16. Webb, S. B. Problems of Modern Industry (an English book). New

York, 1913. PLAN No. 915. THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE AS A VOCATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT For the material of this monograph the Federal Board for Vocational Education is indebted to the J. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, Pa., through its publication “Training and Rewards of the Physician,” and the Collins Publicity Service, Philadelphia, Pa., through its publication “Medicine,” School Edition, Teachers’ Auxiliary, Number One, of which this pamphlet is largely an abstract. The monograph was prepared by Dr. H. L. Smith under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance. NATURE OF THE PHYSICIAN’S WORK The work of the physician is twofold. It is his duty to cure those who are sick and to keep the well from becoming sick. Usually he is not called upon until there is illness, so that the bulk of his work is with the sick. There are two general fields of activity for a physician, that of the general practitioner, and that of the specialist. Physicians in rural communities and small towns and cities must be prepared to deal with any type of accident or disease. In cities the tendency is to specialize on some particular disease or on disturbances connected with some particular part of the body. Some specialists in large cities are able to confine their activities to office work altogether. The work of the physician is difficult. There is a great mental strain connected with his work, for often even the life of the patient is at stake. With the general practitioner there is a great physical strain due to irregular meals and sleep, and trips in all kinds of weather. Particularly is this true of the practice of medicine for its curative effects. More and more thought in medical science is being directed in modern times to preventive medicine, that is, to ways and means of keeping well rather than of getting well. The preventive work can be done under conditions more nearly those that the physician himself chooses rather than under conditions forced upon him as is usual in the case of curative work. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS ESSENTIAL TO SUCCESS Of all the professions the practice of medicine makes the greatest demands along the line of a good sound body. In some professions a man with even severe physical defects can, through careful living, be successful. Good health, however, is essential to the physician in order that he may successfully withstand the long periods of strain, the irregular hours for meals and sleep, the bad weather he is often forced to go out in, and the dangers of infection. PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS ESSENTIAL TO SUCCESS Not only must the physician be practically fit, he must have a natural aptitude and love for his profession. He should care more for medicine than for any other calling in life. By natural aptitude for medicine is meant certain foundation qualities which are essential. It goes without saying that the physician, because of his close relationship with his patients, must be of the highest moral character in order to gain and retain the confidence of his patients. A kindly and tactful manner are essential also in gaining this confidence. One must be alert, too, particularly at the present time when rapid advances are being made in medicine--more rapid than in many other professions. Self-reliance is essential in medicine because unexpected situations are constantly arising, and emergencies, too, in which the help of other physicians can not readily be gained. To practice medicine successfully one must be constantly learning. Because of the rapid changes in medical science one’s apprenticeship is never completed. Each day some new method or means of treatment must be mastered. Moreover, one’s work is never ended. One great element of success is faithfulness to the patients one already has. This means love for the work and enthusiasm over the idea of service to mankind. Among the characteristics that lead to failure in the practice of medicine are dislike of the work, inability to decide quickly and definitely, and lack of ability to get along well with other practitioners and with patients. GENERAL EDUCATION NECESSARY AS A BASIS FOR A COURSE IN MEDICINE As a basis for a course in medicine one must have completed not only the eight grades of common-school work, but the four years of high school. Twenty-eight medical schools require two years of college work for entrance, and there is some tendency to require even four years of college work. This tendency, however, will probably not grow very fast. Certainly if the requirement is made it can not be a hard and fast rule, for the simple reason that it would raise the age of graduation from the medical school to a point higher than the age at which it is wise for one to begin practice. The question of what subjects should be taken in premedical work is very important also. Not long ago some 300 graduates of the Harvard Medical School were asked to fill out answers to questions, giving their opinions in regard to the value of their premedical education. They were asked to state whether they thought it best in this premedical work to have a large amount of general culture--such as history, philosophy, economics, literature, and art--or a large amount of natural science--such as physics, chemistry and biology. Of the 300 reporting, 120 favored a large amount of science, while 110 favored a large amount of general culture. Seventy favored an equal amount of general science and culture. It would seem, therefore, that according to the present opinion there should be an equal amount of general culture and science in one’s college education previous to taking up the special training in medicine. Available records show that in 1904 there were only 20 States that had made any legal provision for preliminary education to go before the definite education in medicine. Now 26 States have such a provision. At that time only 10 States required four years of high school as a minimum amount of preliminary premedical education and none required college work. Now 30 States require the four years, or an equivalent, and 8 of these 30 require either one or two years of college work in addition. At that time 36 States required that all candidates for license be graduates of legally chartered medical schools. Now 44 States make this requirement by law. At the present time 48 States require an examination to be taken by all those who are seeking license to practice medicine, unless they hold a license granted by some other State. It is necessary, therefore, that the course of instruction taken in medicine shall include courses that will qualify the graduate to meet the requirements of the examination for license to practice in the State in which he wishes to locate. There is a tendency at present for the examination to consist not only of questions and answers, but of some practical test of one’s ability to practice medicine successfully. THE LENGTH OF THE MEDICAL COURSE ITSELF At the present time one can not hope to get a satisfactory medical education without taking a full four-year course in the medical school. The course of study in American schools of medicine at present is definitely laid out, and one can know beforehand just what subjects will have to be taken. Even at the end of the four-year course in medicine it is not advisable to begin the practice of medicine immediately. Those who are looking for good positions in the profession should add to the theory gained in college some actual practice. The best way to get this practical work is to serve as an interne in a hospital. Appointments to such positions are often made on the basis of an examination. Such positions last sometimes for one year and sometimes for two years. During the first period of his work in the hospital an interne is directed to some extent by other physicians, but largely by his senior internes. During the last six months of his experience as an interne, however, when he is usually acting as the house doctor or surgeon, he is shown especial attention by physicians and surgeons who have patients in the hospital. There is generally no pay given the interne aside from board and lodging. The period in which one acts as an interne is considered as a further educational period. It has been said that the experience gained during the two years’ interneship in New York City’s largest hospital is considered equal to that acquired in 10 years of ordinary undirected practice. But even after one actually begins the practice of medicine his education is not complete. In order to keep up with the times he must do a great deal of reading. He must attend district medical meetings, and also State and national meetings. Moreover, he should visit other cities and thus come in contact with the ideas of other practitioners in other communities. An ideal standard of medical education is outlined in the following quotation: “The American Medical Association’s ideal standard of medical education as set forth by the Council on Medical Education, after years of extensive study, research, and investigation, is given herewith: “(a) Preliminary education sufficient to enable the candidate to enter our recognized universities, such qualifications to be passed upon by the State authorities. “(b) A course of at least one year to be devoted to physics, chemistry, and biology, such arrangements to be made that this year could be taken either in a college of liberal arts or in the medical school. “(c) Four years in pure medical work, the first two of which should be largely spent in laboratories of anatomy, physiology, pathology, pharmacology, etc., and the last two years in close contact with patients in dispensaries and hospitals in the study of medicine, surgery in its various branches, and the specialties. “(d) A sixth year as an interne in a hospital or dispensary should then complete the medical course. Under such procedure the majority of students would begin the study of medicine at about 18 years and graduate from the hospital interneship at about 25.”[15] [15] Vocational Studies: School Edition, Teachers’ Aux. No. 1, p. 4, Collins Publicity Service, Philadelphia, Pa. THE INCOME THAT CAN REASONABLY BE EXPECTED IN THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE The practice of medicine does not hold out the hope of any great financial reward. There are some medical practitioners who have made small fortunes in their practice, but such cases are few. The ordinary practitioner can not count on much more than a comfortable living, in accordance with the living standards in the community in which he lives. Not only is the physician’s salary generally small, but it is uncertain as well. The following table gives the incomes of Harvard medical graduates, by classes and by years of experience, according to a study recently made: _Average Earnings of Harvard medical graduates, by classes and by years of experience._[16] =========+============================================================ Years in | Classes practice +-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------ | 1901| 1902| 1903| 1904| 1905| 1906| 1907| 1908| 1909| 1910 ---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------ First | $866| $787| $541| $362| $625| $502| $350| $533| $425|$1,237 Second | 827|1,089| 790| 995| 773| 826| 588|1,250| 874| 1,083 Third |1,181|1,539|1,412|1,295| 995|1,262|1,353|1,025|1,370| 1,578 Fourth |1,505|1,694|1,720|1,566|1,559|1,765|1,963|1,575|1,632| 1,835 Fifth |2,027|1,556|1,966|1,981|1,818|2,359|2,347|1,847|2,150| Sixth |2,341|1,837|2,333|2,277|2,347|2,997|3,202|2,360| | Seventh |2,527|2,161|2,654|2,967|3,043|3,650|3,545| | | Eighth |3,003|2,491|3,155|3,043|3,337|4,332| | | | Ninth |3,560|2,900|3,616|3,604|4,500| | | | | Tenth |3,524|2,963|4,135|4,535| | | | | | Eleventh |3,885|3,691|4,604| | | | | | | Twelfth |4,422|4,130| | | | | | | | Thir- |4,680| | | | | | | | | teenth | | | | | | | | | | Maximum | | | | | | | | | | number of| | | | | | | | | | men | 38| 39| 29| 39| 33| 26| 29| 29| 25| 26 ---------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+------ [16] Training Rewards of the Physician (Cabot), J. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia, Pa., v. 136. OTHER REWARDS CONNECTED WITH THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE The fact that the physician’s work has a great effect upon the length of life of the patient is in itself a great reward. During the past three centuries medical science has made so great an advance that the average working life of the English-speaking people has been almost doubled. The things that have added to this increased length of life are physical comfort, medicine, hygiene, and surgery. Aside from the satisfaction of seeing length of life increased, the worthy physician enjoys the satisfaction of holding a position of trust and leadership in his community. As a result of this, he is in a position to teach others what they should know. Through his work also a physician has a chance to come in contact with all classes of people. THE LENGTH OF TIME IT WILL TAKE TO ESTABLISH ONE’S SELF IN THE PRACTICE OF MEDICINE If one decides to establish one’s self as a general practitioner he must count upon at least a year of patience and hard work with little income. At the end of the year, however, if he has been fortunate in the choice of location, and if he has a good personality, he can reasonably hope soon to inspire confidence and come into public recognition. Often he can hasten this public recognition by giving his services, free of charge, to those whom he knows to be worthy of such assistance and consideration. If it is necessary for the graduate from the medical school to become an actual earner immediately, he will probably apply for an official position in some public institution, such as health officer, teacher, medical missionary, or research worker. THE EXTENT OF THE NEED FOR PHYSICIANS It has been said that in America the number of doctors, in proportion to the number of people, is greater than in any other country. A recent study shows that there were in the United States 151,132 practicing physicians and surgeons, 16,920 students in medical schools, and 6,955 instructors in medical schools. Before the European war the supply of physicians in the United States was large--so large, in fact, that the income of physicians was being materially affected thereby. As a result of the war, however, new fields of practice will be opening up for American physicians in other countries, because of the fact that many physicians in those countries were either killed or disabled, and also because students have not been graduating from the medical schools in those countries during the past few years. It is said that it will take five or six years to develop or to train a new group of physicians in England, France, and in other warring nations. HOW MUCH IT WILL COST TO PREPARE FOR PRACTICE OF MEDICINE If you are a soldier or a sailor discharged from the service since October 6, 1917, with a disability for which the Bureau of War-Risk Insurance will grant you compensation, and if a course in medicine is approved for you by the Federal Board, your education will be furnished free by the Government. The Bureau of War-Risk Insurance, through its compensation, will meet a part of the expense, and the Federal Board for Vocational Education will add to that amount to a minimum of $65 a month with the purpose of meeting all of your expenses for living, clothing, transportation, tuition, and incidentals. PLAN No. 916. SAFETY AND FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEERING ACKNOWLEDGMENT This monograph was prepared by J. Albert Robinson, Special Agent for Safety and Hygiene. Acknowledgment is due Mr. Jos. B. Finnegan, Professor of Fire Protection Engineering, Armour Institute of Technology; to Mr. R. M. Little, Director of the American Museum of Safety; and to Mr. F. M. Griswold for excerpts from his address entitled “The Inspector and the Insured.” For editorial assistance acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division of the Federal Board. You who have been under fire at the front and have come back disabled have had an insight into life that of necessity affects your outlook on the future. Things which once assumed importance in your mind have lost their appeal. Positions which you held before going over may now seem ineffectual after the vision of war which you have beheld. In the months of facing death and later of adjustment to a new condition, your outlook has broadened beyond a mere material view. You have been in the fight for world peace and safety, and the impetus gained in helping the other fellow still carries you on. This feeling is not a weak sentiment, but an appreciation of the fact that life has more windows than the one which looks out on material welfare. Perhaps no form of work offers more opportunity for a combination of success in material and altruistic lines than safety and fire protection engineering. Especially in safety engineering, a man himself disabled carries to everyone with whom he comes in contact a warning and an encouragement. There is nothing more inspirational than a man who has ignored or made use of his handicap in his own forging ahead. Handicapped himself, he may prevent others becoming so. The safety engineer is a guardian of the people’s happiness and future. The work offers to those who have the insight an opportunity to join in the general drive for world safety from an industrial point of view and for conserving human power. This same inner purpose holds also in the case of the fire protection engineer. To him falls in large part the work of saving the created and natural resources of the nation. While it is true that men disabled by amputation can not so easily take up this profession as that of safety engineering, the war’s statistics show a larger percentage of the returned men to be disabled by disease and internal wounds which have undermined their strength than by dismemberments. For these men, the vocation of fire protection engineer is particularly suitable. No work which is done for the material gain alone can satisfy a man’s ambition, and these two important professions are doors which open to service as well as to material welfare. PLAN No. 917. SAFETY ENGINEERING Safety engineering in a broad sense of the term is a new profession in industry which offers good opportunities for well-qualified men. It undoubtedly offers a broader field than fire protection engineering, yet in many ways these two professions are analogous and they are frequently combined. A soldier or sailor disabled in service who wishes to be trained for this vocation may be given the opportunity. In order to benefit by the training and be assured of a good position in an industrial plant, certain qualifications are necessary. EDUCATION A high-school education or its equivalent is practically essential, and if this education has been secured in a technical high school it will have especial value. Men who have had more advanced training in technical schools, colleges, or universities stands a better chance than others of becoming leaders in the profession. A knowledge of the fundamentals of any of the other leading engineering professions is helpful in safety engineering as in fire protection engineering. PERSONAL QUALIFICATIONS To become a good safety engineer one needs to have a clear mind, capable of analysis and of constructive thinking; a pleasing personality, and the qualities of leadership. Safety engineering has quite as much to do with the human element as it has with mechanics. In general, it is divided into two parts; Structural engineering and engineering revision; and mechanical safeguarding, coupled with safety organization in industrial plants and educational methods aiming to reach managers, superintendents, foremen, and workmen. It is apparent, therefore, that mechanical and engineering technique, coupled with educational ability and leadership, are necessary qualifications in safety engineers. As he must respond to humanitarian as well as to business interests, the safety engineer must be a man of sterling character, or moral enthusiasm, and of broad human sympathies. NATURE OF WORK Safety work proper is divided into two essential branches--safeguarding and education, both conducted under a well-planned scheme of organization. In the company and rating organization field the safety engineer will make careful inspections, reporting upon many details from which the risk is determined and the rate made. A