente. "Quiero que se sepa en esa ciudad que los estranjeros han dado en esportar per esta plantas de cascarilla, que es sabido esta prohibido hacerlo: acaba de embarcar un Ingles una multitud de ellas para la India, por comision official de su Gobierno. Yo no sé como es que esto se tolera, defraudando asi uno de los mejores y mas esclusivos ramos de nuestra riqueza." [350] "_Ministerio de Hacienda y Comercio._ _Lima, Junio 20 de 1860._ En el expediente relativa a la medida tomada por el Administrador de la Aduana de Islay, impediendo la extraccion de cierto numero de plantas de cascarilla, ha recaido con fecha de hoy, el siguiente decreto. Visto este expediente, y atendiendo a que no esta prohibida por reglamento de Comercio, la extraccion de plantas de cascarilla, y a que de impedirse su exportacion, con detrimento de la libertad comercial que las leyes de la Republica, y ese reglamento protejan, no se conseguiria en manera alguna el objeto que el Administrador de la Aduana se ha propuesto al impedir el embarque de varias plantas de esa especie, se desaprueba dicha prohibicion, sin que por este se entiende que el Gobierno deja de apreciar el celo y patriotismo que revela en el preindicado Administrador la enunciada medida. Dios guarda a V. S., JUAN JOSÉ SALCEDO." [351] In an Appendix will be found a list of these knights errant in the cause of liberty. It was one of the last things upon which that gallant old warrior, General Miller, the most distinguished of their number, was engaged before his death in November 1861. [352] "Pos las narraciones tan calumniosas como absurdas de algunos aventureros maldicientes, se nos considera punto menos que salvages," says a Peruvian writer. [353] In Spanish times there were 83 "titulos de Castilla" in Peru, consisting of 1 duke, 46 marquises, 35 counts, and 1 viscount. The descendants of several of these noblemen still reside on their estates in Peru. [354] The boundary between Ecuador and Peru is now founded on the _uti possidetis_ of 1810, and the treaty of 1829. [355] _Pruvonena_, i. p. 688. [356] Pedro Castilla discovered the class of ore called _lecheador_ (chloro-bromide of silver). See Bollaert's _Antiquarian and other Researches in Peru_, &c. In this work there is a full and interesting account of the province of Tarapaca, and of the nitrate of soda works, and other mineral products of that part of Peru. [357] This province also yields great quantities of tobacco, sugar, rice, and maize; and the adjoining province of Truxillo produces cochineal, which was introduced by Mr. Blackwood. [358] 1 _fanegada_ = 41,472 square _varas_ (yards), and 1 acre = 4840 varas. In Arequipa the square measure is called a _topu_. 1 _topu_ = 5000 square _varas_. [359] Mr. Gerard Garland is about to commence a cotton plantation in the littoral province of Payta; and, if his project succeeds, it will doubtless induce others to follow his example.--_Cotton Supply Reporter_, March 15th, 1862. [360] The use of guano as a manure was well known to the ancient Peruvians long before the Spanish conquest. Garcilasso de la Vega, the historian of the Incas, thus describes the use made by them of the deposits of guano on the coast of Peru:-- "On the shores of the sea, from below Arequipa to Tarapaca, which is more than 200 leagues of coast, they use no other manure than that of sea-birds, which abound in all the coasts of Peru, and go in such great flocks that it would be incredible to one who had not seen them. They breed on certain uninhabited islands which are on that coast; and the manure which they deposit is in such quantities that it would also seem incredible. From afar the heaps of manure appear like the peaks of some snowy mountain range. In the time of the kings, who were Incas, such care was taken to guard these birds in the breeding season, that it was not lawful for any one to land on the isles, on pain of death, that the birds might not be frightened, nor driven from their nests. Neither was it lawful to kill them at any time, either on the islands or elsewhere, also on pain of death. Each island was, by order of the Incas, set apart for the use of a particular province, and the guano was fairly divided, each village receiving a due portion. Now in these times it is wasted after a different fashion. There is much fertility in this bird-manure."