careful study of working conditions, a painstaking analysis of accidents occurring under them, a searching inquiry into potential causes of accidents that may not have occurred is made to determine truly the hazards to which workmen are exposed. The correct means of overcoming them are determined upon and put into effect. In order to overcome the unfortunate lack of safety precautions when machines are built or plants designed, it is an essential duty of the safety engineer to check plans and specifications for new machinery, new equipment, new construction, and for alterations, repairs and rearrangements, in order to see that every safety requirement is covered so far as is possible. Safety engineers must have the personality to get the sympathetic interest and co-operation of men and bosses, and to get them interested in his safety propaganda; to organize committees and campaigns; to make men get the safety habit and think safety unconsciously. Safety engineering is related to problems of industrial management, employment and labor turnover. It has to do with welfare work, first aid treatment, hospital service, etc. It is really human engineering, embracing all the broad features that are implied thereby. OPPORTUNITIES The opportunities for well qualified men are many and constantly increasing. There is undoubtedly a future in safety engineering for those who are well trained for the work. The nature of the casualty insurance business is such that men with the technical training and skill of safety engineers are in more demand, in the actual details of the business, than perhaps are the fire insurance inspectors in the fire insurance field. There is a close connection between workmen’s compensation insurance and safety engineering due primarily to the fact that the insurance rate is made to depend on safety conditions. This necessitates the employment of a large number of inspectors and safety engineers. Up to the present time there has been a demand for safety engineers and competent inspectors far exceeding the supply, and it is believed that these conditions will continue to exist, as industrial plants are now absorbing a large number of these men. The State compensation laws are awakening all of our industries to the necessity of prevention of accidents to wage-earners. Large industrial corporations have safety departments, with a chief safety engineer and many assistants. Capable safety engineers receive good salaries, and those especially well qualified and experienced are often advanced to executive positions in the larger industries. State factory inspectors and casualty insurance inspectors receive from $1,200 to $2,000 per year. Capable safety engineers in industry receive from $1,500 to $5,000 per year. The following excerpts from letters received from prominent men in the casualty insurance and engineering field show the opportunities in this profession: “In the field of safety engineering there is an exceptionally good opportunity for men who are adapted to this work. Even in normal times employers in this field of endeavor have found difficulty in securing men with proper educational foundations and ability. There is always a demand for men in this field and the opportunities for advancement are exceptionally good.” “The field of safety engineering is a rapidly extending one. As the people awake to the tremendous economic drain of the waste of life through accidents, more and more attention will be given to these matters, and the demand for men who understand them will strengthen.” “The opportunities for safety engineering are as large, or larger than the opportunities presented in other branches of engineering work. The field has hardly been scratched on the surface.” “There is without question an unusual opportunity for trained men in the field of safety engineering. The rapid spread of the safety idea, and the recognition of the importance of human relations in general, are leading many manufacturing organizations to install safety departments, and properly qualified men are not available for these positions.” “Up to the present time there has been a great demand for safety engineers and competent inspectors that was far beyond the supply, and these conditions will continue to exist, as industrial plants are now absorbing a large number of these men.” PHYSICAL QUALIFICATIONS A man with one eye, one arm, or one leg can be a good safety engineer. Likewise, a man with a weak heart or lungs may be a good safety engineer. Disabilities which disqualify men for many industrial pursuits do not disqualify but may partially qualify them for safety engineers. In other words, one does not need to be 100 per cent physically fit. In fact, men who have suffered the loss of members may precisely, on that account be more effective in teaching the principles, habits, and practices of safety to men in our industries. It will be noted that the physical requirements for a safety engineer have not been made as rigid as those for a fire protection engineer. This is because the great field of activity for a safety engineer is employment at a manufacturing plant and the work can become more one of the head and less one of physical perfection. TRAINING Men who have been disabled in the military or naval service of the Government and wish to be trained for safety engineers will be trained by the Federal Board for Vocational Education. The Board will make arrangements with the safety organizations of the country to give special courses for them. The teachers will be experienced safety engineers. Part of the work will be classroom lectures and assigned readings. The study of mechanical safeguards and hazards will be given in a well-equipped institution, with visits to industries for personal instruction in the methods of active operations. When the course in the institution is completed, the men will be placed in the industries themselves, under the direction of the head safety engineer, there to be given the benefits of a further practical instruction, in order that when the course has been completed the students may all be assured of positions. The National Safety Council, through its local councils, is establishing courses in safety engineering in various centers as fast as a suitable demand warrants, and classes are already under way in St. Louis, Pittsburgh, and Rochester, N. Y. The American Museum of Safety in New York City has a similar class under consideration. PLAN No. 918. FIRE PROTECTION ENGINEERING Fire protection engineering, or fire insurance engineering, is a well-established line of effort which has been raised to the dignity of a profession during the past 20 years of its development. The fire insurance inspector belongs to this profession, as do inspectors in municipal fire prevention bureaus such as the large cities are organizing as an auxiliary to their fire departments. There are certain institutions in which instruction is given, and ways whereby a disabled man discharged from the military and naval forces of the United States may be trained for this vocation. In order to benefit by the training and be assured of good opportunities, certain facts should be considered. EDUCATION Primarily it may be conceded that the man who has had a technical education can generally get on in the profession more rapidly than one who has not. When technical knowledge and scientific attainments are secured in the hard school of experience the graduate has paid dearly for his lack of earlier training. A distinction may be made between the requirements for fire protection engineering proper and those for routine inspection work. A well-equipped fire protection engineer should have the equivalent of a sound engineering course, with a knowledge of the fundamentals or basic principles involved in civil, architectural, mechanical, hydraulic, electrical, and chemical engineering. These principles can be utilized in the problems of plan drafting, proper building construction, occupancy equipment, public and private fire protection, and common and manufacturing hazards. Experience has demonstrated, however, that such foundation is not absolutely essential, and that many possessing the requisite personal qualifications have succeeded without it. For instance, many industrial occupations provide valuable experience as a foundation for development of the necessary technical ability. Men who have had experience as building inspectors, construction or factory engineers, piping foremen, estimators for automatic sprinkler concerns, and men who have been employed in municipal fire departments or in fire-alarm and signal work have been successful in routine inspection work and have risen to places of eminence in the world of fire protection engineering. Graduates of engineering departments other than fire protection engineering have repeatedly shown themselves to be readily adaptable to work in this field, after a period of readjustment to enable them to acquire the point of view necessary to a man to whom the causes and prevention of fire, rather than other phases of engineering problems are significant. PERSONAL QUALIFICATIONS Whether technical qualifications be founded on training in a technical school or be the result of later effort the aspirant for success as an insurance inspector should be familiar with insurance practice, and should be endowed with a broad complement of common sense. He should have an inquisitive and observant mind, coupled with a desire to investigate the “why and how” of every problem, a constantly receptive brain, a retentive memory, and should be competent as a teacher of those less thoughtful or less well informed than he. Above all a successful fire protection engineer must not minimize the importance of accurate observation and faithful reporting of small details which may have most vital import in determining the conditions of a plant. Finally he should be resourceful and capable in planning and carrying out to a successful issue the details of technical propositions. Tact and judgment must be exercised when dealing with men who may not always appreciate the viewpoint of the inspector, and courtesy is always a prime essential. NATURE OF WORK It is the work of the inspector to scrutinize closely all conditions and materials which may in any manner create or increase the fire hazard, including the character and nature of raw stock or material used, all the processes of manipulation, from its reception at the plant, its handling and storage, to the completion of the operations necessary to produce the finished goods or article. The inspector must carefully note and define the hazards incident to each state of progress where physical or other changes affecting the conditions may take place. In addition to these purely technical investigations and conclusions, he should closely observe and study “shop practice” or management, including supervision and discipline of employees, as related to the cleanliness and care of hazards, which form the basis of “good housekeeping” and are important essentials in securing safety from fire in all classes of property. The apparatus and appliances for fire protection or fire defense need to be very critically examined and described. This often necessitates going into dark basements or low pits to locate automatic sprinkler valves, etc. Water-supply tanks for automatic sprinkler systems have to be climbed to examine their condition and to ascertain water levels, and when the assent and co-operation of the insured can be secured, tests for efficiency of such devices as fire pumps should be undertaken. The nature and condition of the structure forming the plant or risk require careful consideration and full description, and finally, the information gained is generally embodied in a written report of such lucidity as to convey a mental photograph of the hazards and conditions to the minds of those who have to decide upon the acceptability of the risk from an underwriting viewpoint. OPPORTUNITIES Fire protection engineers are employed at the present time largely by insurance companies, either individually as company field engineers or collectively in the inspection and rating organizations. Every important geographical section in the country has somewhere within it an insurance organization consisting either of an insurance exchange or rating board for making insurance rates and specifying requirements for improvements, and an engineering or inspection bureau for making surveys, inspections, and reports to its members. Large municipalities are cared for by local rating boards. Many large corporations are employing engineers, often with the title of “Fire marshal,” and others combine their fire insurance affairs, both business and engineering, in the office of a “Superintendent of insurance.” Insurance engineers are frequently called to a company home office, after having had a good field experience, to take charge of the underwriting or passing upon the business offered in special departments, for the business requiring a technical or engineering knowledge. These are variously known as “Improved risk departments,” “Sprinklered risk departments,” etc., because the use of automatic sprinklers is fundamental in fire protection and required in risks accepted by such departments. One of the best avenues of approach to good home office positions is through the field experience of a fire protection engineer, employed by an inspection bureau or by an individual company. There is a marked tendency among the larger insurance agencies and brokerage offices, in striving to render service to their customers, to employ fire protection engineers as a means of obtaining and holding business by reason of their superior technical knowledge. Training obtained as an insurance or fire protection engineer is one of the best means of acquiring the technical knowledge requisite for success as a broker, by one who would become an expert buyer of insurance, able to study the needs of his clients, advise with regard to the kind of insurance to purchase, work out satisfactory contracts, and negotiate with the rating authorities to secure the lowest cost. The agency end of the business offers the greatest financial inducements, since one may develop a clientele of his own, receiving commission on the amount of business he can bring into the office, and may perhaps become a partner in the business. Trained inspectors are rarely employed for less than $1,200, and salaries run up to $2,400 for field men. Chief engineers of organizations, engineers in agencies, and company executives obtain much more. The following excerpts from letters received from prominent men in the fire insurance and engineering field show the opportunities in this profession: “The opportunities in the field of fire protection engineering were never greater that at the present time, as the public now seems to be in a receptive mood as regards conservation of all resources.” “There is a constant demand among fire insurance companies for practical fire protection engineers. The number employed by any one company is not great but the number is growing now that insurance companies as a whole are getting to appreciate the constant dangers of conflagration areas, poor water supply, poor fire equipment, and other kindred effects.” “There is a splendid opportunity in what is called the inspection or rating bureau service, as even prior to our country entering the war there was always a shortage of competent help.” “In the inspection and engineering branch of fire insurance a wide field can be readily opened to disabled soldiers and sailors as well as to other discharged service men.” “Several months ago one inspection bureau formulated tentatively its own employment plan, which in brief was, ‘first, to re-employ its former men now with the colors, and to thereafter give preference to disabled soldiers and sailors.’” “In the field of fire protection there are comparatively so few trained men in this vocation to-day that the opportunity is unlimited. Where yesterday the idea was the protection of property by fire departments, water supply, etc., to-day it is one of fire prevention, i. e., checking the cause of fire before it may have an opportunity to do any damage. Fire prevention to-day is confined mainly to organizations covering wide fields. There is no question but what in the future each industrial plant of any size will have their own fire protection or fire prevention engineer, and probably the same will be extended to each city of any considerable size.” “Graduates of the Armour Institute of Technology and former students who have not graduated have been in demand. In most cases the employment entered into immediately after graduation has been moderately remunerative, but advancement has been much more rapid than in the case of untrained men. A few graduates have been employed by companies manufacturing and installing automatic sprinkler equipments. The typical case is that of a man who enters an inspection bureau, and after three or four years assumes work of responsibility with a fire insurance company. Recently several companies have shown a tendency to depart from the traditional plan of looking to the bureaus as training schools, and have engaged men with the Institute’s degree, but without field experience. A large proportion of the classes of 1917 and 1918, who entered military or naval service upon leaving school, will probably be employed by insurance companies immediately after discharge from the service. There are now, as at all times, in the history of the department, applications for more graduates than are available.” PHYSICAL QUALIFICATIONS Disfigurements or physical incapacities which are not too serious need not be a handicap for pursuing the profession of fire protection engineering. These can be more than offset by good education, technical training, a pleasing personality, and enthusiasm for the work. It must be remembered, however, that this work involves a great deal of traveling, either about the country or locally in large centers, carrying usually two grips. While making an inspection, an engineer is constantly called upon to climb around in unfinished buildings, and through manholes to roofs, which ordinarily requires the use of both hands and legs. Measurements are made, notes taken, plans drawn, and reports written up. Minor handicaps, such as loss of an eye, pieces of bone removed, claw hand, stiff knee joint, or slight limp, etc., need not debar men from the profession. Those having tubercular tendencies to a degree necessitating an active outdoor life, should be materially benefited, and should recover both health and strength by this line of activity. This would apply to other cases where fresh air and activity are desirable but it must also be borne in mind that a certain amount of physical stamina is necessary, and that exposure to weather, walking and climbing about for many hours at a stretch, might affect some forms of disability adversely. It is obvious that loss of a leg or an arm, except in unusual cases, would be a serious handicap. Field experience is important as a means of training for inside consulting, or executive work in this profession. However, men who have become used to artificial limbs can best judge if they are qualified to undertake these activities. TRAINING The Federal Board for Vocational Education will make arrangements with certain institutions and insurance organizations of the country to give special courses for men who have been disabled in the military or naval service of the Government who wish to be trained as fire protection engineers. We believe that at present the only regular four-year college course in fire protection engineering is that offered by Armour Institute of Technology. Special courses and facilities for amplification are offered by the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Worcester Polytechnical Institute, Columbia University, Cornell University, Stevens Institute, Washington University, and perhaps by other institutions. Experienced engineers believe that men who have started college courses, especially in engineering branches, should continue them, keeping in mind the line of work they contemplate pursuing, and should then supplement their college work by entering the employ of an inspection bureau. A course of fire protection engineering is offered by the American School of Correspondence. The Insurance Institute of America, through its several branches in local insurance or insurance library associations throughout the country, has offered night school lecture courses. Plans are being considered, if there is a warrantable demand in any given locality, to offer a more intensive bureau. In some cases these inspection bureaus may cooperate to the extent of giving a well-rounded training to a man who has had sufficient general technical education or experience to justify such action. PLAN No. 919. THE METAL TRADES ACKNOWLEDGMENT. This monograph was prepared by Eugene C. Graham, Special Agent for the Federal Board, under direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings of the Research Division for editorial assistance. A METAL-WORKING AGE. Nearly every industry depends to some extent, and most industries depend to a very great extent, upon metal working, either by employing metal workers directly in some processes, or by using metal products as raw materials in the manufacture of other products, or at least by using tools, implements, machines, and engines, which are products of metal-working trades and industries. And, in addition, these trades and industries produce a great variety of finished utensils and furniture ready for consumption in households. More than any other ours is a metal-working age. MACHINE WORK AND HANDWORK. Metals must be worked largely by machine processes, but they must be worked also in many instances by hand processes. All-round machinists and other metal workers must know how to operate machines, but they must also be skilled artisans capable of using a variety of hand tools. Bench hands, assemblers, and specialists in many lines are hand workers and only incidentally if at all machine operators. If you like machinery and tools, and working with durable materials--working with steel and other less difficult metals as the carpenter works with wood, you can almost certainly find some line of metal working in which you can succeed, whatever your disability. In the metal-working trades there is every variety of handwork and footwork and headwork to be done, light work and heavy work, work in shop or factory and work in the open, bench work and machine work, highly skilled as well as simple routine work. TRADE TRAINING FOR PROMOTION. Promotion comes to trained men who acquire dexterity in handling tools, in operating machines, in manipulating various metals. It comes easily to men trained broadly, who are able to deal intelligently with any problems that may arise in their line of work. If you decide to enter one of the metal-working trades, you should take training for the trade, rather than for some job in the trade. Learn the trade rather than simply how to operate some one machine, or how to do one simple task, and you can then accept promotion in the trade, and make good at any job in it. WHAT METAL WORKERS PRODUCE. Everything in metal from a minute screw to a locomotive engine--from a tin can to a great gun casting. They produce machines to produce machines, and with tools and machines which they themselves produce, they produce every sort of metal product or metal part of a product, including machinery and equipment for the farm, the factory, and the home. Nearly every article of common use, whether made of metal or of other material, is more or less a machine product, and practically the whole machinery for producing nonmetal as well as metal products is originally the product of the metal trades. Specifically the product of a machine shop may be a complete machine, a rebuilt or repaired machine or machine part sold to other firms. For such a product raw material of cast iron, sheet iron, steel of varying degrees of hardness, wrought iron, brass, or bronze, comes from the foundry or from a stock department in which are kept sheets, steel bars, castings and forgings. Much of the labor in some shops must be employed in producing shop equipment, including formed cutters, reamers, drills, and various metal working tools made in the shop. PROCESSES. Molding, which is a basic operation in the metal industries, is a comparatively simple process especially when standardized parts are being cast, and it is not necessarily heavy work since castings in various metals, may be of any size and weight. Molten metal, pure or alloyed, is poured into a mold formed by a pattern in sand or loam. In many instances castings must be finished by machinery. When a part is to be subjected to hard usage or to severe strains and stresses, forging or hammering rather than casting may be the process employed in shaping it. Drop forgings are made by means of automatic power hammers and dies. With few exceptions forgings, also, must be finished by machining. Sheet-metal workers lay out work on sheet metal, cut it, shape or bend it, and solder, rivet or weld it into various forms, such as are required in building up ornamental cornices for buildings, or in constructing hot-air heating apparatus, or in manufacturing filing cases, various sorts of containers, and many other articles. Some of the work is outside work, but an increasing number of processes are being performed in the shop with the use of machinery. Metal stamping and electric welding machines are used to form and weld together parts of, for example, automobile bodies, doors, and fenders. Of all the metal-working trades, that of the machinist is the most varied in its hand and machinery processes, although many workmen never learn more in the trade than how to operate some one automatic machine, or how to do some one simple task. In general the machinist should know how to operate all of the machinery of his trade, and in addition he must acquire skill of hand in metal working, and especially in the processes of building, repairing, assembling, and erecting every sort of engine and machine. PLAN No. 920. MOLDERS VARIETY OF EMPLOYMENTS. Foundry employments generally will not be found to be suitable for men who have suffered serious physical injuries, or for men whose physical strength has been seriously impaired by exposure or illness, and they are not generally employments for which any extended course of training is required. These employments are, however, more varied in character than they are commonly supposed to be, and some lines of molding and casting may very well be undertaken by men who have been disabled, especially in cases where previous experience and training in foundry work will prove helpful. Practically all floor molding is heavy work. Shovels and various hand tools are used in building molds around patterns or templates which determine shape and size of castings. Bench molding and machine molding, on the other hand, may involve no considerable physical strains, and many operations in machine molding can be done with one hand. Some lines of bench molding may be done sitting at the bench and do not require the molder to move about in the foundry. PROMOTION. In welding as in other trades, advancement comes to specialists, and to those who acquire such technical knowledge as is practically useful in the various lines. Some training in metallurgy, for example, will have value where alloys of vanadium, chromium, tungsten, nickel, and manganese are used, and the expert molder who can calculate quickly and accurately, and can handle men may expect promotion to foremanship. HOURS AND WAGES. Working hours in foundries vary from 8 to 9 a day, and wages of molders in private concerns range from 50 to 75 cents an hour, the Government rate in railroad shops being 88 cents. Pieceworkers in stove foundries and in other shops where machines are used earn highest wages. CORE MAKING. Core making is lighter work than molding, since cores are generally smaller and lighter than molds or castings. The core maker often works at a bench, with a mixture of core sand and binder, which he rams tightly into molds. Comparatively little training is required and such disabilities as partial loss of sight or hearing, loss of fingers or thumbs, stiffness of knee, ankle or hip joint, and weakness of heart or lungs, need not be serious handicaps. MACHINE MOLDING. In well equipped plants machines do most of the ramming, turn over the mold, draw the pattern, and do away with much heavy lifting. Machine molders usually work by the piece, and must be active and quick to earn good wages. TRAINING. Foundry work is taught in many schools, but only a few schools have been able to keep up with the industry in providing machinery. PLAN No. 921. SHEET-METAL WORKERS DEMAND FOR WORKERS. The sheet-metal worker is the survival in modern industry of the village tinner or tinsmith, and the demand for these workers is large and increasing. In the building trades, in ship building, in automobile and airplane construction, and in the manufacture of furniture, kitchen ware, heating and ventilating apparatus men of skill and experience in sheet-metal working are required. WHAT THE WORKER DOES. Workmen at the trade are mainly occupied in cutting out shapes or patterns, bending and forming these shapes on machines or with hand tools, and assembling the parts by hand. Edges are fastened together by riveting, soldering, or by lock seams. For example, a shaving-exhaust system consists of suction pipes, an exhaust fan, and a large pipe leading to the outlet, at which point is a dust separator called a cyclone. Practically all of the system is built of galvanized iron in sections, which are first constructed in the shop, then erected and supported in place in the factory where it is to be used. All of this work, including the erecting, is done by sheet-metal workers. It is the work of the journeyman in a job shop to use the common machines for cutting and forming the sheets of metal, to rivet or solder the parts together, and to fasten them in place on buildings or in any location where the product is used. This job-shop worker is, therefore, commonly both an outside and an inside worker. He must know how to place on buildings all the roofing, skylights, gutters, down spouts, cornices, metal ceilings, etc., needed in the construction. He installs air ducts for hot-air furnaces and for ventilating systems. He may be called on for a variety of repairs on sheet metal--to line tanks with lead, copper, or zinc, and to make and attach guards for machinery. The material for this work is bought in the form of sheets of various sizes, and the workman spends a large part of his time in the shop cutting up his material and working it into the required form. Extreme accuracy of measurement is seldom necessary, and not much attention is paid to finish since much of the work is immediately painted. In the building of ships there is a great variety of sheet-metal work done. Heavier gauge metal is used than on most architectural work and the joints are more often required to be oil and water tight. In the automobile and motor truck industry many men are employed in the making and assembling of bodies, fenders, tanks, and radiators. Much of the formed work is drawn to shape in large presses, the finished shapes being assembled by hand. Large factories now produce most of the kitchen utensils and stamped sheet-metal ware. This ware is coated with enamel or japan, or plated with nickel. Tin plate is still used, but sheet aluminum and enameled steel ware are fast taking its place. The manufacture of metal containers for canned fruits, meats and fish, oils, and sirups is an important industry. Very few machines for any purpose could dispense with sheet-metal parts without increasing the weight or the cost. In building construction the use of sheet metal is increasing, and when properly protected with paint it is both durable and inexpensive. Sheet metal is taking the place of wood for lath, sash, and trim for fireproof construction in large office buildings. It is used, also, in the manufacture of metal furniture for schools and offices. TOOLS AND MACHINES. Tools and machines used by sheet metal workers include the following: Hand tools.--Hammers, punches, chisels, hand snips or shears, rivet sets, rule, soldering outfit, and a variety of stakes of different shapes and sizes. Hand and power machines.--Turning, burring, forming, setting, grooving, double seaming, beading, wiring, and folding machines, circular, rotary and squaring shears, cornice brake, and presses for drawing hollow ware. REQUIREMENTS. Shopwork in sheet metal does not require men of great strength or quickness of movement. The machines are operated with the right hand and the stock supported with the left. To be of value to the shop a man should know something about pattern drafting, but many workmen are unable to lay out new work, and must work from old patterns or depend on the foreman for help. A sheet-metal worker needs fairly good eyesight, two hands with strong fingers, and on construction work a clear head and good use of his limbs. Requirements for outside work are quite different from those for inside work in the shop. HOURS AND WAGES. Hours of labor average about nine a day, but in Government work the standard is eight hours. Wages range from 45 to 85 cents per hour, but will average about 65 cents, with 68 cents as the union scale on Government work. FUTURE OF THE EMPLOYMENT. There seems to be no reason for doubting that this occupation will remain a very stable one. After the war it may be difficult to absorb into industry all the men who have been trained as sheet-metal workers for shipbuilding, but it is certain that the normal requirements of the building trades, the automobile industry, and airplane construction will take many men. REEDUCATION. No single course of instruction will fit all cases. If a man can shift from general outside and inside work to inside work exclusively, it will be possible for him to learn the drafting of patterns to great advantage to himself and to the shop. Skill in soldering may also be acquired by practice and will increase the man’s earning capacity. Competent foremen are very much in demand, and they should be trained in drafting and in estimating the cost of construction. This ability to estimate costs on job work can be attained by special training and would make a disabled man more independent of his handicap. For the disabled man any course which provides only the theory will fail absolutely in making a man useful to the average employer. It will be necessary to locate the man in a selected situation where his handicap will count for the least and then train him to overcome entirely the handicap. If the school can help with this training the man should go to school, but in a majority of cases it will be necessary for the shop to provide the training, supplemented by evening courses or correspondence-school work. The latter would be quite satisfactory in pattern-drafting and cost-estimating courses. PLAN No. 922. FACTORY WORKERS Factory production of articles made of sheetmetal implies that machines will be used where possible. Parts will be stamped out with dies and hollow ware drawn to shape in large presses. The hand operations, as a rule, will be confined to riveting, soldering, and assembling parts. Where disabled men can qualify it will not be difficult to place them on machines or at hand operations. While the pay will be lower than in the outdoor branch of the trade, work will be steadier and less dependent on weather conditions. Men with a variety of disabilities can find places. Training will be given on the job by foremen. Previous experience in any branch of sheet-metal work will be of value, and since the machines are largely automatic, only a short period of training will be required. The position of foreman of a department is worth striving for, and the qualities which will help a man to overcome handicaps will also help him to get a foreman’s position, in which he will be largely independent of physical disabilities. PLAN No. 923. MACHINISTS AND MACHINE OPERATORS Previous training and experience in some of these metal-working employments will greatly help you if you elect to take up some related line of work. With a little training to overcome your handicap, you may be able to resume your old employment or one in which your previous training and experience will count. MACHINES OPERATED Machinists work with the following machines: Metal turning.--Speed lathes; screw-cutting lathes; engine lathes; turret lathes; shaft and wheel lathes; automatic lathes. Planing.--Planers; slotters; shapers; gear planers. Milling.--Hand-feed millers; plain and universal milling machines; planer type millers; special milling and hobbing machines. Drilling and boring.--Sensitive drills; vertical drilling machines; radial drills; multiple drills; horizontal and vertical boring machines, and boring mills. Grinding.--Rough, wet, and dry grinders; tool grinders; cylindrical and special shaping grinders; planer type grinders; disk grinders. Machines for special operations.--Bolt and nut machines; automatic screw machines; broaching machines; cutting-off saws; profiling machines; chasing and engraving machines; rifling machines. SHOP CONDITIONS The machinist and machine operator work sometimes in a room crowded with machines, and frequently under artificial light, but usually in a room with plenty of air properly heated. Most of the machines are safeguarded, but there is always danger of accident from moving trucks, flying particles of metal, and sometimes from unprotected belts, gears, and shafting. State laws and inspection may be counted on to reduce this danger materially. Most well-organized shops have announced safety rules to promote the health of the men and to reduce the number of accidents. Hours of labor average from eight to nine a day. There is a tendency toward a standard eight-hour day, which is already established in Government work. There is usually an increase in the hourly rate for overtime work. Many shops pay according to a piecework rate or premium plan. The trade is fairly well organized, especially in job and railroad shops. EQUIPMENT OF THE WORKER It is common practice for a machinist to provide himself with a kit of tools useful in his work. This outfit usually includes steel scales, inside and outside calipers, hammer, surface gauge, punches, and an indefinite collection of other tools of less importance. All classes of workmen, in fact, depend more or less on the shop tool room, and men beginning their employment often have nothing but a steel scale. OPPORTUNITY FOR PROMOTION A highly skilled general machinist who can handle men has an excellent opportunity to become a foreman, and workers who understand the technique of their trade may fairly expect to advance rapidly in wages and position. Men who can figure costs and devise economies in production especially are in demand. FUTURE OF THE TRADE The war has very greatly increased production in machine shops. The manufacture of guns and munitions and the demands of the shipbuilding industry for tools and machinery for ships have multiplied the demand for men many times. While there must be a readjustment after the war, it is certain that the manufacture of standard products will be very greatly in arrears, and since all industry, including agriculture, transportation, and the arts, depend on the machine shops for their product, there will be a continued demand for trained men. Wages Where machinists or machine operators receive wages at an hourly rate this rate approximates the Government scale in railroad shops, which is 68 cents an hour. In shops where the piecework or premium plan prevails, the amount earned by employees varies. It is safe to say that most men employed at any branch of the trade get more than $4 a day in wages. MUSCULAR STRAIN A machinist is commonly expected to do some lifting, varying from very light weights to more than 100 pounds. Operators of large machines doing heavy work are often provided with air hoists or jib cranes or with chain hoists to help serve their machines. Probably the operator of a machine working on medium weight parts on lathes or grinding machines may have the maximum of physical strain, due to the quality production expected of him. YOUR DISABILITY It would be foolish to make many general statements as to the effect of the loss of various members on the future of a man who desires to be a machinist or a machine operator. So much depends on the will power of the man and on the exercise of wisdom and foresight in selecting a line of work. Talk it over with the placement officer. A study of the rehabilitation in industry of those injured in industrial accidents shows that most men have been taken back to work after such injuries as the loss of fingers, thumbs, one eye, or similar accidents. Others with more serious injuries have often been taken on again and provided with jobs, perhaps as watchmen or gate tenders, without any reeducation. They accepted their job, lived up their industrial insurance, and were down and out industrially. This should not happen to the man injured in