--II. lib. v. cap. iii. p. 134-5. (Madrid, 1723.) Frezier mentions that, when he was on the coast in 1713, guano was brought from Iquique and other ports along the coast, and landed at Arica and Ylo, for the aji-pepper and other crops.--Frezier's _South Sea_, p. 152. (London, 1717.) [361] _Informes sobre la existencia de Huano, en las Islas de Chincha, por la comision nombrada por el Gobierno Peruano_, 1854. A small pamphlet, with plans. [362] Bollaert's _Account of Tarapaca_. [363] In 1858 there were 52 ships loading at the Kooria Mooria islands, off the coast of Arabia. In Jibleea the guano is found coating nearly the whole of the island (about 500,000 tons), white and polished, so as to be very slippery, which is very different from the guano of Peru. In May, 1857, this guano from Jibleea island was analyzed at Bombay by Dr. Giraud, with the following result:-- Water 6·88 Azotized matter, with ammoniacal salts 38·75 Fixed alkaline salts 6· Sand 26·25 Sulphate of lime 3·77 Phosphate of lime 18·35 ------ 100·00 ------ Thus the quantity of phosphate of lime is very small, and it appears that the rains have washed it down, and that it has formed a stalactitic deposit on the surface of the rock beneath the guano. A cargo of this deposit was shipped and sold at Liverpool for 8_l._ a ton. The composition of Peruvian guano is as follows:-- Water 13·73 Organic matter and ammoniacal salts 53·16 Phosphates 23·48 Alkaline salts 7·97 Sand 1·66 ------ 100.00 ------ Of Ichaboe guano:-- Water 24·21 Organic matter, and ammoniacal salts 39·30 Phosphates 30·00 Alkaline salts 4·19 Sand 2·30 ------ 100·00 ------ [364] The Peruvian Government contracted three loans in London between 1822 and 1825, amounting to 1,816,000_l._, bearing interest at 6 per cent. No interest was paid from 1825 to 1849, when the sales of guano had greatly increased the resources of Peru. In 1849 Señor Osma made an agreement with the bondholders to issue New Bonds at 4 per cent. per annum, the rate to increase 1/2 per cent. annually up to 6 per cent. Arrears of interest, about 2,615,000_l._, were to be capitalized, and Deferred Bonds to be issued to represent 75 per cent. of these arrears, and to bear interest at 1 per cent. per annum, increasing 1/2 per cent. annually up to 3 per cent. In 1852 the Congress authorised General Mendiburu to effect a loan in London for 2,600,000_l._ to redeem the remainder of the 6 per cent. loan, and to refund other home and Chile debts. The annual interest and sinking fund amount, respectively, to 267,000_l._ and 82,000_l._; the payment of which is secured on the profits of guano sold in Great Britain. There is also a French loan of 800,000_l._ secured on the profits of guano sold in France. The whole foreign debt of Peru amounted to 4,491,042_l._ in 1857; and the domestic debt to 4,835,708_l._ The foreign debt is annually reduced by means of a sinking fund. [365] _Memorias de los Vireyes que han gobernado el Peru._ (Lima, 1859.) [366] After his death 22 wounds were found on his body, and 2 bullets lodged. [367] Mr. Howard has recently obtained 8·5 per cent. of alkaloids from a specimen of red bark. [368] There is no ascertained law by which many of the species of the chinchona genus are thus limited to narrow zones as regards latitude. Mr. Spruce mentions that on the lower regions of the Andes of Pasto and Popayan, in New Granada, there are the conditions of climate and altitude requisite for the growth of _C. succirubra_, but it has not been found there. [369] This is not the same as the _pata de gallinazo_ of Huanuco, which has been named by Mr. Howard _C. Peruviana_. [370] Mr. Cross sowed eight of the seeds; one began to germinate on the fourth day, and at the end of a fortnight four seeds had pushed their radicles. In three weeks one had the seed-leaves completely developed; and on the twenty-eighth day after sowing, the last of the eight pushed its radicle. Eight chinchona-seeds, gathered by Mr. Spruce in 1859, were sown at Guayaquil, which had remained nine months in his herbarium. Of these four germinated, which clearly shows that well-ripened and properly-dried seeds do not lose their vitality for a much longer period than their excessive delicacy would lead one to suspect. [371] 1. _Notes of a visit to the Chinchona Forests_, by R. Spruce, Esq., printed by the Linnæan Society, vol. iv. of their _Proceedings_.