industry, and must not happen to you, because there is a better way which will keep you in a good wage-earning occupation and make you independent. It will be necessary, of course, for you to take account, not only of your physical condition and of the requirements of the trade, but also of your previous experience, your resources, and your aptitudes. PLAN No. 924. BENCH HANDS KIND OF WORK DONE In the construction of machinery, including the repair of worn and broken parts, there are many operations which can not conveniently be done on machines. This work is done by hand at a bench, fitted with a vise for holding the work. The work done consists of chipping and filling to remove metal, the laying out of centers, circular arcs, lines and limits for the operator, and a variety of operations which require the use of hand tools. Examples of this work are: Fitting piston rings to grooves and to standard test gauges. Filing machined parts to provide smooth surfaces, and to remove burrs. Laying out and marking parts for drilling and other operations. Much of this work is necessary in making special jigs and fixtures to increase quantity production. TOOLS The bench hand uses a variety of files, marking punches, light and heavy hammers, cold chisels, measuring tools and gauges, and often uses hand or power machines, such as bench drills, hand taps and dies. HOURS, WAGES, AND CONDITIONS OF WORK The hours of labor are as a minimum forty-eight a week, and will average between fifty-one and fifty-four. Wages are generally according to the scale paid to machinists and are subject to overtime, piecework, and premium rate changes. For instance, the wage scale in railroad shops is now 68 cents per hour and in shipyards 72 cents. Other shops seldom pay as much, but the union scale is from 50 cents to 75 cents an hour in sections where large shops predominate. The health of the worker is not apt to be impaired by his work, as the muscular strain is not severe, and the sanitary conditions of shops are not generally unfavorable. The importance of the bench worker in the metal-working industry is decreasing with the increased use of automatic machines, jigs, and fixtures which do away with laying out, and with improvements in molding and casting. All repair work in railroad, automobile, and other shops, however, require much handwork at the bench. HANDICAPS Filing, chipping, hammering, etc., may be done by men provided with an artificial hand or arm. The training required before a man can become accustomed to this substitute will take some time, since the bench worker is required to use a variety of tools, and the output of work will depend on the skill of the worker in handling these tools. Previous experience in the employment will go a long way toward starting a man in the trade again. The use of hand tools is relatively less complicated than that of machine tools, and previous experience should provide the man with the essential knowledge of processes. Reeducation for any line of bench work should take all possible advantage of previous experience. Many of the things done by the bench hand can be taught in a school in short courses, but experience at the bench on productive work may be obtained at the same time. If the school is provided with satisfactory benches of the proper height and with standard vises, the course may require no longer than from three to six months, allowing for instruction in the reading of blue prints, the use of tools, and for getting accustomed to the work again. PLAN No. 925. ASSEMBLERS AND ERECTORS The parts which go to make up the finished machines come from the shop and after inspection are ready to be put together. Men who work at a bench in the assembling room or on the erecting floor fasten these parts together. ASSEMBLING WORK Examples of heavy work are found in the assembling of locomotives, stationary and marine engines, mining and pumping machinery, printing presses, rolling mills, and sugar machinery; of medium work in the assembling of gas and gasoline engines, farm machinery, automobiles, and trucks; of light work in the assembling of sewing machines, shoe machinery, cream separators, and typewriters. Machinists who assemble medium and light machinery receive the parts from the stock room after they have been inspected for accuracy and finish, and bolt them together. Frequently mechanical means are used to carry the parts to the assembler, who bolts them in place on the frame of the machine. This is common in automobile factories. From the assembling room the machines go to be tested or to be painted and prepared for shipment. In contract work in job shops the routine described is not usually followed, and the work is performed by all-around men who take the place of the assemblers. ERECTING WORK Machinists who work as erectors usually fit the parts together, bolt them solidly, then test the machine for alignment. Shafting is fitted to bearings and sliding surfaces brought into contact by scraping with steel scrapers. Oil grooves are cut in bearing surfaces and all accessory parts fitted. Then in most cases the machine is taken down for shipment, and after reaching its destination is erected again on permanent foundations. Traveling machinists are frequently sent out from the shop to do this work in the field. TOOLS Assemblers and erectors use a variety of wrenches, hammers, and other tools. They are often provided with cranes and hoists for all heavy lifting. In the field they may have to devise special means of moving heavy machinery. HOURS, WAGES, AND CONDITIONS OF WORK The hours and wages of labor are the same as for the machine operators and bench men, the hours ranging from forty-eight to fifty-four a week. The position of the assembler or erector is very important. There is no possibility of his being displaced by the introduction of machinery. The increase of production will demand more men, but it is fair to say that there are very many men who are qualified to fill the lower grades of work in this occupation. Only through experience and training on the job can men learn to be competent machinist erectors. These men hold responsible positions in industry and there is a constant demand for competent men. HANDICAPS The workman in this branch of the trade must be active and have physical strength, good eyesight, and considerable skill in the use of hand tools. He should know something about machine-tool processes, and may find it necessary to operate machines on occasion. Any handicap must be considered from the point of view of the man and the job he expects to take. If the man has had experience in the given line of work and wants to reenter it, he will be a very good judge of his own ability. Nearly every disabled man who has previous experience in a machine shop will find it possible to use this experience to advantage. Handicapped men who are preparing to enter this occupation may be trained in special classes in the factory where the work is done. A group of ten or twelve such men may be taken to a large factory and trained for special jobs under the instruction of a practical teacher. PLAN No. 926. THE PRACTICE OF OPTOMETRY AND THE TRAINING IT REQUIRES ACKNOWLEDGMENT The material of this monograph was compiled by S. Reid Warren, editor of The Keystone Magazine of Optometry, assisted by several successful practicing optometrists, to whom acknowledgment is gratefully accorded. The monograph has been prepared under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance. It is an indisputable fact that the efficiency of the American troops during the late war was greater than that of any other army. One factor which contributed largely to their success is apt to be overlooked by the casual observer, but excited comment wherever our troops were thickest in the fray: _Our men were properly glassed_. You, for whom this monograph is written, well know how thoroughly and systematically your eyes were examined. Perhaps you do not know that the actual testing of your eyes and the adoption of proper glasses whenever necessary to bring vision up to normal was done in a number of camps by optometrists. What an important part glasses played in the success of our Army and Navy is a chapter yet to be written. Now that the conflict is over it is fitting to call attention to the opportunity of entering a profession which has contributed so much to the winning of the war. And as optometry is a comparatively strange word to those not personally concerned with the profession, an explanation of its meaning had best preface this monograph. WHAT IS AN OPTOMETRIST? An optometrist examines eyes for the detection and correction of _visual_ or _muscular_ defects not requiring medical attention. He uses no drugs; he does not treat _diseases_ of the eye, nor does he practice surgery. To one not familiar with optical sciences it may be difficult to comprehend, then, what the work of the optometrist includes. Comparison of his work with two better known and somewhat related vocations--that of the oculist and that of the optician--will perhaps be the quickest method of explaining the practice of optometry. First, let it be understood that the human eye may be considered as a refracting and focusing mechanism, similar to a camera, as well as an organ subject to diseases like any other part of our body. An _oculist_ (a physician who specializes on the eye) deals both with refraction and muscular deficiencies, and with pathological or diseased conditions. An _optometrist_, on the other hand, specializes on the functions of the eye as a refracting and focusing apparatus. An _optician_ grinds the lenses and puts together the necessary fittings to form the eyeglasses prescribed by the oculist or the optometrist. TYPE OF MAN REQUIRED The serious nature of the optometrist’s work--the care of human vision--makes it imperative that only men of good moral character and high ideals be admitted to the practice of optometry. An optometrist should be more interested in helping his patient than in making money; he should be tactful, and not only professionally competent, but of the type of personality that inspires confidence. He should realize that the completion of his course of technical instruction and the receipt of a license to practice merely mark matriculation in a postgraduate course stretching out to the end of his days of practice. He should not enter the profession of optometry unless willing to continue the study of never-ending developments in this science and practice. LENGTH OF PREPARATORY TRAINING As the optometrist takes up little in medical studies, his technical training requires a briefer time than that of the physician or oculist. The optometrist, of course, must be able to recognize the symptoms of eye diseases, but does not attempt to remedy them; he refers such cases to a physician. In view of the lesser scope of the work of the optometrist his course of technical training covers only two to four years, as against four to seven years for medical education. The practice of optometry is regulated by law in 41 States, and in Hawaii, Philippine Islands, Porto Rico, and Alaska. These laws usually require a general education equivalent to two years of high school instruction and (before admission to examination for a license) completion of a course in a school of optometry having an approved two-year course, in addition to one year of practical service in an optometrist’s office. The laws of the different States vary considerably as to these requirements, and the prospective optometrist should inform himself as to the provisions of the law in the State in which he expects to practice. A few optometry laws have reciprocity clauses, making it permissible for licensees of one State to practice in another. Most of the schools have two-year courses--some longer. One of the universities--Ohio State--has an optometry course laid out over a period of four years. The course at Columbia University is planned to cover two years. In a number of instances it has been covered in one year by students who were exceptionally well prepared. The studies in optical subjects can be counted toward a B. S. degree, for which four years are required, as is usual. Besides these universities, a number of schools of optometry in various parts of the country have two to three year courses. A list of such schools and their addresses may be obtained from the Federal Board for Vocational Education. THE OPTOMETRIST’S WORK The word “optometry” is made up of two Greek words: optos, visible and metron, a measure, meaning the measurement of the visual powers. Examination for detection of visual deficiencies includes tests by the use of charts and of certain precise measuring instruments. For example: One instrument permits inspection of the interior of the eye; another, measurement of the curvature of the cornea; still another, the field of vision. With the data obtained by the intelligent use of all these instruments the optometrist can determine the nature of the lenses required to correct any refractive errors found. Formerly glasses were given merely as an aid to vision, now they are prescribed for the relief of strain and its resultant symptoms, such as headache, etc. They are also supplied for efficiency and protection purposes to factory employees, for some workmen without glasses will exhibit as much eye fatigue in 5 hours as others will in 10; and employers are now recognizing this to their own advantage. Thus the field of usefulness and profit for optometrists is ever enlarging. INDOOR WORK--PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS An optometrist confines his practice to office work, there being no traveling or outdoor activity. If desired, his office may be established in his own home. As the work is all indoors, there is no great physical strain. While sound health and normal strength are always desirable, robustness is not a first requirement of this vocation; nor is possession of all the members essential. A man who has lost a hand, an arm, a leg, or even both legs could successfully practice the profession of optometry, if properly fitted with artificial equipment. It is also quite possible for a man with one eye to practice optometry. To a determined man this would not prove an insurmountable obstacle, though he might be at a disadvantage because some patients might think he could not do his work as well. This is, of course, unreasonable, but should be considered. Several instances are known to the writer of successful optometrists who have lost the sight of one eye through cataract or other cause. A Colorado woman who has been practicing optometry for a number of years sums up some of the advantages of this profession in the following words: “There are fewer objectionable features, and more to commend the practice of optometry than in any other profession or semiprofession. No midnight calls, as in the case of the physician, no direct contact, as in osteopathy, or chiropractic; no proximity to offensive breath, as in dentistry. Variety and fascination attach to the work, besides the joy that comes with doing something that relieves suffering and is beneficial to humanity. The time required for preparation and getting established is somewhat less than for other professions; the expense incurred more moderate.” THE DEMAND FOR OPTOMETRISTS No man taking up the study of optometry need fear a lack of opportunity when his course is completed. There is a scarcity of optometrists all over this broad land, and in thousands of optometrists’ offices to-day opportunities are open for assistants. As such, an optometrist can develop a following, and eventually start for himself. Moreover, the call of young men to the defence of their country cut down the number of students in this, as in all other vocations; hence the number of graduates from the optometric schools and colleges is insufficient to meet the demand. Another advantage in following this vocation is the fact that the profession is still in the formative stage. For this reason there are unusual opportunities for progressive, studious, conscientious men of the professional type. The hours of work, which are regular, are of course determined by the individual practitioner; the man who has established his own office can make his hours to suit his own convenience. If he is employed by another optometrist, he will find the hours are not as long as in many other callings. SCOPE OF A COURSE IN OPTOMETRY The curriculum of the course in applied optics in one of our leading universities will give a comprehensive survey of the branches of scientific knowledge forming the science of optometry. The following subjects are included in this course: Chemistry, anatomy, physics, physiology, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, bacteriology, optics, psychology, drawing, pathology, and English composition. Under theoretical and applied optics are of course grouped the chief subjects bearing upon the science and practice of optometry. The mathematical studies are necessary as a foundation for an understanding of the optical science. While the university course, in its cultural as well as technical development, is desirable, still, as in other professions and callings, success and service are not dependent upon the completion of such a course. But general education, culture and personality developed therefrom are all potent factors in success in any profession, and should be acquired from one source or another before or during technical training. POSSIBLE INCOME As in other professions, it usually requires a few years to build up a practice, but few men who have started under proper conditions and with fair qualifications have failed to achieve success. An income of $1,500 or $2,000 yearly is common, and many optometrists earn incomes of from $5,000 to $10,000. As an employee of another optometrist, a practitioner can earn from $30 to $50 a week, and even more. Optometry is not a means of earning a living with ease nor a haven for the indolent, but it does offer a reasonable competency without unusual sacrifice or hardship. PLAN No. 927. THE FACTORY WOODWORKING TRADES ACKNOWLEDGMENT This monograph was prepared by Eugene C. Graham, special agent for the Federal Board for Vocational Education, under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Division of Research. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance. The trades of the planing-mill operator, of the cabinetmaker, and the finisher are the outgrowth of the trades of the village carpenter and painter. Woodworking factory products are innumerable, and a choice of occupation can be made so that you will find the work interesting, if you have any liking for the trades at all. In these trades the worker leads an active life and he is not generally exposed to severe weather conditions. The work is not usually heavy, and practically all of the men employed work indoors. The industries are bound together by the use of common materials and machines and related operations, while their products, as noted below, cover a wide range; many of the operations are similar, whether the product is furniture, interior finish, boxes and crates, truck bodies, or musical instruments. PLAN No. 928. CLASSES OF WORKERS AND WHAT THEY DO Workers in these trades may be grouped as in the following tabulation: ==============================+======================================= Classes of workers. | What the men do. ------------------------------+--------------------------------------- Yardmen } Dry kiln men } Lumber inspectors }Prepare raw material and keep machines Swing-saw men }and tools in order. Planer and resaw men } Filers } Millwrights } ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Machine operators } Off-bearers }Operate machines and prepare stock for Gluers }assembling. Carvers } Turners } ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Cabinetmakers } Chair makers } Frame, sash, and door makers }Assemble prepared pieces of stock into Interior wood finishers }built-up products. Assemblers } Box, crate, and basket makers } Toy makers } ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Men who apply stain and filler} Rubbers } Varnishers }Apply finishing materials and prepare French polishers }the product for sale. Upholsterers } Packing-room employees } ------------------------------+--------------------------------------- Foremen |Direct labor. ------------------------------+--------------------------------------- [Illustration: Plan No. 928. Industry Makes All Things Easy] Many employees in woodworking establishments are common laborers, some of whom have learned to do the simpler operations by watching other men at work. They may finally learn to run machines. Boys who are taken on as off-bearers get into positions as machine operators in this way. Other men of a somewhat higher grade, operate machines, work at the bench assembling parts, and in the finishing room apply the finishing materials. There are certain special occupations which require more skill, such as hand and machine carving, wood turning, and saw filing, for which men must be trained through a kind of apprenticeship, which may take several months or years. In these occupations workmen move about easily from one factory to another, or shift from one machine to another. Many men move about constantly, and seem to have little difficulty in fitting in wherever they go. The operator of woodworking machines is commonly required to look after the oiling of his machine, to change knives, saws, and cutter heads when they become dull or when the work requires it, and to adjust the machine properly so that it will do good work at a fast rate. SOME PRODUCTS OF THESE TRADES Factory woodworkers are employed in many industries in which the men carry on one or more of the lines of work specified above. Of these industries the principal products are the following: _Products of Woodworking Industries_ ========================+============================================= In planing mills. |Stair material; sash; doors; blinds, interior |finish for homes, stores, and offices; |built-in furniture parts; cabinets; cases; |mantels; bar, store, and hotel fixtures. ------------------------+--------------------------------------------- In vehicle, truck, and |Wagons; buggies; auto bodies; truck bodies; body factories. |poles and shafts; baby carriages. ------------------------+--------------------------------------------- In furniture factories. |Tables; chairs; bedroom, office, and library |furniture; kitchen cabinets; case goods; |specialty furniture; school furniture; |billiard and pool tables. ------------------------+--------------------------------------------- In box, crate, and |Boxes; crates; splint baskets; patent basket factories. |carriers; fruit and berry boxes. ------------------------+--------------------------------------------- Special products. |Airplane parts; agricultural implements; |cane, reed, and fiber goods; trunks; wooden |canoes and boats; coffins; musical |instruments; toys; games, etc. ------------------------+--------------------------------------------- PLAN No. 929. THE PLANING MILL INDUSTRY Much of the work formerly done by carpenters in the shop is now done to order in planing mills. This branch of the woodworking industry supplies lumber and building material at retail, and builds store and office fixtures, interior woodwork for dwelling houses, and a variety of special work which requires the use of machinery. Planing mill employees usually are able to do a variety of hand and machine work and usually receive therefrom somewhat higher wages than do factory workers. They rank with outside carpenters as mechanics, and the trade is organized as a branch of the carpenters and joiners national organization. Opportunities for advancement in this industry are greater than in other related woodworking occupations, but there is some irregularity in employment, since the prosperity of the trade depends on local building operations. PLAN No. 930. VEHICLE MANUFACTURING Buggies, wagons, and auto and truck bodies are built in special shops. These have separate departments for wheel making, body making, and other processes, and often buy their stock partly finished. PLAN No. 931. OTHER MANUFACTURING Musical instruments, such as pianos, organs, phonographs, and violins, are built in special factories, but the same processes are used here that are employed in the other woodworking occupations. Toys, games, gymnasium equipment, special wood products are made to a large extent by machine operations. The men employed are mostly machine hands, and women and boys do much of the assembling and finishing. Box, crate, barrel, and basket making are low-grade woodworking occupations. Much of the work done is rough and unfinished, and is turned out in large quantities. Women and boys are employed and machines are used as much as possible. DEMAND FOR LABOR INCREASING AND STEADY The field of the factory woodworker is growing. Much of the woodwork formerly performed on the job is now done in whole or in part in the factory. Growth of population and higher standards of living have increased the demands made upon woodworking factories for all sorts of furniture and equipment. The greater cost of metal furniture limits its use somewhat. Woodworking is less seasonal than many other lines of employment, and a disabled man may choose one of the woodworking trades in the assurance that he will be permanently employed at all seasons of the year. SAFETY AND HYGIENE Safety devices have reduced greatly the accident risk. Except for dust and fumes, now largely eliminated by means of exhaust fans, the working conditions are good. Fumes of paints, varnishes, and of their solvents are of course detrimental to health, if no precautions are taken to remove the fumes or to provide for adequate ventilation, and even under favorable conditions, it is only fair to say that a person who is inclined to tuberculosis should avoid the finishing trade. CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT Hours will average 54 a week. Wages have increased about 10 per cent in the past two years, and there has been some tendency to shorten hours. The wages received by box makers vary from 15 cents to a maximum of 40 cents an hour. Crate and basket makers, many of whom are women and boys, receive less. Cabinetmakers get from 20 cents to 75 cents an hour, according to the skill required. As a rule in the planing mills, where the men are organized, wages are higher, but these are offset by the fact that the planing-mill operators do not have as steady employment. Men in this occupation are employed quite regularly and do not move about much. In planing mills and to some extent in other factories, men remain year after year at the same bench, and there are many old men who have worked at the trade for 50 years. They are quite certain of steady employment at a living wage. But there is not much opportunity for advancement and independence unless the workman can become an owner of stock in the factory. PLAN No. 932. SPECIAL OPPORTUNITIES FOR DISABLED MEN In this field there are positions which will appeal to men with certain sorts of disabilities. Some of these occupations require a knowledge of materials and processes and the ability to direct men, but demand little in the way of mechanical training. Among these may be mentioned the following: Foreman of cabinetmakers and assemblers. Foreman of shipping room. Yard foreman, in charge of dry kiln and yard. Cost estimator for planing-mill. Salesman for factory-made products. Furniture designer and detailer. Other occupations which require more mechanical ability and which pay better wages than straight factory work may be mentioned also. These include: Foreman of the filing room (saw filing, knife and cutter grinding, etc.). Factory millwright. Foreman of the mill room or machine room. Operator of Linderman machine or of automatic turning machines. Practically all of the above special positions may be obtained only by men who have had previous training and experience before becoming disabled. These positions will be attractive to such men because they offer better wages and do not require so much manual labor. PLAN No. 933. QUALIFYING AS A TEACHER There is a demand for teachers of woodwork and drawing in the schools. If a disabled man with previous experience in the trade has had a high-school education and wants to become an instructor he may find it more profitable to do so than to go back into the trade. His injuries may not prevent the simple movements necessary in demonstrating to a boy or to another man the principles involved in the use of the tools. But it must be understood that both teaching ability and a knowledge of the trade are necessary for success. A man who already possesses one or the other will be far on his way, the school undertaking to provide for his deficiencies in one or the other line. But rarely can the school, in the limited period at its disposal, undertake both to develop teaching ability and to give a practical knowledge of the trade. WHAT OTHER DISABLED MEN HAVE DONE BY TRAINING Many examples might be cited of disabled men who have retrained for some line of woodworking. For example, a common laborer who became afflicted with chronic bronchitis and emphysema, took a three months’ course in cabinetmaking and now has a good position as a cabinetmaker. A farmer, who had suffered partial loss of function of his left hand through a gunshot wound, studied cabinetmaking and is now employed in this work by a motor company. A commercial traveler, whose right leg was rendered lame by a shrapnel wound, became a teacher of manual training at a good salary, by taking a teacher’s course. Other disabled soldiers who had a knowledge of some woodworking trade secured promotion through special courses. Their wounds brought them an opportunity of which they took advantage. A wood machinist, for example, whose hearing was seriously impaired in the service, took a course in lumber estimating and specification work in lumber yards, and now has a position in that field. A cabinetmaker, who suffered deformity of his left forearm, studied drafting and building construction, and secured a position, where his training counts, with a large sash and door company. A cabinetmaker, whose left leg was greatly weakened by a gunshot wound, obtained a position as instructor in manual training by taking a teacher’s course in this subject. PLAN No. 934. MACHINE OPERATING TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT The machine operator needs no personal equipment of tools, and most workmen carry only a folding pocket rule and a pencil. He operates a variety of machines, of which the principal ones are listed below: ======================+=============================================== Saws. |Swing saws; single and double cut-off saws; |hand and power feed ripsaws; variety of |universal saws; band scroll saws; horizontal |and vertical band resaws; grooving saws; jig |saws. ----------------------+----------------------------------------------- Planers. |Single and double surfacers; hand and power |feed jointers; continuous power feed jointers; |Linder machines; stockers, or two and four side |molders. ----------------------+----------------------------------------------- Sanders. |Belt sanders; drum sanders; disk sanders; edge |sanders; spindle sanders. ----------------------+----------------------------------------------- Lathes. |Spindle lathes; Blanchard lathes; special |automatic forming lathes. ----------------------+----------------------------------------------- Boring and mortising |Single and multiple spindle boring machines; machines. |foot lever mortisers; hollow chisel mortisers; |chain mortisers. ----------------------+----------------------------------------------- Shapers and profilers.|Single and double spindle shapers; routing and |profiling machines; spindle carvers. ----------------------+----------------------------------------------- Special machines. |Embossing machines; bending machines; dowel |machines; dovetailing machines. ----------------------+----------------------------------------------- PLAN No. 935. DISABILITIES FOR MACHINE OPERATING Such disabilities as slight deafness, blindness in one eye, hernia, or minor troubles of the heart, liver, kidneys, or digestion will not bar a man who can turn out fair work. Injuries to the fingers, hands, and arms have always been common in the woodworking industry and many of the best men have been disabled more than once. Some men have to change machines on account of injuries but not many lose out entirely. The loss of an arm or a leg would require intelligent placement on a particular machine. Some machines, including spindle carvers and some types of belt sanders, may be operated by men while sitting down. A great many machines require but little movement from a standing position, and could be operated by a man with one injured limb after some training. There is usually considerable dust in the air of a machine room, and this dust may be injurious to men with tuberculosis. Furthermore, men who are quite deaf or whose sight is not good, and who are certain to find it hard to handle material quite rapidly with safety to themselves and others, should avoid the machine room. OVERCOMING HANDICAPS In order to become accustomed to disabilities men will be trained in schools or shops to use injured members and thus to overcome the natural disinclination to use such members freely. Each man in training will change from one machine to another until he finds his place. Special training on machines will be offered in schools where, under a practical instructor, a man may try himself out. The operator will be taught in school to take care of his machine and remove dull cutters, knives, and saws. If he can be trained to set the knives and cutters in an automatic machine his future employment at good wages is assured. There is at present a strong demand for men who can operate automatic machines and set them up for a variety of work. Employers may be willing to substitute automatic or power feed machines for other types, at least where this may be done to the great advantage of the employer himself, as in the case of wood turning. A disabled man operating a modern automatic lathe can turn out a quantity of perfect work quite as easily as any other workman. Unlike the machinist the machine woodworker does not often work from blue prints. He needs only to learn to understand a stock bill stating the dimensions of the finished parts in plain figures, and is not concerned about the destination of these parts. All routing from machine to machine is looked after by the foreman. PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE AN ASSET Previous experience and training will often provide the man who is trying to come back with certain useful information about machine processes, adjustments, and lubrication. For instance, a carpenter who is incapacitated for climbing or for outside work, or a sawmill hand who requires indoor employment because of his injury may easily fit in as a machine operator. CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT Machine operators work about nine hours a day. They receive in wages from 25 cents to 50 cents an hour. The man who cuts up good lumber with a swing saw may receive more than the average because he must know how to avoid wasting expensive material. His good judgment is his capital. The machine woodworker often moves from one factory to another, but he is usually in demand and may count on steady employment without much regard to the season. RE-EDUCATION FOR MACHINE OPERATING No apprenticeship is usually considered necessary for machine operators. A try-out period of a few weeks will decide whether a man is likely to make good or not. A short period of training in a school where a variety of different machines is provided will help a man to get a real insight into his prospective occupation. The training required is usually obtained in the factory, but disabled men can shorten the period of training necessary in their case considerably by taking a short course in a well-equipped school under an instructor who is a practical woodworker. The course taken will be planned to prepare the pupil for a definite occupation. An agreement may be made with a prospective employer before the course is undertaken, so as to provide opportunity for overcoming any handicap in a definite way. The same results may be secured by short tryout courses in the factory itself and in most cases this will appeal both to the man himself and to the employer. But in order to guarantee an adequate course of training the factory must be required to make definite preparations to train disabled men under an agreement as to the instructor, the length of the course, and the subject matter of the instruction. PLAN No. 936. CABINETMAKERS THE OCCUPATION The work of the cabinetmaker, and of such other allied occupations as chair makers, assemblers, and box makers, is to use hand tools, and sometimes certain machines, in putting together furniture, interior woodwork, or manufactured articles of wood. In some factories he actually builds furniture or a completed product. In others he performs a few operations and passes the work on. Men who assemble furniture must apply glue to the joints, nail and screw parts together where necessary, and see that the finished product is clean, square, and solidly built. They use a variety of hand tools and sometimes take material to machines for certain operations. They are expected to leave surfaces well scraped and sanded. In all high class work they must show considerable skill in construction and knowledge of design. What tools are used will depend on the line of work. They are usually the property of the workman and are kept in order by him. They include the usual outfit of hammers, squares, saws, rules, shaves, chisels, bits, levels, planes, rasps, etc. The trade of the cabinetmaker may not appeal to more than a few disabled men from each community. Men who have worked at the trade and who already know something about it will naturally wish to stay in it if they can. Cabinetmakers are found in nearly every town or city. Planing mills and box factories are very common. Furniture factories are scattered throughout Wisconsin, Michigan, Illinois, Indiana, New York, and North Carolina more generally than in other States. HANDICAPS Since the cabinetmaker must be a skillful user of hand tools, any injury which prevents him from using his hands and arms easily will interfere with his success, but, as he does not need to move about much in the factory, foot and leg injuries need not constitute serious handicaps. He may have some lifting to do, and must be active in order to turn out a sufficient quantity of work. Partial deafness, blindness in one eye, or minor diseases of the heart, lungs, kidneys, or digestive organs need not disqualify a man if he can handle tools and work without undue fatigue. Loss of an entire arm, or severe injuries to both hands, or blindness, or diseases which cause considerable bodily weakness would generally constitute serious handicaps. SCHOOL AND SHOP TRAINING Cabinetmaking is the kind of training which most manual-training schools are best equipped. Successful schools are not hard to find, and men who are trying to overcome handicaps may find it easy to get a start through this school training. The cabinetmaker should learn: (a) How to use hand tools. (b) How to operate a few machines. (c) How to read a stock bill and to work to dimensions. (d) About glue, grain of wood, cabinet hardware, finishing material, etc. (e) How to make and read a simple drawing. Many good schools will provide the equipment and give instruction in the subjects mentioned. If the disabled man arranges for a combination of shop and school training in which he will have the benefit of practical instruction for half of each day, and will spend the remainder of the day in some factory, he will, after perhaps six months’ schooling and training, be able to maintain himself at the trade. Any other division of time as seems wise may be made. For instance, the first three months of training may be full-time work in the school and the next three months half-time in the shop and factory. PLAN No. 937. FINISHING The men who apply stain, filler, varnish, and other finishes properly belong in a class by themselves in the woodworking trades. Many of these men can do all of the operations necessary in finishing a piece of woodwork. The same ability and skill is possessed by men in the painters’ trade, but some of the processes are different, and the occupation may be considered separately. The finisher of wood products may use any of the following materials; Oil stains, acid stains, water stains, liquid and paste fillers, putty, linseed oil, shellac and shellac, substitutes, varnish, paint, enamel, lacquer, wax, and prepared polish. These materials are applied by dipping, brushing on with a brush or cloth or spraying on with an air brush or spraying machine. Excess material is removed by wiping with cloths, cotton waste, or vegetable fiber. Varnish is rubbed down to an even surface with pumice stone and water, or with sandpaper and steel wool. Drying ovens or hot rooms are often used to hasten the processes. The air brush is a spraying machine which atomizes the liquid finish and spreads it on a surface quickly and evenly. The machine consists of a tank, an air hose, and nozzles which spray the material in a fine mist. Various materials, such as varnish, shellac, and stain, may be applied with this machine. Men who apply filler, stain, and putty need very little training. Their skill consists in doing the work rapidly without waste of material. The same may be said of men who use rubbing machines or hand blocks in rubbing down varnish. A somewhat higher degree of skill must be possessed by the varnisher, whether he works with a common brush or an air brush. The brush hand must have considerable experience and know how to avoid brush marks, bubbles, and other evidences of poor work. The operator of the air brush acquires his skill by practice; experience with the common varnish brush is valuable but not altogether necessary. The same processes are used in finishing metal surfaces, and there is a demand for men in the automobile factories for experienced finishers. A disabled man might find an opportunity here if he could do about the same kinds of work as the common laborer. If his previous training and experience had given him a knowledge of the use of different finishes, he could adapt himself to the use of the air brush quite easily even if he had only one working arm and hand. A good eye to judge the condition of surfaces is essential. While training in a school is possible it is less necessary than in some skilled occupations where more tools are used and where a greater knowledge of processes is required. The handicaps which would interfere with success would be poor eyesight and the loss of both hands or arms. Experience in the employment itself would provide the best sort of training for a man who wants to re-enter the trade. A painter who is disqualified for outdoor work and for climbing could qualify for this work. Men who have had one arm fitted with a working hook could handle furniture in the process of dipping, and could apply and remove the excess of stain and filler. With factory training they could advance to brush hands and varnishers without great difficulty, if the opportunity offered. To handle a common brush or an air brush and to operate a rubbing machine requires one good hand, but disabilities of the feet and lower limbs can be overcome. Men receive from 25 cents to 60 cents or more an hour, according to the work done and the skill required. The hours are usually the 54 hours a week of most factory trades. There is some danger to health in handling wood alcohol, turpentine, or lead paints, but the use of any one of these materials is not constant enough to make the whole occupation dangerous. Those suffering from chest complaints should, however, avoid this trade. The trade is quite stable and the demand for men fairly constant. Employment in this trade is fairly certain and apparently will continue to be so in the future. The demand for experienced men for air brush work will increase with the more general utilization of machines, which is almost inevitable. The use of the air brush and the drying room or kiln has greatly increased the output of the finishing room per man employed, but increase in the quantity of the articles finished has offset this increased efficiency so that unemployment has not resulted. Hand varnishing, however, will continue to be done and skill in this work will be a valuable asset to the workman, whether he uses a hand brush or a machine. A short apprenticeship or try-out period in the factory will start many disabled men in this trade, but no school training is required. PLAN No. 938. TECHNICAL AGRICULTURE AS A VOCATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT This monograph was prepared by Dr. Walter J. Quick, Special Agent for the Federal Board for Vocational Education, under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Division of Research. Acknowledgment is due A. C. True, Director, States Relation Service; E. W. Allen, Chief, Office of Experiment Stations; W. H. Beal, Chief, Editorial Division, and Edwy B. Reid, Chief, Division of Publications of the United States Department of Agriculture, for suggestions and data; to the Curtis Publishing Co., for use of illustrations; also, to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance. POSITIONS IN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES, AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS, AND IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE Many responded to the call to arms from the student bodies and the faculties and staffs of the State agricultural colleges, experiment stations, and extension service. These institutions have lost also to war service, at least temporarily, numerous scientific associates, lecturers, and teachers, research experts and assistants, extension workers, county agents, and others in co-operative agriculture. During the war the withdrawals from all departments and lines of work were of necessity replaced by insufficiently prepared men who in turn, now that the war emergency is passed, will be replaced by trained, efficient men as such become procurable. It is to be noted further that agriculture in city high schools and other public-school grades is at the present time being taught largely by regular teachers not specially trained in the subject, the number teaching and demonstrating in the agricultural high schools of the country being about 2,500. Under the Smith-Hughes Act providing for introduction into public schools of agricultural studies and projects, the demand for agricultural teachers, directors, and organizers has greatly increased, and will continue to increase in the future. In the establishment throughout the States of vocational courses, under this vocational education act, great difficulty has been experienced during the war in securing a sufficient number of men qualified to teach agriculture. From year to year, as more Federal and State funds become available, the vocational schools will broaden the scope of their work and more instructors and trained scientific men will be required. In the higher institutions and services--the agricultural colleges, agricultural experiment stations, and agricultural extension service staffs--new appointments are constantly being made because of promotions, creation of new positions, changes for various reasons, resignations, and deaths. The agricultural colleges and experiment stations employ approximately 3,500 on their faculties and staffs, including associates, assistants, instructors, and helpers. The extension service workers number approximately 6,500, and the number would be greatly increased were trained men and funds available. Hundreds of counties have no agricultural agents. Compensation in these various lines is liberal and proportioned to service rendered, increasing with promotion from lower to higher positions. Under these conditions numerous teaching positions are now open to men qualified to fill such positions in our agricultural colleges, in our vocational schools, and in our agricultural high schools located in every section of the country. Each year, also, even under normal conditions, as has been noted, many appointments of research experts and assistants are made to the staffs of our agricultural experiment stations, as well as of demonstrators and lecturers in extension work, and of county agricultural agents. Those returning from overseas in fit condition will, in most cases, wisely resume their abandoned studies or scientific employment. Those disabled should, even during the period of their convalescence, begin to prepare themselves to resume former positions or others more desirable and in line of promotion. Some position is certainly awaiting you if you will but “run the course,” take the training, and prepare for it. These positions present exceptional opportunities in every State for disabled men who can qualify for them. They cover every phase of agriculture, and will appeal to men of practical experience in farming whose disability may make it inadvisable for them to undertake hard manual labor on the farm, and to men of scientific or technical training that especially fits them for teaching, lecturing, demonstrating, or conducting scientific research. In general, the positions most suitable for men who have been disabled, where such men have had practical agricultural experience and some agricultural education, and where they are disposed to take the necessary vocational training, will be positions as county agricultural agents, or as demonstrators in the co-operative extension service, or as organizers and directors of the club work in animal husbandry and cropping. These positions may serve most admirably to give training for promotion to some more specific line of work. AGRICULTURAL SPECIALISTS While the agricultural specialist has usually a thorough knowledge of some particular line of work, and is exceptionally efficient in that line, he does in many instances specialize in several different lines. For example, many have specialized successfully in “poultry, fruit, and bees,” and a specialist may easily be well informed in all three of these lines. Nearly all farmers devote themselves to some specialty in which naturally their sons also become efficient. By vocational training such young men who have been disabled in the war, especially those who have had in addition to their practical farm rearing some systematic school training in an agricultural course, may have their development rounded out until they become capable, practical specialists. Their efforts may be expected to be attended by that success which always accompanies the combination of practice and theory. A special vocational training will be necessary to fit such men for positions in agricultural colleges, experiment stations, or extension service. PROMOTION OPPORTUNITIES AHEAD Much of the specialist’s work can be undertaken by men with serious physical disabilities, and the opportunities for promotion along lines of expert and special service are excellent. The following lists of positions in schools, colleges, and experiment stations, as teachers, lecturers, demonstrators, and research men, indicate the wide range of opportunity open to men of varied training, experience, and capacity. The lists have been made up from official publications showing the positions in agricultural institutions, and an attempt has been made to indicate the number and character of appointments usually made to the staffs of such institutions. For example, the department of animal husbandry in an established agricultural college located in a State in which grain production and live-stock industries are prominent will frequently include, in addition to the head of the department of animal husbandry, four or five and sometimes as many as eight or ten associate heads of subdivisions, each subdivision employing instructors and assistants, together with a number of herdsmen and helpers for practical work. The number of departments and subdivisions and the number employed in each department, of course, varies from institution to institution. In the following lists, when the singular form is used, as for example “associate,” it indicates that commonly one associate is employed in the subject indicated in an institution covering the subject adequately. Where the plural form is used it indicates two associates as the usual number employed, and where the name of the position is followed by a numeral or numerals, as “associate (2 to 5),” it indicates that more than two will usually be found on the staff. PLAN No. 939. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE POSITIONS The Federal Board for Vocational Education has completed arrangements with the State Agricultural Colleges for special technical and for regular courses, giving such training for the positions indicated below as seems most suitable, taking account of age and experience in each case. You should consult the nearest vocational officer, remembering that Uncle Sam is ready to train you free in a technical course and pay you while you are taking it, also to help you secure a permanent position after your training is completed. If you were pursuing a course in one of the State Agricultural Colleges or in an agricultural high school when called to arms, resumption and completion of that course is generally to be recommended. You can not as a general rule afford to abandon a course once begun in which you have made any considerable progress. Many minor positions are available to ambitious students requiring financial assistance promptly after or even during preparation. Many of the less important college positions immediately available for men who have taken training provide opportunities for further study and training leading to higher positions in the agricultural colleges, as indicated in the positions here listed. The same is true of positions listed herein under Experiment Stations and Extension Service. PLAN No. 940. LIST OF POSITIONS IN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES _Faculty:_ Dean. Assistant to dean. Office employees. Heads of departments. Associates. Instructors. Assistants. _Agriculture_, head of department. Rural schools, supervisor. Junior school, superintendent. High schools, agricultural, supervisor. College: Librarian. Assistant librarian. Curator. Assistant curator. Photographer. Assistant. Farm management: Associate. Instructors. Assistants (2 to 4). Farm manager. Farm foremen. Farm laborers (3 to 15). Journalism: Editor. Assistant editor. Assistants. Education, scientific: Associates. Assistant. Economics: Associate. Instructor. Assistant. Pedagogy: Associates. Instructors. Assistants (2 to 5). _Agricultural engineering_, head of dept. Rural engineering: Associates (2 to 4). Instructors (2 to 6). Assistants (2 to 4). Highway engineering, associate. Irrigation engineering: Associate. Assistants. Drainage engineering: Associate. Assistants. _Agronomy:_ Head of department. Associates (2 to 5). Instructors (2 to 4). Assistants (2 to 4). Seed, analysts. Farm crops-- Products-- Associate. Instructors. Plant breeding-- Associates. Instructors. Assistants. Soil investigations-- Biology-- Associates. Assistants. Physics-- Associate. Instructors. Assistants. Soil, analyst. Bacteriology, associate. Fertilizers-- Instructor. Assistant. _Animal husbandry:_ Head of department. Associates (2 to 5). Instructors (2 to 4). Assistants (2 to 4). Cattle-- Associates (4 to 10). Instructors (4 to 6). Assistants (2 to 4). Horse-- Associates (4 to 10). Instructors (4 to 6). Assistants (2 to 4). Swine-- Associates (4 to 10). Instructors (4 to 6). Assistants (2 to 4). Sheep-- Associates (4 to 10). Instructors (4 to 6). Assistants (2 to 4). Pathology-- Associate. Assistant. Nutrition-- Associate. Instructor. Assistant. Meats, assistant. Genetics-- Associate. Instructor. Assistant. _Bacteriology:_ Head of department. Instructors (1 to 4), Hygiene, associate. _Beekeeping:_ Associate. Apiarist. Instructor. _Botany:_ Head of department. Associates. Instructors (1 to 3). Assistants. Plant pathology-- Associate. Instructors (2 to 4). _Canning:_ Associate. Instructors. Assistants. Helpers. _Chemistry, agricultural_, head of dept. Soil, crops: Associates (2 to 5). Instructors (2 to 5). Assistants (2 to 8). Soil physics: Associates. Assistants. Fertilizer control: Manager. Analysts (2 to 10). Recorders (2 to 4). Markers (2 to 5). _Chemistry, general_, head of dept. Inorganic: Associates. Instructors (2 to 4). Assistants. Organic: Associates. Instructors (2 to 4). Assistants (2 to 4). Physiology: Associate. Assistant. _Daily husbandry:_ Head of department. Associate. Instructor. Assistants. _Dairy industry:_ Associate. Instructors (1 to 3). Assistant. _Dairy bacteriology_, associate. _Entomology:_ Head of department. Associates. Instructors (2 to 4). Agriculture, instructor. Insecticides-- Instructor. Assistant. Limonology-- Associate. Instructor. Assistant. _Floriculture:_ Head of department. Associate. Instructor. Assistant. _Forestry:_ Head of department. Instructor. Management-- Foresters. Rangers. Guards. Pursuits-- Associates. Assistants. Silviculture, associate. Arboriculture-- Associates. Assistants. _Gardening, market:_ Head of department. Assistant. Vegetable, associate. Small fruits, associate. Truck-- Associate. Instructor. _Geology:_ Associate. Assistant. Meteorology, associate. _Horticulture:_ Head of department. Associates (2 to 4). Instructors. Assistant. Pomology-- Associate. Instructor. Assistant. Citriculture-- Associate. Instructor. Assistant. Zymology-- Associate. Assistant. _Landscape architecture:_ Head of department. Associates. Assistants. _Microbiology:_ Head of department. Instructor. Assistant. _Parasitology:_ Associate. Assistant. _Poultry husbandry:_ Head of department. Associate. Instructors. Assistant. _Rural sociology:_ Head of department. Assistant. Instructor. _Veterinary:_ Head of department. Associate. Assistants. Diagnosis, associate. Medicine-- Instructor. Assistants. Histology, instructor. Laboratory-- Supervisor. Assistant. Physical therapeutics, instructor. Anatomy-- Associate. Instructor. Pathology, associate. Surgery, associate. Bacteriology, associate. _Viticulture:_ Head of department. Instructor. Assistant. _Zoology:_ Associate. Instructors (1 to 3). Assistants. Limonology-- Associate. Instructors. Ornithology-- Associate. Instructor. Assistant. Morphology, associate. PLAN No. 941. AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION POSITIONS Technical books have been in such exceptional demand by the wounded in the hospitals that the American Library Association could hardly fill the orders, it is noted, and that vocational education has received a big stimulus from the soldiers having acquired the vocational study idea which argues well for efficiency in their future undertakings. It is difficult to adequately comprehend the value of the soldier’s experience educationally. He has learned discipline and devotion to a cause and that simple reading is not study. Study has been required and he knows how, with concentration of his supple mind, to acquire definite knowledge and employ it. It should be emphasized that eligibility for positions in experiment stations, except as assistants and helpers, presupposes definite college preparation. The college course pursued should include training in experiment work in some technical line in agricultural experimentation or demonstration as a vocation. Experiment station work differs radically from educational work in agricultural colleges and high schools, and it may be well suited to those properly qualified for it who are disinclined to undertake teaching. Experiment work is exceedingly interesting and preparation for it can to greater advantage be undertaken by those who have had some agricultural college training, or even agricultural high school training, combined with practical experience in agriculture. Half the battle is won when one has determined to achieve efficiency in some line of work, and to take such training as is required to prepare one to enter into agricultural service as an expert. PLAN No. 942. LIST OF POSITIONS IN AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATIONS _Station Staff:_ Director. Vice director. Assistant to director. Editor. Photographer. Chiefs of divisions. Associates. Assistants. _Agricultural engineering_, chief: Irrigation-- Associate chief. Assistants (2 to 7). Mechanical-- Associate chief. Assistants (2 to 5). Electrical-- Associate chief. Assistants (2 to 4). Landscape-- Associate chief. Assistant. _Agricultural extension_, chief: Co-operation, assistant chief. Farm projects-- Associate chief. Assistant. _Agronomy:_ Chief of division. Assistants. Soil physics-- Associate chief. Assistant chief. Associates (2 to 3). First assistants (2 to 6). Assistant. Plant breeding-- Associate chief. First assistant. Soil fertility-- Associate chief. Associates (2 to 4). First assistants (2 to 3). Assistants (2 to 3). Crop specialties-- Associate chief. Assistants. Crop production-- Associate chief. First assistant. Assistants (2 to 3). Co-operative experiments, superintendent. Soils laboratory, assistant chief. Soil biology-- Assistant chief. First assistants. Soil analysis-- Associates. First assistants. Assistants. Rust work, assistant. Dry farming, assistant. Seeds control, associate. Laboratory, analyst. Testing, assistants. _Animal husbandry:_ Chief. Associates (2 to 3). First assistants (2 to 3). Assistants (2 to 3). Animal nutrition-- Associate chief. Associates. Assistants (2 to 3). Swine husbandry-- Assistant chief. Assistants. Sheep husbandry-- Assistant chief. Assistants. Horse husbandry-- Assistant chief. Assistants. Cattle husbandry-- Assistant chief. Assistants. Genetics-- Assistant chief. First assistant. Animal pathology-- Chief. Assistants. _Botany:_ Chief of division. Assistant chief. Associates. Assistants (2 to 3). Plant pathology-- Associate chief. Assistant. _Chemistry:_ Chief of division. Assistant chief. Assistants (2 to 3). Dairy chemistry-- Associate. Assistant. Floricultural chemistry-- Associate. Assistant. Horticultural chemistry-- Associate. Assistant. Soils chemistry-- Associate chief. Associates. Assistants (2 to 4). Crops chemistry-- Associate. First assistant. Assistants. _Dairy husbandry:_ Chief. Associate chief. Assistants (2 to 3). Bacteriology-- Associate chief. Associates. Assistants. Breeds, experimental-- Associate chief. Assistants. Manufactures-- Associate. First assistant. Assistants. Milk production-- Associate. Assistants. Dairy production, first assistant. Economics, assistant. _Entomology:_ Chief of division. Associate chief. Assistants (2 to 4). Beekeeping-- Apiarist. Assistant. _Farm organization_, chief of division: Farm surveys-- Assistant chief. First assistant. Management-- Associate chief. First assistant. Assistants (2 to 7). _Forestry_, chief of division: Surveys-- Associates. Assistants. _Horticulture:_ Chief of division. Assistant chief. Olericulture-- Chief. Assistant chief. First assistant. Assistant. Truck crops-- Associate. Assistant. Plant breeding-- Associate chief. Assistant. Fruit breeding-- Assistant chief. First assistant. Assistants. Floriculture-- Assistant chief. Assistants (2 to 3). Pomology-- Assistant chief. Associates (2 to 3). First assistant. Assistant. Plant physiology, associate. PLAN No. 943. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE POSITIONS The recent war necessity for organization of agricultural forces exhibited the co-operative extension system through county agents, farm bureaus, and local organizations, as a very effective means of greatly increasing agricultural production. To the Agricultural Extension Service established by our Government in connection with the Department of Agriculture and the State agricultural colleges was due this agricultural co-operation enabling the American farmer in a great emergency to meet practically every demand for production promptly and effectively. Much remains to be done to perfect co-operation of organizations in developing county communities, but a broad foundation has been laid for the service and well-trained, practical men are employed to carry the results of scientific research, demonstration work, and practical experience to the farmer. COUNTY AGRICULTURAL AGENTS The men holding these positions are known as county agents who direct and demonstrate farm problems, club leaders who direct extension work with young people, and specialists in different lines of agriculture. There are 2,936 counties in the United States, of which 2,300 have county agricultural agents. The duties developing upon the county agent are numerous. In brief to introduce to the farmers in a practical manner the scientific investigations and the experience of successful farmers. Also to demonstrate so well their practicability that farmers may be induced to adopt them. If practical and reliable, the county agent is able to reorganize and direct the agriculture of the community and be a force socially and economically in improving country life. In short, he should be able to instruct in all subjects having to do with improved agricultural practice, and from a business standpoint with buying and selling and general farm management. Many of these projects are brought home to the farmer, and he is influenced in their adoption by actual demonstrations which he is induced to undertake, with his own labor and at his own expense. These projects are conducted under supervision, and may have to do with crops, live stock, drainage, or any phase of farm work. COUNTY AGENT IN TOUCH WITH FARMERS The position of county agent affords an exceptional opportunity as a step to further advancement. The county agent is an organizer of farm bureaus, farm clubs, and stands back of all in demonstration work. He is practically the farmer’s business adviser as well as his educator, and need for his services is found in directing farm activities as well as in demonstrations. As has been well said: “The purpose of the agent is not to make farmers’ bulletins, but to interpret them; not to take theory to the farmer, but practice to the puzzled tillers of the soil.” In no other line of research work are young men of agricultural rearing and experience and with scientific training more successful or acceptable than in directing the farmer, though he may be old in experience, in the many up-to-date measures productive of success and profit on his farm. Last year 500,000 farmers conducted demonstrations of various kinds in co-operation with county agents which covered an aggregate of 1,000,000 acres. County agents held 135,000 meetings attended by 7,000,000 farmers, made 1,200,000 visits to farmers, and received 1,250,000 office calls from farmers for advice. The county agent works with all county societies, such as granges, farmers’ unions, alliances, farmers’ institutes, community clubs, and such boy and girl clubs as he may organize to support his work. CLUB LEADERS This club work is supervised by State and county leaders. Over 2,000,000 boys and girls were enrolled as club members the past year. For example, the members enter into competition in corn growing, for prizes on a basis of largest production at lowest cost, best collection of 10 ears, and best story of the year’s work. They receive from the extension instructors definite information regarding soil, planting, and cultivation, and are taught valuable lessons in handling soil, picking seed, improving varieties, use of fertilizers, cost accounting, etc. Similar clubs for like purposes grow home gardens, potatoes, cotton, grain, and fruits and much enthusiasm has been manifest in clubs for the raising of pigs, sheep, calves, and poultry. These clubs are all elementary to the more important work directed by the extension workers in general farm lines, farm gardening in particular, and profitable farm poultry raising. EXTENSION SERVICE The extension service workers have the support of many local organizations in addition to those assisting the county agents, such as local boards of agriculture, county councils, farm bureaus, clubs, and agricultural committees. There are over 1,000,000 farmers members of such organizations assisting county agents and extension workers. The agricultural projects contemplated under the vocational education act are lending great assistance to extension-service workers through co-operation by encouragement to the country boys undertaking the projects along with their club competitions. You may well ask if there is any field of employment open to you which promises greater satisfaction in health, happiness, and service than is found in agricultural extension work. The scientific undertakings are attractive, the positions numerous, paying good salaries, and, if one desires, they can be sought where one’s life may be largely in the outdoors. It is in fact difficult to conceive of a more attractive vocation for which to select education and training. The curriculum of some agricultural colleges will give you complete preparation and will assure you success in some specific line of technical agriculture. Positions available in extension service are shown in the following list: PLAN No. 944. LIST OF POSITIONS IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SERVICE _Extension staff:_ Director. Vice director. State leader. State leader, junior, extension. Assistant State leaders. _Agricultural extension:_ Leaders. Assistants. Agronomy, specialist. Farm crops: Associates. Assistants (3 to 8). Soils: Associates. Assistants (3 to 6). _Animal husbandry:_ Specialist. Associates (2 to 5). Assistants (3 to 7). _Botany, agricultural:_ Associate. Assistants. _Club work_, assistants (2 to 4): Boys’ and girls’ clubs-- Leader. Assistants. Canning clubs-- Leader. Assistants. Pig clubs-- Leader. Assistants. Calf clubs-- Leader. Assistants. Garden clubs-- Leader. Assistants. _Crop pests:_ Specialist. Associate. Assistants. _Dairy husbandry:_ Specialist. Associates (3 to 10). Assistants (2 to 7). _Farm demonstration work_, State leader: Divisional, each branch-- Specialists (5 to 12). Assistants (5 to 10). Farm, advisory-- County agents (1 each county). Assistants. Junior extension-- State leader. Assistants. _Farmers’ institutes_, specialist. _Farm management:_ Demonstrator. Assistants (several). _Farm organization:_ Specialist. Associates (2 to 7). Assistants (2 to 8). _Hog production_, assistant. _Horticulture_, specialist: Demonstration-- Assistants (3 to 8). Spraying-- Specialist. Assistants. _Market surveys:_ Associate. Assistant. _Poultry husbandry:_ Specialist. Associates. Assistants. Management, associate. Farm poultry, associate. _Publications:_ Editor. Assistants. _Rural engineering_, assistant. _Short courses and exhibits:_ Superintendent. Associates. Assistants. _Veterinary extension:_ State veterinarian. Associate. Assistants. PHOTOGRAPHY, PHOTO-ENGRAVING, AND THREE-COLOR WORK ACKNOWLEDGMENT This monograph was prepared by Prof. David J. Cook, Demonstrator and Instructor, in the Bissell Colleges, at Effingham, Ill., under direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance. In the field of photography, photo-engraving, and three-color work you can succeed and re-establish yourself in civil life as an independent worker, in spite of your handicap, provided you have natural aptitude for the work. You can do this even if you have lost your hearing, or lost a hand, an arm, a foot, or a leg, or both legs, or an arm and a leg. In the best studies and shops of the country, from $25 to $75 a week may be made by competent men; or one may establish himself in business with pleasant surroundings and ideal working conditions. The photographer and photo-engraver meet people at their best, and the taking of a picture, or the making of an engraving becomes merely an incident in a pleasant business transaction. Much of the work may be done while seated, and the work as a whole requires but little strength. Photography, photo-engraving, or three-color work may be practiced as an art, as a business, as a profession, or as a science, and one has a wide range of choice in electing just the kind of work suitable to one’s condition, preferences, and past experience. PLAN No. 945. AIR BRUSH WORK Air brush work pertains to the working-up of enlargements and contact prints in black and white, sepia, or color. Expert operation of the air brush is little less than magical in its delicate shading and color effects. Operators of the air brush command high salaries and are in great demand. PLAN No. 946. BROMIDE PRINTING This is a trade in itself, and numerous houses make a specialty of bromide enlargements for the trade. PLAN No. 947. COMMERCIAL PHOTOGRAPHY Photographing machinery, furniture, fixtures, fabrics, glassware, and manufactured products is a distinct branch of trade, and the commercial photographer often builds up an enviable business, conducted with but little overhead expense. He is moreover, much in the open, and he can choose practically his own time to do his work. Some commercial photography is commonly done also by the regular portrait photographer, and much of this work can be done in the studio under cover. But little equipment is required, and the compensation is fair. PLAN No. 948. COPYING, COLORING PHOTOGRAPHS AND LANTERN SLIDES, SLIDE MAKING, WORKING IN BACKGROUNDS, MOUNTING, SPOTTING AND FINISHING, RETOUCHING AND ETCHING All of these special services are embraced in regular studio practice. Good workmen in any one of the lines indicated command good pay and steady employment. The demand for experts generally exceeds the supply, especially for retouchers and etchers, who can improve negatives artistically, and correct the seeming exaggerations of the camera. Good retouchers may establish retouch studios in the larger cities and secure work from local photographers at from 30 cents to $1 per negative, depending upon the amount of work required per negative. A good retoucher can do up to 20 negatives a day, piece-work. PLAN No. 949. LANDSCAPE AND ARCHITECTURAL PHOTOGRAPHY This work takes one out into the open; is very healthful; and quite a body builder. One with a knowledge or liking for building and construction work may fairly expect to succeed well. Practically all railroads employ view photographers, and their work is exceedingly interesting on account of the travel from place to place. PLAN No. 950. PRESS PHOTOGRAPHY The press photographer leads an exciting life and the man with a “nose” for news items finds himself ideally located at a good salary. Many of the best men recently engaged in war photography were formerly press photographers. PLAN No. 951. AMATEUR FINISHING Amateur finishing offers a good field for profit, and many establishments in large cities, and even in smaller communities, provide amateur finishing in sufficient amount to keep a photographer busy long into the night in the busy season. The busy season may, in fact, be practically all the year around, as almost everyone now has a hand camera or kodak, and depends nearly altogether on the amateur finisher to develop and print films. PLAN No. 952. MAKING HOME PORTRAITS The home portrait worker photographs his patrons in their own home surroundings. He need have no studio. Hence his expenses are light and his profits relatively large. Home portraiture is one of the most delightful branches of photography, and the highest prices are obtained for work in this line. Equipment will cost about $200; there is no overhead; and the worker may work either during the day, or at night by the aid of artificial lighting installations, such as flashlight or electric light. PLAN No. 953. MOTION PICTURE PHOTOGRAPHY Motion picture photography is becoming more and more popular, and appeals strongly to the man who has a liking for the stage and for things emotional. Good operators make perhaps the highest salaries paid photographers. Here again one can specialize as a camera man, a laboratory man, or a printer. The laboratory work is chiefly that of developing the negative and positive films. PLAN No. 954. PORTRAIT PHOTOGRAPHY The portrait photographer must maintain more of an establishment than is required for some other lines of work, and may perhaps have to invest more money, since his place of business should be in some degree an art gallery. His is a busy and interesting life, and the maker of portraiture by photography should be a real artist, comparable with the artist who works with brushes and pigments. The artist-photographer’s work is just enough varied, in artistic lighting of the subject, development of the negative, retouching, mounting and finishing of the photograph, to stimulate interest. Every portrait is just a little bit different, and presents new problems for the photographer. Many studios employ 5 to 50 workers, and the incomes of some of our best studio owners amount up into five figures. Some workers specialize in portrait operating, printing and finishing, and developing and laboratory work--all highly paid branches. PLAN No. 955. PHOTO ENGRAVING AND THREE-COLOR WORK Photo-engraving in halftone, line, and three-color work seems bound to take its place along with its great ally, the art of printing. All sorts of texts are being more profusely illustrated, and the demand for good photo-engravers keeps pace with the demand for good printers. The following subjects may be listed as indicating specialty branches in this field, each of which provides subject matter for a systematic course of training. SUBJECTS TAUGHT _Line operating._--Making the negative without the use of the screen for a literally exact reproduction of pen and ink work, etc. _Line printing._--Printing the line negative onto the coated metal. _Line etching._--Corroding the metal with etching solutions after it has been printed upon, thereby producing a printing surface. _Halftone operating._--The process of making screen negatives ready in every respect for the printer. _Halftone printing._--Printing of the stipple negative on the coated zinc or copper plate. _Halftone etching._--Etching the metal plate with the different solutions to produce a relief printing surface that will take the ink in the proper relations. _Finishing._--Working with tools upon the etched metal plates to improve them in various ways, remove defects, etc. _Routing._--Removing with the routing machines undesirable surface from the etched metal plates. _Blocking._--Mounting the metal and making it ready for the hands of the printer. _Proofing._--Inking the finished cut and printing on paper duly prepared. _Three-color work._--Making of color separation negatives color plates, selection of inks, order of printing, etc. In photo-engraving, and three-color work, one may be an all around workman or a specialist. In shop practice one is usually employed at a single operation, and being highly skilled in that, one obtains correspondingly high remuneration. Employment in these several occupations may be had in commercial workshops, studios, engraving plants, newspaper plants, printing establishments, manufacturing establishments, homes, colleges, or in the open, and employment is not restricted to any one locality, but may be secured in the small town as well as in the great city. The practice of these arts is in fact very widespread. All tools are provided by the employer, and but little capital is needed to become established in a paying profession. A camera and lens and a halftone screen are the principal essentials. WHY TRAINING IS NECESSARY The photographer or photo-engraver who has “picked up” his profession in the ordinary manner will generally do his work but indifferently, and in consequence his success also will be only indifferent. He may have learned to do things simply by rule of thumb. To become an expert workman he must study and practice under competent instructors, and must follow some systematic course of training under such instruction. In a short time he may expect to become fitted to enter into his life work 100 per cent proficient, and he may expect to secure a good position immediately upon completion of his course. One can hardly expect to receive explicit and accurate instruction while working as an apprentice in busy shop or studio, and moreover, one rarely finds a worker that can even, if he has leisure, impart his knowledge to others as effectively as can the professional teacher. The practice in large institutions and organizations generally now is to require some systematic training as a qualification for employment. After training one is enabled to take a paying position or to enter into business for oneself. The opportunities are good and the field is large for really good workmen. The hours are not long, and the work is not confining. The pay is better than in many other trades or professions and employment is fairly constant, as there is really no well-defined slack period. PLAN No. 956. GENERAL INFORMATION--QUESTIONS ANSWERED Q. What education is required to learn photography, photo-engraving, or three-color work?--A. Anyone with natural aptitude for the work who will make an earnest effort can succeed, whatever his previous education may have been. Q. At what age is it best to learn photography or photo-engraving?--A. Any age over 18. It is never to late to learn. Q. Can one learn to be a first-class up-to-date photographer by working in an ordinary studio?--A. Generally a student will learn more rapidly and acquire greater proficiency by taking a systematic course of training in some school of photography--even a short course. Q. Is retouching a strain on the eyes?--A. Not if it is properly taught. Q. Is a previous knowledge of photography necessary for those who would learn photo-engraving?--A. Not at all. All the photographic knowledge pertaining to the work is taught in the regular engraving courses. Q. Is photo-engraving unhealthful?--A. Not in the least. Q. Can one by taking employment in an ordinary plant acquire facility in all the up-to-date processes of photo-engraving?--A. A student will learn more in a shorter time by taking a systematic course in the subject. Q. Do students generally take training in all three of the branches which have been described?--A. Very seldom; usually enrollments are for one of the three--i. e., either photography, photo-engraving, or three-color work. PLAN No. 957. OPPORTUNITIES FOR EMPLOYMENT IN THE JEWELRY TRADE ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. This monograph was prepared by Miss Eleanor Adler, under direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance. The disabled soldier, sailor, or marine during the days of waiting in the hospital will naturally ask himself, “What is the best way for me to earn a living with my handicap?” He may find one of the many answers to that question in some of the opportunities of the jewelry trade. If he has two good hands and good eyesight, and if he has any mechanical bent, he may become in this trade the equal of any worker in it. One artificial leg or even two constitutes no serious handicap in this line of work. If, in addition to mechanical aptitude, he has any artistic creative capacity, he can become very expert and earn an assured income permanently. Jewelry making is an old trade with a pedigree reaching back into medieval and ancient times. In those days it was more an art than an industry. Its master craftsmen were known by name and were famous for their particular skills. In recent times the installation of machinery has made it possible to produce some standardized articles by the gross instead of by the piece, thus greatly cheapening output. Fine-grade factories working chiefly in platinum still use hand processes and make their necklaces, brooches, and other pieces from individual designs and patterns. Cheaper-grade factories work more in gold and make many of their articles, such as cuff links, bracelets, and rings, of a standard pattern, which is stamped out by machines, the articles being turned out by the gross or dozen. PLAN No. 958. WORKING IN PLATINUM Processes in the platinum jewelry trade--the hammering, drawing, and soldering of the precious metal--require skilled craftsmanship. The designer first makes the original picture or pattern of the brooch, necklace, or other piece, and if the details of the design and general character are approved he then makes an accurate pen-and-ink line drawing. He is paid from $35 to $75, possibly $100 a week. The modeler makes a model in wax in the same way that the designer makes the picture. His wages are the same as the designer’s. Designers who are also modelers are much in demand. The sketch or wax model then goes to the engraver, who transfers the design from the picture or wax to a flat piece of metal, engraving it lightly, in order to make a permanent record of the design. Engravers have to be very skilled and are paid from $40 to $60 per week. The metal next goes to the jeweler, who “makes the piece”--that is, takes the flat piece of metal and hammers and models it--“using a soft lead block, upon which he rests his platinum plate, face downward, and modeling from the reverse side with various-sized blunt-nosed punches and a mallet whose head is made of rawhide.”[17] He then cuts out the design by following the engraved outline with a saw about the thickness of a coarse thread. All the leaf and so-called demelle decoration and other piercings are made in this way. The work is skilled and requires a steady hand and long practice, but can be developed from any good mechanic. It is paid by the hour, 75 cents to $1.25.[18] [17] “Jewelry,” by De Witt A. Davidson, in “An Exhibition of American Industrial Art.” [18] Unions claim that the wage ranges from 85 cents to $2.50 per hour. Next the piece goes to the polisher, who polishes the back and attaches it to a frame or catch. Polishers in platinum factories are usually girls and are paid from $20 to $25 per week. The stone setter then puts the piece into a bed of shellac to hold it firmly and mounts the diamonds, working up platinum beads out of the flat metal to hold the stones in place. Setting a row of diamonds so that they seem an uninterrupted line of brilliancy is called “pave work” and requires great skill. Stone setters are paid by the piece and make $40 to $125 per week.[19] [19] Unions claim that the wage for this work ranges from $60 to $125 per week. The metal is then taken off the shellac, goes once more to the polisher, and then to the finisher, who is merely a jeweler doing the particularly skilled work of final inspection and adjustment. The number of processes in a platinum factory varies. In some cases they are so combined that one man performs several different processes. One expert may even make a whole piece from beginning to end. The tendency in this line is in fact back to the old Guild conditions at a time when the value of a jewel setting lay in its uniqueness. Very beautiful work is sometimes done in the homes of workmen. The material is called for, and the article is designed, wrought, and returned completely finished. In cheaper-grade factories, on the other hand, processes are more subdivided, machine work being substituted for handwork. For instance, the engraver may be eliminated by stamping work out by dies instead of engraving it by hand. In this way platinum jewelry can be turned out faster, and in larger quantities than when engraved in single pieces, and of course the same skill is not required. The average wage is $25 per week. Cheaper grade factories all subdivide their processes more in this way, use more machines, and turn out work by the dozen in platinum and by the gross in gold, instead of by the piece. PLAN No. 959. WORKING IN GOLD A factory that works with gold employs designers in the same way as does the platinum factory. The metal itself first goes to a melter and roller, who puts it into crucibles, then into the furnace, and then rolls it into ingots. The work is heavy, and necessitates standing and the use of both arms and feet. Wages are $25 per week. In the cheaper-grade factories the gold, instead of going to the engraver for piecework, goes directly to the press and stamping room, where it is pierced by machines, stamped and pressed into patterns by the gross. Conditions of work are the same as in the first department, except the presswork, which is fairly light, but necessitates the use of one leg. Wages range from $18 to $25 per week. The article then goes to the jeweler, who assembles the parts, solders them in the center, and shapes them by the aid of small machines and blowpipes, according to samples shown him. Wages are from $18 to $40 per week. The work next goes to the polisher, either a man or a girl, who does the polishing seated at a buffing wheel. The polisher earns from $18 to $35 per week. If the article is to be dipped in a solution to change its color, it then goes to the colorer, who is often also a polisher, and earns the same wages. When fine work is done by an engraver, his work is much the same as in a platinum factory. Very expert work is paid from $40 to $60 per week. The same statement applies to the stone setter, who is paid by the piece, and often makes from $70 to $100 per week. The article lastly goes to the finisher, who is here again merely an ordinary jeweler who inspects the completed work. The toolmaker has charge of making the stamping dies, at 75 cents an hour. ADVANTAGES OF THE JEWELRY TRADE The advantages of the jewelry trade for men with disabled legs are many. First of all the work is seated and requires little physical strength. Most of the processes are carried on at long tables near windows, with articles laid on a sort of easel in front of the men and manipulated with small instruments. The trade itself is such as to insure good working conditions--good light, sanitary workrooms, fair precautions against fire (the sprinkler system is in many factories) and space sufficient to avoid overcrowding. There are no unpleasant odors or unsanitary by-products such as are found in many industries, and there is little noise. Hours have been shortened in the past 10 years from 55 to 44 per week in New York City and Newark and to 48 throughout the rest of the country. Employment is stable, and the fairly skilled mechanic finds work all the year round. The busy season is in summer and fall; but the spring, which is light, is utilized for developing new ideas for quality production later and stock taking for the holiday season. As an old stone setter put it, “Training in jewelry work is a good investment, and never leaves a man with a trade on his hands and no value in the market for it.” Another important advantage of the jewelry trade is its demand for man labor. The industry is a steady, probably a developing one, with possibilities of extended export trade. It can probably absorb a large number of men. Jewelers find it hard to get apprentice boys, chiefly because the apprenticeship is long and poorly paid, but that difficulty is done away with for soldiers, who are paid by the Government while in training. Platinum factories employ on an average 70 to 80 men, gold factories from 400 to 500. There are nearly 150 factories in Newark and about 300 in New York, who assert that they need labor and will pay good prices to get it. Employees start at some such process as soldering, at $10 to $15 per week, and can work up to $20 to $30, and in the better class work later to $60 and $75, or even $125. PLAN No. 960. AREA OF EMPLOYMENT The area of employment in the trade is largely in the East, about 75 per cent in New York, Newark, and the cheaper-grade factories in New England. There are some jewelry factories in Chicago and other large cities in the West. TOOLS AND MACHINES USED The tools and machines used in the trade are chiefly the following: Drop hammer up to 200 pounds to a large degree power lifted. Punch and cutter presses. Lathes, machine and speed. Power, plate, and wire rolls. Power drawbenches. Welding and soldering outfits. Polishing lathes, lapping lathes (to polish metal.) Blowers (to supply air in connection with soldering.) Melting furnaces of various sizes. Annealing furnaces. Hand tools, such as workbenches, files, saws, hammers, drills, alcohol, ammonia, emery paper, various shellacs and acids. UNIONS Local unions are fairly strong in New York City, but are not officially recognized by manufacturers. They have, however, enforced competitive bidding, which has driven prices up very high, and has made conditions practically those of the closed shop. They claim a membership in New York City of 3,500. In Newark they are not so strongly organized. BONUSES There is no recognized system of benefit funds. A few factories have individual associations for sick benefits, which are rather discouraged by the unions. Some distribute bonuses on the 1st of January. TRAINING There are at present no adequate courses of training for the jewelry trade. A jeweler is put at the bench and starts in with the simpler processes. He is usually broken in at so-called jewelry work, chiefly at soldering processes. If he is quick, he can be promoted in time to the more expert departments. There is a fixed system of apprenticeship in each factory, covering one, two, or even three years, with a bonus at the end of the period, and limiting the number of apprentices allowed by the unions to 1 apprentice to every 10 employees. The jewelers have for some time been considering starting training classes in New York or Newark, similar to a small professional class recently successfully started by a manufacturing jeweler in Chicago. They are also taking up the question of training classes in their own factories. According to their suggestion, courses ought to last anywhere from six months to two or three years, according to the ability of the worker “to catch on.” EDUCATIONAL REQUIREMENTS There are no essential educational requirements, though a good school education helps and a knowledge of mechanical drawing is “a leg up,” and puts a worker immediately at the more expert and highly paid processes. Any man who has had experience at delicate work of any kind, who has perhaps liked the finer handwork in occupational therapy at the hospitals, who has two good hands and good eyesight, and is not too disabled to reach the shop, will find no handicap in this trade. If he has a mechanical bent and flexible fingers he can become an efficient jeweler. If, in addition, he has any artistic, creative capacity, he can develop into a stone setter, engraver, or designer. His work then becomes of a personal nature, commands a comfortable salary, and can bring him, despite disablement, to the top in the industry. PLAN No. 961. TRANSPORTATION--INTRODUCTORY ACKNOWLEDGMENT This monograph was prepared by Clarence E. Bonnett, under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Percy R. Todd, General Manager, Bangor & Aroostook Railroad, Bangor, Me., and to Dr. John Cummings of the Research Division for editorial assistance. WHAT TRANSPORTATION INVOLVES In transportation men are concerned with the moving of persons and goods from one place to another. Transportation requires, however, many other operations than simply loading, hauling, and unloading passengers and freight. Charges must be determined and collected, records must be kept, movements of trains, cars, boats, and other vehicles must be directed, repairs to equipment must be made, and numerous other matters must be handled. These numerous operations call for hundreds of thousands of employees in many different trades and occupations. OCCUPATIONS VARIED BUT OF GREAT RESPONSIBILITY Thus in transportation there are so many different sorts of occupations that nearly any individual who likes responsibility can become interested in some part of the great field. There are occupations in which responsibility rests upon the employee for insuring the safety of property, and this responsibility is not by any means inconsiderable. In other occupations employees are responsible for lives as well as property, and risk their own lives in the service. There is office work for those who like it and plenty of traveling for those who enjoy that. If a life out of doors appeals to you, transportation can give you a job of that sort. In short, if you have a liking for responsibility you can find a job in transportation service that will suit you. DISABILITIES AND RETRAINING If you were engaged in transportation before you were disabled, you are probably still interested in this work, and would return to it if you did not feel that your disabilities unfitted you for your old job. If you wish to go back into transportation and can not take up your old job or a new one in that field without retraining, you want to know how to get retraining and how retraining will help you. Retraining and devices may help you to get your old job again. Retraining ought to do more than simply this. It ought to get you a better job than you had before. It is to help you to analyze and see your own possibilities as they are related to the various transportation occupations that this booklet is written. DIVISIONS OF TRANSPORTATION In general, transportation is performed by steam railroads, by street railways, by wagons and automobiles, and by boats. Of these agencies, steam railroads employ the largest number of men in so far as regular occupations are concerned. We shall, therefore, consider first the occupations and trades connected with the operation of steam railroads. PLAN No. 962. PART I. STEAM RAILROADS Railroading in the United States is a gigantic enterprise. In 1916, a prewar year, our railroads possessed about 65,000 locomotives, 2,342,000 freight cars, 55,000 passenger cars, and 98,000 company service cars. There were 259,000 miles of single track and enough of double track to raise this figure to 293,000 miles of main track. In addition there were 102,000 miles of sidings. Employees of railroads numbered 1,654,000 and were paid $1,403,968,000 as their compensation for the year 1916. Obviously, among so large a number of employees operating so varied an equipment are found many different trades and occupations. SAFETY ON RAILROADS Railroading is attended with personal risk for many of the employees, but only in a small number of cases is a man who is disabled in the service of a railroad rendered unfit for further service. Many of the older railroad men have suffered injuries of some sort, since the use of safety devices is relatively recent. Quite a number of injured men have in the past been given office, clerical, or watchmen’s work, since there is a vast amount of such work to be done, and it involves comparatively little personal risk. FACTORS CONTROLLING PROMOTION For the man who lacks a technical or college education there is almost a dead line to promotion into the higher offices. For instance, the wide-awake section hand can become a section foreman, then a construction gang foreman, a supervisor, and perhaps a roadmaster. But he can hardly ever hope to become an engineer of maintenance of way unless he acquires in the meanwhile an extended knowledge of civil engineering especially as applied to railroading. The disabled soldier or sailor, if unfitted to pursue his old occupation, can secure this very desirable training through the Federal Board for Vocational Education. He can thus secure an advancement that he might not otherwise have obtained. There have been three conflicting forces governing promotions in railroading--favoritism, seniority, and efficiency. At one time favoritism was so strong that graft and toadyism gave inexperienced men promotion over men with long experience. The seniority rule was introduced by the labor organizations to offset the old evil, and for two men of equal intelligence and native ability selection by seniority is a fair method of giving promotion. In such a case seniority coincides with efficiency. But seniority of itself does not necessarily in all cases give the higher position to the man best fitted for it, since long years in the service will not train the thoughtless, careless man as well as a few years will the alert man. Railroad employees in all branches of the service strongly contend as a group for their seniority rights. This means that an outsider usually has a long waiting period for advancement into the best positions. Efficiency is becoming more the rule, but the old influences still prevail in some departments, partly because standards of efficiency are rather indeterminate, largely because changes in a widespread system can not be wrought in a day. If favoritism could be abolished employees would not insist so strenuously upon their seniority rights. Since the railroads have been subjected to public regulation they have appreciated the value of courteous treatment of the public. Accordingly they reward the courteous employees by promotion, and no longer tolerate a grossly uncivil one as they did in the early days. Loyalty to the railroad organization is regarded to-day by railroad officials as the foremost requisite for those wishing promotion--a loyalty that places the railroad organization first, whether it be a question of public regulation or of labor unionization. Fairfax Harrison, president of the Southern Railway Co., has thus stated the case: “There are three requisites for advancement in railroad service--loyalty, efficiency in your present job, and preparedness for larger responsibilities. Efficiency and preparedness for higher place go together, for that man will be most efficient in his present job who is not content with mere mechanical performance of his duties, but who has an intelligent understanding of them in their relation to the service as a whole and who has qualified to take over the duties and responsibilities of his immediate superior on a moment’s notice.” WHY TAKE THE TRAINING? It is however, a generally known fact among railroaders that few men in the lower positions have the chance to learn efficiently all the duties required of them in the next higher position. For example, a track workman rarely has the opportunity to make out reports and payrolls, or even to do alignment sighting, unless he is favored by his foreman. By taking the training provided by the Federal Board he can learn to do this and other highly skilled work, and thus have an unusual opportunity for advancement. He could study civil engineering and become an engineer-maintenance-of-way. CLASSES OF RAILROAD OCCUPATIONS There are various ways of classifying railroad employees, but we shall use here a grouping suited to our purposes, based largely on physical and mental requirements and the training involved. We are not so much concerned with the several administrative departments--accounting, operating, traffic, etc.--as with the work done in different occupations. There is obviously a marked difference between the physical requirements for an office position and those for a position as railroad brakeman. On a basis of the requirements made upon the employee, railroad occupations may be grouped as follows: