5. _Concentration_, power to bring all one’s thought and activities to

bear on a case in hand. These basal qualities, with adequate training in the profession are likely to bring at least a fair degree of success; the lack of any one of them is a serious handicap, and accounts for most failures.[37] [37] Vocational Studies, U. S. Bureau of Education, pp. 6-7, Collins Publ. Serv. The loss of an eye, a hand, an arm, a foot, or a leg would not seriously interfere with one’s success as a lawyer. Good health is highly desirable but physical strength is not an essential to the practitioner. HOW MUCH GENERAL EDUCATION OUGHT I TO HAVE AS A BASIS FOR A COURSE IN LAW? Some years ago even the best law schools did not require any definite amount of education for entrance into the school. In fact many individuals with only a common-school education read law in an office and took up the practice without any training in a law school. At the present, however, every person looking forward to the practice of law is urged to graduate from a law school. All reputable law schools now require at least a four-year high-school course for admission. Many of these law schools, especially those connected with the large universities, require in addition to the four-year high-school work one year, and in some cases two years, of college work as a preparation. Two law schools admit only students who have a college degree of A. B. or B. S. WHAT SPECIFIC TRAINING SHOULD I NEED, IF I DECIDE TO BECOME A LAWYER, AND HOW LONG WILL IT TAKE? There was a time when by reading law in an office one could get a fairly adequate training for the practice of law. Particularly was this true of preparation for practice in small towns. Even at the present time this method is followed to some extent in small towns that are long distances from law schools. The rapidly increasing complexity of the law, however, now practically necessitates at least a partial course in a law school and makes desirable a complete course. The late Chief Justice Waite said: “The time has gone by when an eminent lawyer, in full practice, can take a class of students into his office and become their teacher. Once that was practicable, but now it is not. The consequence is that law schools are now a necessity.”[38] [38] The Law as a Vocation, p. 40, Vocation Bureau, Boston, Mass. The method of training for the law now recommended, therefore, is training in a law school rather than in a law office. The practical experience of the office has recently been supplied in the best law schools by the practice court, thus doing away with the former objection to the law school, namely, that it furnished to the student no experience in methods of handling and conducting cases. The practice court or moot court, as now introduced into the progressive law schools of the country, is described by one of our State universities as follows: “The work of the practice court is divided into three parts, that of the law term, that of the jury term, and that of the appellate jurisdiction. The court is provided with a full corps of officers, including the members of the faculty who may sit from time to time as a presiding judge, the full bench of judges sitting as a supreme court, a clerk, a sheriff, and the necessary deputies. Ample and commodious rooms have been provided for the use of the court, including a court room furnished with the fittings necessary for the trial of jury cases, and a clerk’s office. The latter is provided with the books and records used in actual practice. The purpose of the court is to afford to the student practical instruction in pleading and practice both at law and equity under the common-law system and the “Code” or “reformed” procedure, and actual experience in the commencement and trial of cases through all stages. In commencing the actions the students assigned to the cases are permitted to select the State in which the action is supposed to be brought, thus enabling the student to acquire the practice as prevailing in his own State. All questions of practice, pleading, and procedure are governed by the law of the State in which the action is so laid, but the questions of substantive law are determined according to the weight of authority.”[39] [39] Vocational Studies, U. S. Bureau of Education, pp. 6-7, Collins Publ. Service, Philadelphia, Pa. The degree LL. B., which is the principal degree given by the American law schools, was granted by 96 schools according to the report of the committee on legal education of the American Bar Association for 1906. Of these 96 schools, 48 required a three-years’ course of study beyond the full four years’ high-school course. Nineteen of these schools granted the master’s degree LL.M., after one year of postgraduate study. HOW SHOULD I BE ADMITTED TO THE BAR? Each State has its own bar or legal society and admission is granted to the applicant in accordance with the regulations in force in each State. Twenty-eight States have an examining board; 19 States require the approximate completion of a high-school course; 17 States prescribe no definite period of study; 1 State prescribes a period of 18 months; 12 States prescribe a period of two years; 23 States prescribe a period of three years; and 10 States accept graduates of certain law schools without examination. The tendency at the present time is to continue the past practice of raising standards of admission. This tendency has been supported by the American Bar Association, and with its promise to continue interest in this matter it should not be long until there are evolved uniform requirements that will constitute a national standard on a high plane. WHAT INCOME MAY I REASONABLY EXPECT TO EARN IF I AM SUCCESSFUL IN PRACTICE? It is difficult to estimate, except very generally, what the average yearly earnings of a lawyer will be. It is difficult to do this, because the income will vary according to the locality and the character of the service in which one is engaged. Generally speaking, during the first year of his independent practice a lawyer’s earnings will seldom net him more than a few hundred dollars. With experience and acquaintance, however, his competence will increase. If a lawyer chooses to serve an apprenticeship as it were with another firm, he may reasonably expect from $3 to $10 a week at the beginning, with an increase after three or six months according to the amount of practice in the office in which he is engaged. The following quotations would tend to discourage one from entering upon the profession, unless he is by nature and training well prepared for the work: “Its (the profession of law) demands are so high and the conditions of genuine success so exacting, however, that it is inevitable that many of the ill-equipped and misguided beginners who flood the ranks of the legal profession should fail of success.”[40] [40] The Law as a Vocation, p. 13, Vocation Bureau, Boston, Mass. “The field is greatly overcrowded and the average earnings very small. This is the great objection. Only the more able and fortunate in securing profitable legal practice can hope to win more than a bare competency. Young men may not only be indebted to their family and friends for a course of study covering three or four years in preparation, but after that for a period of 5, 10, or even 15 years consumed in acquiring a competent practice. Many never reach such a practice, and are obliged to turn to some other occupation for part or full income, or to come down to the end of life in straitened circumstances, unable to do for their families what was earlier done for them to place them in the profession.”[41] [41] The Law as a Vocation, pp. 66-67, Vocation Bureau, Boston, Mass. “In 1912 the secretary of the Harvard Law School sent letters to all of the graduates of the school from 1902 to 1911, inclusive, asking for their net earnings each year since graduation. The reports returned are indicated in the following table, although it is to be remembered in this connection that less than half of those written responded and it can reasonably be assumed that these represent the more successful.”[42] [42] Vocational Studies, pp. 15-16, U. S. Bureau of Education, Collins Publicity Service, Philadelphia, Pa. =======+==================+================== Year. |Number of replies.|Average earnings. -------+------------------+----------------- First | 694 | $664 Second | 609 | 1,110 Third | 497 | 1,645 Fourth | 411 | 2,150 Fifth | 317 | 2,668 Sixth | 249 | 3,118 Seventh| 162 | 3,909 Eighth | 112 | 4,426 Ninth | 62 | 5,321 Tenth | 40 | 5,825 -------+------------------+------------------ WHAT ARE SOME OTHER REWARDS TO A LAWYER IN ADDITION TO EARNINGS FROM PRACTICE? Legal training fits a man not only to practice law but to enter other fields of activity. The lawyer may enter into commercial affiliations and into political life through the judiciary, legislative, or executive branches of the Government. Men trained in the law may serve the public as attorneys for towns, cities, counties, districts, States, or the Nation. These positions in the State and Federal service are as follows: (1) Town or city solicitor. (2) County or district attorney. (3) Attorney general for the State and his assistants. (4) United States district attorney and his assistants. (5) Attorney General of the United States and his regular and special assistants. Many lawyers also are connected with various National Government bureaus, such as the Bureau of Insular Affairs, etc. Practicing lawyers are also often chosen as professors or lecturers in law schools and other schools, such as schools of commerce and finance, medical schools, colleges, and universities. For those lawyers who have a literary inclination there is opportunity for its exercise in writing for law journals, secular magazines, daily press, etc. A lawyer’s training naturally brings him before the people as a leader in movements for public good, if he is at all public spirited. Finally many lawyers have an opportunity for becoming counsellors for the people in general in the practice before legislative bodies considering public interests. Special economic and industrial problems demand for their best solution legal ability of the very highest order. HOW MANY YEARS WOULD IT TAKE ME TO ESTABLISH MYSELF IN PRACTICE? The young lawyer may get into practice in one of two ways: First, as an employee; second, as an independent practitioner. In the first case, he usually becomes an assistant in some law office, where he stays from one to five years, possibly permanently by becoming a member of the firm. In the second case, as an independent practitioner, he gets into the practice primarily through the business of his own personal friends, through the advertising that these friends give him to their friends, and finally through his own clients, one client leading to another. The lawyer’s advertising, therefore, is of an indirect nature. Every ambitious young lawyer looks forward to the time when he can get into the profession on his own account, and to this end he should strive at all times to build up a good reputation and to become generally known in his community. One must count on working faithfully for several years, particularly if he is an independent practitioner, before he can enjoy a comfortable income. HOW GREAT A NEED IS THERE FOR LAWYERS? The legal profession is rapidly becoming overcrowded. During the period from 1870 to 1900 the percentage of increase in the number engaged in the practice of law was 180.1 per cent. The following table sets forth the growth and percentage of increase in membership of the professions of medicine, theology, and law from 1870 to 1900: _Growth and per cent of increase in memberships of the professions of theology, medicine, and the law from 1870 to 1900. Statistics of Occupations, Twelfth Census of the United States._ ====================+=========+=========+======= Year. |Theology.|Medicine.| Law. --------------------+---------+---------+------- 1870 | 43,874 | 62,449 | 40,736 1880 | 64,698 | 85,671 | 64,137 1890 | 88,203 | 104,805 | 89,630 1900 | 111,638 | 132,002 |114,460 Per cent of increase| 154.4 | 11.5 | 180.1 --------------------+---------+---------+------- In the opinion of the leading members of the American bar to-day the practicing of law is a very poor vocation for the incompetent and poorly equipped. HOW MUCH WILL IT COST ME TO GET AN EDUCATION SUITABLE FOR THE PRACTICE OF LAW? If you are a soldier or a sailor discharged from the service since October 6, 1917, with a disability for which the War-Risk Insurance will grant you compensation, your education will be furnished free by the Government. The War-Risk Insurance Bureau, through its compensation, will meet a part of the expenses, and the Federal Board for Vocational Education will supplement that amount to a minimum of $65 a month, with the purpose of meeting all of your expenses for living, clothing, transportation, tuition, and incidentals. It is the hope that this pamphlet may serve the double purpose of discouraging the incompetent and poorly equipped from entering the profession of law, and of encouraging the competent and well equipped by strengthening the desires of such to enter the profession, and by holding out to such the promise of ultimate success in the profession. PLAN No. 1184. ELECTRICAL CONSTRUCTION, MAINTENANCE, AND REPAIR OCCUPATIONS ACKNOWLEDGMENT This monograph was prepared by Terrell Croft and L. A. Emerson, under direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance. Demand for electrical men is increasing constantly, and a returned soldier, whatever his disabilities and whether or not he has had previous experience, will be able in nearly every case to find some electrical job which will be interesting to him and at which he can make good wages. To describe occupational possibilities in different lines of electrical work, the Federal Board has issued several monographs, of which this is one. If you desire to follow an electrical vocation, and do not find discussed in this monograph the specific occupation in which you are interested, obtain from a representative of the Federal Board one of the other publications dealing with electrical employments. Electrical construction, repair, and maintenance occupations discussed in this bulletin cover the following related activities: Electrical contracting and repairing. Plant and factory electrical maintenance. Electrical inspection. Work in storage battery service stations. Electrical automobile work. Vocational opportunities in each of these fields are described in some detail on the following pages. PLAN No. 1185. ELECTRICAL CONTRACTING AND REPAIRING A man or a company engaged in electrical contracting and repairing installs wiring, generators, motors, and other electrical equipment in buildings. Some concerns install power plants complete. The organization may also include a repair shop wherein are rehabilitated motors, generators, and similar devices. Frequently, such companies have a retail store where energy-consuming devices, such as fan motors, sad irons, electric heaters, incandescent lamps, and other similar articles are retailed to the public. This merchandising feature is one of great importance because it affords a possibility of considerable additional income. The organization which formerly called itself the “National Electrical Contractors’ Association” has now adopted the name “National Association of Electrical Contractors and Dealers.” Some firms do electrical construction only, others electrical repairing only, and still others merchandising only. Or one may combine in its business any two or all three of these activities. Often a contracting concern is a large company which does business in several cities. Again, it may be a small corporation operating locally. Or it may be an individually owned business employing only a few men. The several vocational groups which may be distinguished in the contracting and repairing business include (_a_) owners, (_b_) inside wiremen, (_c_) estimators, (_d_) salesmen, (_e_) general repairmen, and (_f_) armature winders. PLAN No. 1186. OWNERS An owner of an electrical contracting business is usually a man who has worked himself up from a position as wireman or salesman. For success, however, it is not sufficient that the man be merely a good mechanic. Yearly, hundreds of men set up for themselves in the electrical contracting business and, while some succeed many fail, principally because they are not good business men. If a small contracting business is to prosper, the owner should have a good working knowledge not alone of electrical construction, but also of bookkeeping and selling. Pluck, industry, and honesty are prime essentials. Not all owners earn large incomes. Some, in fact, earn little if any more than a journeyman wireman, who works for wages of from $60 to $125 per month. For a returned soldier who has had electrical-construction experience, and who possesses the requisite qualifications the field is promising. It requires some capital at the start, and the first years will practically always be lean ones. A man who is entering or who is serving in the electrical contracting field as a workman may look forward, if he has the proper capacity, to some day owning a business of his own. If he has this aspiration, he should become interested in bookkeeping, salesmanship, advertising, and in the technical aspects of the business, such as electrical machinery installation and wiring. PLAN No. 1187. DEMAND FOR INSTALLATION OF WIRING Wiring for electricity requires for its installation the services of many skilled men. In cities and towns where electric-company service is available, practically every house which is erected is wired. Out in the country, also, many farm buildings are now being wired. Furthermore, while it was common practice a few years ago to arrange for only one light or outlet in each room, the present tendency is to provide for several. All of this is creating a demand for more wire men. PLAN No. 1188. SIGNAL WIRING In wiring for electric doorbells, fire and burglar alarms, and other so-called signaling circuits dry cells are ordinarily used to provide the voltage. With this low pressure the fire risk is almost negligible. While the signal wiring in a large factory or institution may be complicated, in smaller buildings or residences it offers few difficult problems. To install signal wire economically and properly, however, requires some skill and experience. PLAN No. 1189. LIGHT AND POWER WIRING Installation of light and power wiring is more skilled work. On these circuits the electric pressure is always relatively high--110 volts or above--and there is the ever present danger to be guarded against of fire caused by short-circuiting. Not only may improperly installed wiring involve great fire hazard, but it may involve life hazard also. To minimize these dangers, codes of rules indicating the proper and safe methods of installing wiring and electrical equipment have been formulated. The National Board of Fire Underwriters has prepared and revises periodically such a compilation of rules, called the “National Electrical Code.” This, or some modification of it, is in force in practically all communities. These rules specify the conditions under which wiring of certain types may be used and indicate rigid requirements for the protection of circuits and the installation of electrical machinery. _Methods of wiring._--The several methods of wiring include the following: (_a_) open wiring; (_b_) knob and tube wiring; (_c_) rigid conduit wiring; (_d_) flexible conduit wiring; and (_e_) molding wiring. Open wiring was the earliest form. It is the lowest in first cost and is, if properly installed, safe. The insulated conductors are supported along the surfaces of the walls and ceilings on porcelain knobs or cleats. In many factory buildings, particularly in those of the wooden mill type construction, much open wiring is used. For this service it is economical and quite satisfactory. The knob and tube method provides a concealed installation, but is more expensive than the open type, and is applicable only in frame buildings. The wiring is placed while the structure is under construction. Where the conductors are carried along the sides of joists or other timbers, they are supported on porcelain knobs. Where they pass through studs or other wooden members the holes are bushed with porcelain tubes. The principal tools used in both knob and tube and in open wiring are the screw driver, brace and bit, knife, saw, soldering iron, and blow torch. PLAN No. 1190. MOLDING WIRING In molding wiring conductors are held in a flat wooden or metal molding screwed to the wall or ceiling surface. Wooden molding, however, is not now commonly used, and in many cities its use is prohibited. The metal molding which is superseding the older nonmetallic molding is small, unobtrusive, and readily installed. It is used principally for extensions to existing wiring installations. By its use the cutting of holes and channels in walls and ceilings, which is necessary for the installation of concealed wiring, is eliminated. PLAN No. 1191. STEEL CONDUIT WIRING This is the most expensive, but the safest and best method. In fireproof buildings it is used exclusively, and in some communities wiring of other types is prohibited. Many frame buildings are now being wired with metal conduit, either of the rigid or the flexible type. Rigid conduit is merely wrought iron or steel pipe of the usual trade dimensions, which has been specially treated to prevent its corrosion and to render its interior smooth. Flexible steel conduit resembles metal hose in construction. Metal conduit is installed while the building is under construction, and subsequently rubber-insulated conductors are pulled into it. Usually the conduit is concealed within floors and walls, but it may be supported on surfaces. In concrete construction buildings the conduit is embedded in the concrete, being placed in the forms before the concrete is poured. At outlets where the conductors must be carried from the conduit system to feed lights and switches, steel or cast-iron outlet boxes are connected to the tubes. Pipe tools, such as dies, reamers, hack saws, drills, and bending “hickeys” are used in working conduit. PLAN No. 1192. WIRING AS AN OCCUPATION Wiring work is interesting and diversified. Some wiremen in the cities specialize on one type of work. For example, certain journeymen may ordinarily do nothing but conduit work day in and day out, while others may do all sorts of installing. Some men specialize on power wiring for motors, generators, switchboards, and similar equipment. Usually a wireman must rely on his own experience and judgment for the detailed layout of the wiring installation. The architect’s plans generally indicate merely the locations for the different lights, switches, motors, and other devices. The wireman must then plan his circuits so that these devices may be served with the minimum expenditure of time and material. Wiring of finished buildings, that is to say of the structures which were not wired at the time they were built, is almost a specialty in itself. Much of this work is done, because the electric utility companies expend considerable effort in their endeavor to see to it that all buildings, old and new, are wired, so that they may become possible customers. In wiring finished buildings much ingenuity may be exercised by the wireman in routing of conductors through the structure so as to insure the least removal of flooring and cutting of walls. _Qualifications of wiremen._--Requirements for wiring are determined to a large extent by the special line or lines of the activity taken up. While some wiring work requires little physical exertion, often considerable lifting and pulling is necessary. The necessary boring, sawing, and bending all require strength and endurance. Also it may be necessary to climb from floor to floor of buildings under construction. Some of the jobs may be in heated inclosed buildings, but the bulk of it is in structures under construction which are open to the weather. As to technical qualifications, a good wireman should be able to read the architects’ blue prints, which specify the panel box and outlet locations, and he should be able to route his conductors properly. This requires that he have some general knowledge of electrical circuits, and be quite familiar with wiring methods and wiring code requirements. Often the wireman must order his own material for a job. Hence, he should be able to select and specify this intelligently. It follows that there is little opportunity in cities for a person who has had no previous experience or wiring training to immediately assume the duties of a journeyman wireman. But each wireman usually has working with him a helper. A helper can start with little or no previous experience, and work up. As in practically all other vocations, some theoretical and practical training will be of great value, and such training a prospective wireman can obtain at a trade school. _Wages of wiremen._--Compensation varies in different communities and with the skill of the workman. In practically all cities wiremen are unionized, but not usually in the smaller towns. An eight-hour day with time and a half for overtime prevails. In the cities the rate per day for a journeyman wireman will vary from $4.80 to $6.40, and in the smaller towns from $3.60 to $4.80. In cities a helper will receive from $2.80 to $4, and in the smaller towns from $2 to $4.40. PLAN No. 1193. ESTIMATORS Estimators in electrical contractors’ organizations compile estimates of the labor and material required and the cost thereof, for each job on which a bid is to be submitted by the contractor. On the basis of this cost of time and material the estimator determines the price which is quoted to the prospective purchaser. Most successful estimators are men who have worked at the wiring trade and thereby appreciate how much work can be accomplished under given conditions in a given time. Cost of material can readily be determined with accuracy, but to estimate closely the cost of labor--the time that will be consumed in putting in the job--requires experience and judgment. A returned soldier who has had previous electrical construction experience but whose physical qualifications are such that he can no longer do heavy work, should be able to qualify ultimately as an estimator. It may be that before he actually accepts such a position, he should have some supplementary theoretical training in a trade school in drawing, mathematics, and electrical theory. But after he has this training and some estimating practice he should, if his natural qualifications adapt him for the work, be able to do well at it. The work is mostly indoors, although the estimators sometimes visit sites of jobs under construction. The work is usually eight hours a day, and the salary may range from $100 to $250 per month. A competent estimator may make a great deal of money for his concern and an incompetent one can lose much more. PLAN No. 1194. SALESMEN A salesman for an electrical contracting business may be either an inside man or an outside man, or combine inside and outside duties. An inside or store salesman will sell the various electrical appliances and devices which the contractor may stock. Such may include electric fans, electric-washing machines, small motors, irons, heaters, incandescent lamps, and similar devices and material. He should be well informed as to the uses and applications of this equipment, and he should also be competent to advise prospective customers about any wiring and the cost thereof, which may be required for the installation of the equipment. Outside salesmen are frequently assigned territories or districts which they are expected to cover and from which they obtain orders for about the same equipment and services as do the inside men. Their work is somewhat similar to that of an electric-company solicitor. This sales work offers attractive possibilities for returned soldiers who have had some previous electrical experience, and whose physical disabilities are such that they can no longer do heavy work. While technical knowledge is an extremely valuable asset to a salesman, the essential qualification of a man who is selling anything is that he have the “selling instinct.” He should like to meet people of all sorts, and feel at ease when talking to them. For a man who has the qualifications, the opportunities for him in sales work are probably better than those in any other line. If a man can get around and see and talk to people, hear what they have to say, and write, he should be able to qualify physically for this work. Many salesmen earn very moderate salaries, but others command very high ones. The compensation depends very largely on the man. Often it is on a salary and commission basis. In this selling work, a man may expect to earn from $70 to $150 per month, or even more, depending upon his abilities and application. Sometimes a man may combine the duties of salesman and estimator. PLAN No. 1195. GENERAL REPAIRMEN General repairmen of a contracting company must be versatile. They are the “trouble shooters” for the company, and may be called upon to locate trouble in, and to repair burned-out motors, worn or damaged controllers, and many different sorts in interior electrical installations. They should be able to judge whether a machine needs a new bearing, or rewinding, or what. Frequently the repairs must be made to the equipment in the building where it is installed, since it may not be practical to remove it to the shop. A repairman may also have advantageously some knowledge of armature winding, although his duties ordinarily are to handle only the troubles which can be corrected with the expenditure of comparatively little time. The repairman’s most necessary qualification is the ability to locate a trouble quickly, and either remedy it at once, or recommend authoritatively such action as is necessary for permanent repair. This requires resourcefulness and a good understanding of the operating characteristics of electrical machines and devices of all sorts. Jobs involving the rewinding of machine are generally sent to the shop and handled by an armature winder, as described in the following paragraph. A general repairman may expect compensation ranging from $80 to $125 per month. The day is usually eight hours. Some time is spent outside traveling from job to job, and the remainder inside. PLAN No. 1196. ARMATURE WINDERS Armature winders are now employed by many of the electrical contracting companies in their repair departments. Some concerns make a specialty of and do no other work except the winding and rewinding of electrical machines. To become a competent armature winder, a man must have a great deal of experience, which can be acquired only in the shop. However, a trade school course in this vocation will be of great assistance, and should increase materially the rate of a man’s advance and his ultimate earning capacity. It is impossible for one to do armature winding intelligently without some knowledge of electrical theory. Without it he may be able to work along like a machine, but unless he possesses some of this theoretical information he will not know why he is doing certain things certain ways and will never be competent to act independently. An individual can start as an armature winder’s helper at making and taping coils with little or no previous experience, and can from this position gradually acquire an extended working knowledge of armature winding. In an electrical repair shop, the armature winder must work on machines of many different types. It is often necessary for him to do lifting, and he must have full use of his fingers. He may be compelled to stand at his work for long periods. A lack of hearing is not a material detriment, and the blind have been taught to do this work successfully. Men with certain minor disablements can qualify for this service. The work is almost wholly indoors, although it may occasionally be necessary to work on a machine in a building which is under construction and open to the weather. An eight-hour day prevails. In cities the vocation is largely unionized. An armature winder helper or apprentice will receive from 20 to 40 cents per hour; a journeyman, from 60 to 75 cents per hour; and a superintendent, from $150 to $250 per month. Expert, rapid armature winders for coal, steel, and similar companies often receive as much as $200 a month. Time and a half is paid for overtime. Usually the jobs in these repair shops are steady, the men being retained in slack times at routine work of some sort or other. A competent electrical machine repair personnel is difficult to assemble, and when a repair shop has acquired one, it takes precautions to provide the men with steady work so that they will not leave. PLAN No. 1197. PLANT AND FACTORY ELECTRICAL MAINTENANCE Nearly all factories of any consequence now employ electrical power distribution. Electrical energy is produced economically in a centrally located generating station and is distributed by the wiring throughout the plant wherever power is required. In the many plants in this country great numbers of electric motors drive the machines. Thousands of incandescent lamps are utilized for lighting. Also electrical energy may be used for electroplating, galvanizing, welding, heating, and other services. For the installation and upkeep of all this equipment, thousands of electrical maintenance men are required. The work of an electrician in a paper mill may, in detail, be quite different from that required of one in an office building or in a printing establishment. Yet each of these is an electrical maintenance man. _Duties of maintenance men._--These are extremely diversified. A good maintenance man must be a broad-gauge fellow having on tap a lot of electrical experience and information. The repair of minor electrical troubles or motors and other equipment are always under his charge. Much of the work consists of “trouble shooting,” that is of locating and correcting electrical difficulties of various sorts. Fuses blown due to sudden overload may have to be replaced. Loose connections may have to be tightened. Possibly a machine may for no apparent cause refuse to start. Then the electrician must at once locate the trouble and repair it, or arrange for the installation of a substitute machine while the faulty one is sent to the shop. Often also he may be called upon to install new wiring and equipment. In some plants the electrical maintenance department may also rewind armatures. PLAN No. 1198. QUALIFICATIONS OF PLANT AND MAINTENANCE ELECTRICIANS Maintenance work involves not alone a good understanding of electrical practice but also, for the first-class man, a knowledge of the industry and its manufacturing processes. The electrician should be sufficiently familiar with the machinery in the plant to determine quickly whether a trouble lies in the motor or in the driven machine. In many plants, where continuous process production prevails, those of the steel industry for example, time is an extremely important factor. The shut-down of one machine may render idle several hundred men and clog the operation of the entire factory. Efficiency naturally increases with experience in the given plant. An electrician who has the ability to replace in service, in minimum time, an inoperative machine should and does receive high compensation. A fair degree of physical ability is required for this work, because the electrician may in the course of his regular duties have to do many different kinds of jobs. Sometimes the removal of a motor requires lifting. The installation of heavy conductors requires pulling. On the other hand, much of the work, such as the replacing of fuses or the installation of electric light wiring, necessitates but little physical exertion. While many plant electricians have acquired all they know solely through experience, theoretical training will enable a man to progress quickly and to increase his earning capacity. The work is largely indoors, although some of it is outside in the plant yards and in open buildings. In many of the plants an eight-hour day prevails but there are still some where the men work 9 or 10 or even 12 hours on the night shift. The work is very steady. If the plant shuts down the electricians are ordinarily employed during the nonoperating period on such reconstruction and maintenance as can not be effected conveniently while the plant is running. PLAN No. 1199. PROMOTION In some of the large steel and other manufacturing plants, electricians who have risen to the position of chief electrician earn as much as $300 or more monthly. Such a job involves ability to handle successfully many electricians, and to “keep the plant going” at minimum cost. Frequently men start in a plant as wireman’s helpers or as motor tenders, for which little knowledge or experience is necessary. As the beginner gradually becomes familiar with the equipment and the processes of the industry he may be advanced to more responsible and remunerative work. A man commencing factory electrical maintenance work as a motor tender or wireman’s helper may expect to earn from $50 to $80 per month. An experienced plant trouble man may command from $80 to $175 or more per month. PLAN No. 1200. ELECTRICAL INSPECTION Nearly all electrical installations are now subject to inspection. Most fire-insurance policies provide that electrical work in the insured building must be installed in accordance with the National Electrical Code, and insurance may be refused on any building not wired in accordance with the code. Sometimes in the country districts, installations are not inspected, but in the cities and in most industrial plants periodical inspections are made. Many cities have wiring codes of their own, which are enforced by ordinance and which are based on and are in general similar to the National Electrical Code. To insure that the code rules are observed it is in most cities required that the wiring, fixtures, motors, and other electrical equipment be inspected by a municipal or an insurance inspector before electric service is given. Large industrial plants located outside the cities are examined by insurance inspectors. _Duties of inspectors._--The duties of the inspector are to scrutinize work in detail and, if it is properly installed, to approve it and recommend that a certificate of inspection therefor be issued. If it is not in accordance with the code, he suggests the necessary alterations. Upon the issuance of an inspection certificate, the local electric company is authorized to give service. To handle his duties effectively, an inspector should have an extensive knowledge of electrical construction. Furthermore, he must be familiar with the wiring rules specified by local ordinance or by the code. The rules relate to signal systems, lighting circuits, power wiring, installation of motors and generators, high-tension machinery, transformers, switchboards, substations, and the like. In every municipal underwriters’ inspection organization, it is often necessary to make rulings relating to features of electrical work which are encountered infrequently and which are, therefore, not covered in detail in the regular printed rules. The inspector must also be familiar with these. In other words, he must know after inspecting a job whether or not it has been installed in accordance with the “Code” under which he is working. Ordinarily this knowledge can be obtained satisfactorily only through extended experience in electrical construction. _Opportunities for disabled men._--Possibilities offered by electrical inspection for returned soldiers are very promising. The inspector spends probably half of his time out of doors and half indoors in finished buildings. In the larger cities, inspectors are usually provided with motor cars so that they can move quickly from job to job. Little physical exertion is required, and there is no lifting or pulling. But an inspector should be able to climb around buildings under construction, and into attics. Both hands are required for testing, but one arm may be artificial. A returned soldier who has had previous electrical-construction experience, but who because of some physical disability can not follow his old vocation, should find electrical inspection a means of earning a good livelihood at interesting work. The work is normally eight hours per day, with Saturday afternoons off but, since the men are usually paid monthly salaries, sometimes they will do little work on one day and have to spend overtime on the next. Theoretical training in a school which teaches electric wiring is very desirable for a man who has not made a study of the code requirements. The salary for an inspector will range from $100 to $175 per month. A chief inspector to whom several men report may receive from $150 to $250 per month and possibly more. In some cities the wiring inspectors must be members of the wireman’s union and receive the prevailing rate of pay for wiremen. PLAN No. 1201. WORK IN STORAGE-BATTERY SERVICE STATIONS Thousands of automobile electric service stations are now in operation, while a few years ago there were none. This phenomenal development has been due to the increase in the use of automobiles and to the popularity of electric-starting systems. Many stations specialize on only one component of the starting equipment, as for example the storage battery. Storage-battery stations have become so necessary that almost every city has at least one station which handles exclusively storage batteries. It charges, repairs, or rebuilds the batteries as occasion demands. Since the service station is becoming an established and rapidly growing institution, it affords many promising openings. A storage-battery service station should be equipped for handling battery work of all kinds. Often because of a defective switch or some similar trouble a battery will run down. Then it is brought to the station to be recharged. In the station specially designed equipment is utilized so that a number of batteries can be charged simultaneously. The workman who directs the charging department arranges the battery on the bench and connects it into the circuit with others, all of which may be recharged simultaneously. As the batteries become charged, certain chemical actions occur. The density of the acid solution changes, and by observing with a hydrometer the specific gravity of the solution, the battery man knows when to disconnect the cells from the line. On the service floor where the cars are driven in for examination or adjustments are the inspectors who are familiar with the general performance of storage cells. Often an inspector must locate causes of a trouble which does not originate in the battery, but which is due to a defect in some other element of the system. He must be able to diagnose quickly the difficulty and its origin and to recommend the corrective action necessary. Work of this character demands men with battery and general automobile experience. They should be familiar with all of the motor car electrical equipment. A detailed account of service station work is given in the monograph on “Automobile maintenance and service.” In the repair shop worn batteries are rebuilt and damaged batteries are repaired. In the repairing process, often the only thing required is the replacement of the wooden separators which separate the lead plates of the cell. These separators rot quickly when a battery is mistreated, a short circuit results, and this, if not promptly remedied, will ruin the battery. Other trouble cases may be caused by the plates having become “worn,” either through a long period of normal service or because of abuse. A worn battery can by utilizing the old jars be rehabilitated by substituting new plates and separators for the old. When a question arises as to whether it will be best to repair a cell, or to replace the plates, or to substitute a new cell, the repair man should be able to judge accurately as to the most economical procedure. In repairing a cell the sealing compound is removed by heating, and the lead straps which effect the electrical connection between the various cells of the battery are drilled or cut off. The element, as the group of plates is called, is then taken out. If the plates are in poor condition they are thrown away, new ones are substituted, and new wood separators are inserted. The jar is washed, the plates and element replaced, and the covers sealed on the cells. Finally the connectors are burned securely to the posts. Lead burning by the hydrogen or acetylene torch is necessary in connecting cells. This requires great skill. A man must usually do battery work for a considerable period before he becomes a competent lead burner. After the battery is sealed, it is filled with a new sulphuric-acid solution and placed “on charge.” When readings of the hydrometer and voltmeter indicate that it is fully charged, it is delivered to its owner or is placed in stock. It appears that the demand for men in this vocation has never been satisfied. Some of the work requires physical exertion because the heavy batteries must be lifted on and off the charging bench. In the charging room the air may be permeated with sulphuric-acid fumes. These are irritating to the nostrils of some individuals but do not seem to affect others. The workman should be familiar with the action of batteries and with electrical circuits as well. He should be able to observe readings of meters, thermometers, and hygrometers. To become a skilled battery repairman, considerable practical experience on the job is necessary. However, a beginner with little experience can start in as a helper and gradually work up in the trade. Some theoretical training will be of great assistance. It can be obtained in the storage-battery departments of those schools which have automobile courses. The work as a rule is eight hours. The compensation of a beginner or helper will range from $60 to $80 per month; an all-around experienced battery man will receive from $80 to $125 per month, and a foreman in charge of a shop may receive from $100 to $200 per month. There is always the possibility that a man following this work can branch out into a service business for himself. PLAN No. 1202. ELECTRICAL AUTOMOBILE WORK The automobile repair men who are receiving highest wages to-day are those who are familiar with the electrical as well as the mechanical equipment. Electrical starting and lighting is now regarded as so essential and has been adopted so universally that a large number of men are employed exclusively in its maintenance. The demand appears greatly to exceed the supply. Many garages are seeking constantly thoroughly qualified automobile electricians. They are willing and expect to pay good wages to well-qualified men. Probably some of the best possibilities in the automobile field to-day are waiting for specialists in electrical starting and lighting equipment. Necessary qualifications for an automobile electrician are that he be thoroughly familiar with the electrical equipment, and also with the operation of the car as a whole. To diagnose a case of electrical trouble, it is usually necessary first to determine what effect it has on the general operation of the car. This requires a knowledge of the valves, timing, and many other elements. Obviously such a specialist should be able to disassemble the electrical equipment, and to effect such adjustments in it as may be required. Some acquaintance with electrical theory is of great assistance. An extended knowledge will prove a paying asset, because of the greater ultimate compensation which it will insure its owner. Much of this information can be acquired through practical experience in the shop, but a large part can be secured only through study at home or in a suitable school. Repair men should understand the principles of the magneto, induction coil, generator, regulator, starting motor, condenser, and the like. They should appreciate how these principles are utilized in the normal operation of the equipment. Frequently a service station will specialize on one type of equipment. Its work may comprise only coil repairing, or magneto work, or motor repairing. In a shop which assumes repairs of all kinds there may be, in addition to the three branches just enumerated, also motor and generator work, storage battery repairing, light wiring, and other special lines. Electrical automobile work offers a very promising field for the returned soldier who is familiar with automobile repairs in general, but who because of some disability is not competent to do heavy work. With his background of general automobile repair knowledge, and with the theoretical training in practical electricity which he may acquire through a Federal Board course, rapid progress should be possible. The opportunity is there, and the man who likes and is qualified for this vocation, a very satisfactory reward is awaiting. The work is usually eight hours. Most of it is indoors, but sometimes it must be done outside. A beginner or helper, who is not expected to do much work without supervision, may expect to receive from $60 to $80 per month; a competent experienced repairman will probably receive from $80 to $150; and an expert or foreman from $125 to $200. Employment is steady because a concern which has obtained and trained good men endeavors to keep them week in and week out. There is always the possibility, for an individual who understands this work, of starting an electrical automobile repair business for himself. See monograph on “Automobile maintenance and service.” PLAN No. 1203. ELECTRICAL EMPLOYMENTS WITH UTILITY COMPANIES ACKNOWLEDGMENT This monograph was prepared by Terrell Croft and L. A. Emerson, under direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings of the Research Division, for editorial assistance. If a man who was doing electrical work before his enlistment has a natural liking for it his tendency will and should ordinarily be to return to it when he resumes his place in civil life. For the inexperienced man also there are many opportunities. The necessary qualifications and the duties are exceedingly diverse. Hence whatever disabilities a man may have incurred, he can in all probability find some electrical employment at which he can earn an adequate livelihood. It may very well be advantageous for him to take an electrical course at Government expense before he starts practical work. The demand for electric men is increasing constantly. This monograph is written to outline in a general way the possibilities of employment with utility companies in electrical pursuits. Utility companies include: Electric light and power companies. Electric railway companies. Telephone companies. Steam railroads. The desirability of some theoretical training for electrical workers should be appreciated. A soldier who is returning to civil life may be able to obtain work at some electrical vocation whether or not he has had previous experience in this line, and may be able to earn a good living. But any man who has not had theoretical training, whether or not he has had electrical experience, can increase very materially his future prospects and earning capacity by taking such training before he begins practical work. The probable tendency of the average man will be to get a job as soon as possible. He should think carefully before he does this. Why? Because statistics show that men who have had some theoretical training earn considerably more in the long run than those who have not. This is true particularly in electrical work. Electrical constructions and operations appear very complicated to one who does not understand the fundamentals, but to one who does, these things are relatively simple. Some theoretical knowledge enables an individual to proceed independently, without detailed supervision, and his earning capacity is increased accordingly. The man who has had theoretical training will not only earn more money, but he will have more agreeable work, and the probability of his being promoted to responsible jobs, such as foremanships, are much greater. Endeavor to select a specialty and to become proficient in some field which is not overcrowded, and in which the demand for trained men will probably increase. There is always a call for men who are better equipped, as to experience and training, than the average fellow, and specialists in lines which are not overcrowded earn good wages. A most effective arrangement under which a man may receive his theoretical training is one whereby he spends alternately part of his time in a school, and part doing actual work in the industry at the vocation which he has selected. Thus he receives simultaneously theoretical instruction and practical experience. Probably, a real working knowledge is acquired more rapidly in this way than in any other. Several of the Federal Board schools are equipped to provide instructional training of this character. The rates of pay in public-utility work are often not as high as in manufacturing or certain other lines of endeavor. But to offset this the employment is very steady. Furthermore, the working conditions are often more satisfactory than in other companies. It is an established policy of practically all utility companies to “take good care” of their employees. Many such companies maintain sickness and death benefit associations for employees. Some companies assume the entire expense of such associations while in others each employee contributes regularly small dues and the company also contributes. Many utilities pay pensions to their older men, and frequently free medical attendance and legal advice are provided. Some concerns maintain building and loan associations. Others operate profit-sharing plans, or sell stock at low rates and on the installment plan to their people. Employment managers are now found in all large organizations. Their function is to hire the right men for the right jobs. Returned soldiers who are familiar with the industry but are physically disqualified from pursuing their old vocation may qualify for this service. It requires practically no physical exertion but much head work. (See monograph on “Employment Management.”) PLAN No. 1204. ELECTRIC LIGHT AND POWER COMPANIES An electric light and power company is a corporation which generates and sells electrical energy for lighting and power. Because of the economies which result in the generation of electrical energy in large central stations, the demand upon these power companies is continually increasing. They can usually develop energy, transmit it over their lines, and sell it to the customer cheaper than he can, in his relatively small plant, develop it for himself. However, very large factories or plants may require such large power stations that they can generate for themselves cheaper than they can buy. To provide this central-station service, the stations and lines must be built; energy must be generated in the central station, transmitted over the lines to the consumer, and metered at the consumer’s premises. Hence, men of many vocations are required. The different departments of an electric company, into which a large concern of this character is ordinarily subdivided include: Manufacturing or power department. Construction or distribution department. Meter department. Sales department. Engineering department Accounting department. In addition there may be a “purchasing and stores department” and a “garage department.” But these will not be discussed specifically herein because the vocations involved are not, essentially, electrical. _Manufacturing or power department._--This department operates the steam or water power generating stations which develop the electrical energy. Where small substations, which transform the energy received from the large stations, are required these may also be under the jurisdiction of the manufacturing department. It handles the maintenance and operation of boilers, steam engines, turbines, generators, rotary converters, switchboards, and all power “manufacturing” equipment. In the steam division of the power department work about the station which requires no skill, such as handling of coal, removal of ashes, washing of boilers, and similar tasks, is performed by laborers. In this division are employed also water tenders and engineers. In the electrical division operators and their assistants maintain and operate the electrical equipment in the station. This includes generators, motors, rotary converters, switchboard, and the like. Switchboards must often be quite elaborate. This is necessary to provide for the proper electrical interconnection between the various machines in the plant, and the outgoing lines which feed the substations and the customer’s premises. A principal duty of a station operator is to “tend” the switchboard, operating the switches and devices on it as may be necessary. In general the control of all the electrical apparatus in the station is effected from the switchboard, by which machines are started and stopped, and circuits cut in and out. _Switchboard operating in the power department._--The qualifications of a switchboard operator are that he be familiar with the use and operation of the different machines and electrical equipment in the station. Particularly he should be familiar with the switchboard. He should understand something of electrical theory. The requisite training is obtained often by men working up from the ranks, through experience in the station. However, such knowledge can be acquired much more quickly and readily if one has had a short course in electricity such as that which may be obtained at a Federal Board school. Ability to handle the more important duties of these positions must, however, be acquired by experience on the job. A disabled man who can hear, see, move about, and throw switches quickly may develop into a good station operator. The work is not heavy, and it is indoor work. Sometimes the shifts are 12 hours, but the tendency is toward eight-hour shifts. Promotions are from assistant operator to operator, and then to chief operator. The salary for an operator will range from $80 to $125 per month. A man who is familiar with steam as well as with electrical equipment will be qualified for promotion to the responsible position of chief engineer. PLAN No. 1205. LINE CONSTRUCTION OR DISTRIBUTION DEPARTMENT This department builds the lines, either overhead or underground, which convey the electrical energy from the generating station to the substations and to the consumers. It also maintains the lines and for this work there may be a separate maintenance division of the construction department. The work is almost wholly out of doors. It involves the setting of poles, placing of cross arms, stringing of wire, building of underground-conduit systems and manholes, erection of switchboards, and installation of inside wiring. The labor is usually strenuous. However, some of the work, such as inspecting, planning, drafting, and supervision requires little physical effort. Men having minor disablements, particularly if they have had previous experience in construction work, should be able to qualify. In this, as in all other electrical branches, it will be found a paying proposition to take a short theoretical course before resuming practical work. Construction departments usually work eight hours a day, although in some companies a nine-hour or even a ten-hour day is the rule. A construction inspector will receive a salary ranging from $90 to $125 per month, foreman from $100 to $175, and a draftsman from $60 to $150. An inspector, if he has sufficient experience and also the ability to handle men, can often become foreman. The work is very steady. If bad weather prevents outside operation, they are given indoor work. PLAN No. 1206. METER DEPARTMENT Installation, removal, testing, and repair of the meters which measure consumed electrical energy is the work of the meter department. After a meter has been installed in a building it should be tested periodically to insure its continued accuracy. These periodical tests are made on the customer’s premises. If the instrument is shown to be inaccurate it is replaced by one which is accurate, and is taken to the repair shop for overhauling. Thus the meter department does some of its work outside and some in the shop. In the larger companies the men who test the meters in the customer’s buildings ordinarily do nothing else. A different group of men repair and test the meters in the shop. With the smaller companies the same men or man may have to do both the inside and outside work. The outside meter tester should be familiar with wiring practice, understand the connections necessary in installing meters and how to test them. A meter tester frequently has a helper who can start at this work with very little electrical knowledge or experience. This is primarily outdoor work, and is suitable for a returned soldier whose disabilities require that he have considerable open-air exercise. The hours are eight or nine a day. The wages of a helper vary from $50 to $76 and of a tester from $70 to $125 per month. In the meter-repair shop the returned meters are dismantled, cleaned, repaired, readjusted, and retested. This work is in reality a branch of electrical instrument repairing and manufacturing. It requires dexterous workmanship and accurate handling. Men in the meter-repair department are usually those who have been outside meter testers. They understand, in addition to installation and testing, something of meter construction and manufacture. Wages for an inside meter tester range from $80 to $150. The position of meter department foreman or superintendent, for which a competent meter man may after a number of years of experience qualify, pays from $125 to $180 monthly. In meter departments of large companies there is some bench work which can be done by a man who has the use of his hands and eyes, even though he be otherwise materially disabled. Soldiers who have had previous electrical experience or who like to manipulate fine instruments and tools should be able to handle effectively some of this work. PLAN No. 1207. SALES DEPARTMENT As its name implies, this department obtains customers who consume electrical energy. Such light and small appliance business as does not come unsolicited is secured by solicitors. Each solicitor is ordinarily assigned a certain district. To be a success at selling, a man must first of all be competent to meet tactfully people of all types. Furthermore, he should be familiar with electric lighting requirements and rates, so that he can discuss these with prospective customers and advise them authoritatively. Experience, however, has shown that men with no previous electrical training can, provided they have the “selling instinct,” be trained in a few weeks so that they can strike out for themselves and procure lighting contracts. Probably selling pays better, considering the relatively small amount of technical training that it requires, than does any other branch of public-utility work. Solicitors are frequently paid on a salary and commission basis. Their incomes may range from $60 to $150 or more a month. The field is an attractive one for men whose disabilities will permit of their entering it. Such technical training for solicitors as is absolutely necessary is usually furnished by the company which proposes to employ them, but all of the electrical education that a man can acquire will be of material value. By all means take a theoretical electrical course if you can. The job of the power-sales engineer is to solicit contracts for power loads for the central station. Considerable engineering training is necessary for effective work. The man should be familiar with steam and gasoline power-plant installations. He should know how to apply effectively electric motors in the different branches of industry. Furthermore, he must meet people easily and be able to express his ideas accurately. In other words, he also should have the selling temperament. A man who has had considerable electrical experience and possesses the other qualifications can easily prepare for this vocation. The company which engages him will, usually, train him for it. Ordinarily, a salary and commission are paid. The income may range from $80 to $250 per month or more. While solicitors and salesmen are supposed to work about 8 hours a day their time is, in one sense, their own. Little attention is given to the number of hours the man puts in, provided he obtains a reasonable amount of business. Some of the visits to prospective customers must be made in the evening, or possibly on Sundays. On the other hand, it occurs not infrequently that a salesman may go to a ball game on a Tuesday afternoon, his salary continuing meanwhile. PLAN No. 1208. ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT This department of an electric company is responsible for the design and construction of the system as a whole. A chief engineer is the executive head. To assist him there are assistant engineers, inspectors, and draftsmen. The chief engineer and his principal assistants are, ordinarily, men of mature years and much experience. Hence, there is little possibility of a returned soldier qualifying for one of these positions unless he has previously done similar work. But there are opportunities to start in the engineering department as inspectors or draftsmen. The inspectors are “outside” men. Much of their work is in the open. They compile information and reports on engineering projects, on work which is under way, or which has been completed. These notes are utilized in the office in the preparation of drawings and specifications which show the construction departments what to do and how to do it. The draftsmen make the drawings from which the blueprints for construction jobs are reproduced. Any man who has had previous electrical construction experience and who can get around outside and see, hear, and write, should be able to qualify for an engineering inspector’s position. The future offers him the possibility of becoming an assistant engineer. Engineering drafting offers inviting opportunities for disabled men because much of the work can be done by a person who can sit at a drawing table and use his hands and eyes. Lack of speech and hearing are not insurmountable handicaps because directions can be given and questions asked in writing. There are some one-handed draftsmen. Frequently a draftsman has a job assigned to him and is then left to himself to work it out. He may not speak to or be spoken to by any one for half a day at a time. Another feature of drafting work which in this connection is important, is that it is possible to utilize men of all grades of ability, provided they have some knowledge of mechanical drawing. If a man can make a fairly good tracing, even if he knows nothing whatever of design, he can be very useful. He can gradually acquire that knowledge of the principles which is necessary to develop him into a draftsman-designer or an engineer. It is, however, essential that, at the start, the candidate know a little about mechanical drawing. Concerns do not usually care to break in a man who has no knowledge whatever of this subject. Such elementary knowledge as is required may be obtained by taking a Federal Board short course. Men in the engineering department work about eight or nine hours a day. A tracer beginning at the work may earn from $30 to $60 per month. After a man can do some designing he may earn from $60 to $125 per month, depending upon his experience and ability. If a draftsman develops into a designer or assistant engineer he may expect from $125 to $200 per month or more. PLAN No. 1209. ACCOUNTING DEPARTMENT This department is responsible for the meter reading, billing, collections, and similar commercial features of the business. The work is clerical and statistical in character. PLAN No. 1210. ELECTRIC-RAILWAY SYSTEMS The departmental organization of electric-railway systems varies. Large companies have more departments than small ones and probably no two companies are organized on precisely the same plan. However, there are certain functions which must be performed by every company and a typical arrangement for a comparatively large system is the following: Power department. Mechanical department. Transportation department. Maintenance of way department. Line department. Engineering department. Building department. Each of these departments has its executive head, its subordinate officers, and its workmen and mechanics. POWER DEPARTMENT The power department is responsible for production of electrical energy required for operation. It is directed by an engineer of power. The duties of the department and of the men employed in it are practically identical with those of the power department of an electric-light and power company, which have been already discussed. MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT A master mechanic directs the mechanical department of a street-railway company. This department repairs and may build cars used on the system of which there may be a number of types, including passenger cars of several designs, mail cars, baggage cars, and work cars used by the maintenance department. For the repair and construction of this equipment there are required, in addition to the electricians, woodworkers, sheet metal men, machinists, pipe fitters, welders, pattern makers, blacksmiths, and painters. A street railway electrical shop has duties rather different from those of the usual repair shop. Most of the repairs are on motors of a very few sizes. Furthermore, nearly all are series wound and are for operation on direct current of 600 volts. Much of the work comprises the rewinding of armatures. Burned out copper coils are stripped from the core, and the slots are prepared for new coils. These are placed in a proper sequence and the free ends are soldered to the commutator bars. Next, band wires which maintain the coils in position are wound on. Then the armature is mounted in a lathe where the commutator is turned down and finished ready for operation. PLAN No. 1211. ARMATURE REPAIRING--MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT Armature repairing is done with the armature held in a rack about the height of an ordinary workbench. Thus the armature winder is required to stand while working, sometimes for considerable periods. It is essential that he have good feet and legs. It is also necessary that he have the use of most of his fingers. Repairing an armature requires only a few new coils in skilled work. On the other hand, much of the work in armature repairing is of a routine character. Hence a man of little experience can do the work under direction of a journeyman. It will always pay a person who contemplates following armature winding as a vocation, to take a short electrical course before he engages in the actual work. A beginner at armature winding will receive from $50 to $80, an expert may expect $75 to $150, and a foreman or chief $125 to $200 per month. The work is all indoors with an 8 or 9 hour day. The coils used in rewinding the armature may be purchased complete from an electrical manufacturing company, but the larger concerns make their own coils. The preparation and insulating of these coils is often benchwork. A man who does not have the use of his feet can do some of it. Deft fingers are required, but there are now many blind workers who are insulating armature coils successfully. This work may pay from $40 to $90 a month. Some preliminary manual training is required, which can usually be obtained in the shop where the worker is to be employed. PLAN No. 1212. SHOP WIRING--MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT The shop wiremen of an electric-railway company do the wiring around the plant, as well as that on the cars. A journeyman wire man should be able to interpret correctly wiring diagrams for ordinary jobs. These may include the installation of motors, heaters, lights, rheostats, and similar equipment. Also, he should be competent to route economically his circuits through inaccessible places and should be familiar with the National Electrical Code. He may have to install headlights, signal lights, pump-governor relays, and other devices now forming a part of car equipments. The wireman must have had considerable experience, but each wireman usually has a helper to assist him. A man with little or no experience can start in as a helper, and develop into a good wireman. The length of time required to do this will be determined almost wholly by the man’s knowledge of electricity and his efforts at self improvement. It may require six months or a year or two years. The work is done usually in a car shop which is inclosed and heated. An 8-hour day is common, but in some companies the men work 9 or 10 hours. The pay is about $75 to $125 for a wireman, and $50 to $90 for a helper. PLAN No. 1213. CAR INSPECTING--MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT The car inspector’s duties involve a knowledge of numerous occupations, and he must be familiar with various sorts of equipment. His position in the company’s organization is an important one, because the expense of car repairs is often materially minimized by his foresight and alertness. He judges which repairs should be made in the general shop and which in the car barn. He must know the function and operation of every working part of the car. In detail, his duties consist of a systematic inspection of all components of the car equipment. These include the motors, controllers, brakes, lights, signs, heaters, and other devices on the cars which may require attention. Usually the work is done during daylight hours. Cars are held periodically in the barn for inspection. Work of this type is well adapted to a man who is unqualified physically for heavy tasks. A man of good judgment who was formerly employed in a car barn in some other capacity and who is, in general, familiar with cars and their repairs, might be trained readily for this occupation. An inspector works eight or ten hours a day and receives a salary varying from $75 to $150 per month. PLAN No. 1214. TRANSPORTATION DEPARTMENT This department handles the traffic, operates the cars, plans their schedules, and revises their routings to meet the requirements of the traveling public. A superintendent of transportation is the executive head. His assistants are the division superintendents, inspectors, instructors, station foremen, motormen, conductors, and the car shifters in the barns. Each division superintendent has charge of the traffic in a certain part of the system. The inspector has charge of the cars and crews while on the road. It is his duty to enforce the rules of the company to insure that cars and equipment are handled efficiently and that the cars maintain their schedules. Men holding the positions of division superintendent and traffic inspector generally qualify for them from the rank and file of the train service. They should have a thorough knowledge of car operation. The inspector’s position is one which an ambitious man, who has the requisite ability, may obtain. Salary ranges from $80 to $160 monthly. PLAN No. 1215. INSTRUCTING--TRANSPORTATION DEPARTMENT Instructors have charge of the training of prospective motormen and conductors. The instructor assigns students to an experienced motorman or conductor who teaches them the essentials of their jobs. Then the instructor informs the new men in detail as to rules and, if necessary, makes trial trips with them. The instructor in many companies also conducts classes wherein the new men are given some schooling as to the theory and practice of the electrical air brake and similar equipment which will come under their charge. A returned soldier who has had prior street-railway experience, who is physically disqualified for work involving physical strain or considerable manual effort, should, after some study, be able to qualify for the position of instructor. For one who is fitted temperamentally for work of this character the position would be a very good one. It will pay about $100 to $175 per month. PLAN No. 1216. FOREMAN--TRANSPORTATION DEPARTMENT A station foreman has charge of the station, and supervises the dispatching of cars on their runs. He keeps the list of extra men and provides crews for extra and special cars. These foremen should be familiar with the operation of street cars. In nearly every case they are promoted from the ranks. They must be tactful in handling men. This position is one to which an individual, who accepts a minor job in the transportation department, may look forward. MOTORMEN AND CONDUCTORS--TRANSPORTATION DEPARTMENT Motormen and conductors have duties with which all are familiar. These occupations have their advantages and also their disadvantages. Some men follow them for almost a lifetime while others soon become dissatisfied and seek other fields. The positions are permanent and frequently carry with them attractive features, such as free medical attention, insurance, and club-room privileges. Pay is ordinarily based on a sliding scale. So the wage which a man receives for his day’s work depends upon the number of years that he has been in the service of the company. Motormen may now receive from $3 to $5 per day, and conductors about the same. Returned soldiers with no previous experience, who are in good shape physically but who must have out-of-door work, may find this work desirable. They will be trained by the company which employs them. MAINTENANCE-OF-WAY DEPARTMENTS The maintenance of way, or “track department,” constructs new tracks, bridges, and other structures, and maintains track structures and right of way after construction. Frequently it is under the jurisdiction of a chief engineer who works through a superintendent and a division foreman. A foreman of the machine and tool division directs the shop repairs of the various tools, track grinders, steam shovels, and hoisting engines. He has to qualify as a first-class steam engineer. The paving foreman is responsible for the tearing up and replacing of pavement which the company is required to maintain at each side of and between rails. The supervisor of construction has charge of building new track and of making the repairs to existing lines. Most of the manual work in this department is done by unskilled labor directed by foremen. A disabled man who has had previous experience in construction work might, with some additional training, be able to qualify for a foremanship. Such a position requires executive ability and sufficient education to read blue prints and make out reports. It will pay from $80 to $150 per month. Practically all of the work is out of doors. PLAN No. 1217. LINE DEPARTMENT A wire or line department installs and maintains the trolley wires and feeders both underground and overhead. A man with no previous electrical experience may start in as a ground man or helper, and advance himself to the position of lineman and foreman. Electric railway line work is somewhat similar to that necessary for electric lighting companies. One requirement is a good physique, but minor disablements might not handicap. Practically all of the work is done out of doors. The ground men will receive from $2 to $4 and a lineman from $3 to $5 per day; a foreman from $100 to $175 per month. PLAN No. 1218. TELEPHONE COMPANIES Telephone systems have grown phenomenally. A few years ago the telephone was a luxury. To-day it is a necessity. It has been predicted that the time will come when there will be at least one telephone in every house, just as practically every city building is now piped for water, so that it appears probable that there will be in the future a steadily increasing demand for trained telephone men. The type of equipment used in a telephone system is determined to some extent by the size of the town or city in which the system operates. Systems serving small towns are relatively simple. The small community telephone system usually has for its lines individual wires strung on poles. There is a pair of wires for each subscriber. To call central, a hand crank on the sides of the telephone is turned which causes a shutter or drop on the switchboard to fall and expose the line number. Each line has its own drop. Thus the operator’s attention is attracted. She answers the call and by means of cords with plugs on their ends she connects the calling with the called subscriber. Such a system is called “magneto” system, because a magneto generator turned by hand crank is used for calling. Dry cells located at each subscriber’s station supply the electrical energy for talking. While a magneto system like that just described is the most desirable and economical for a small town, its application in a city would be both impractical and prohibitively expensive to operate. Modern city telephone exchanges operate on the central-energy system. With it there are no dry cells or magnetos at the subscriber’s stations. Electrical energy for both signaling and talking is supplied by a storage battery located in the central office. For this reason an arrangement of this type is called a “central energy” or “common-battery” system. Instead of the switchboard having a drop for each subscriber’s line, it has a small incandescent lamp which is associated with the line. This lights when the subscriber removes his telephone receiver from its hook. For city telephone lines it would be infeasible to use open wires on insulators because there could not be placed on the poles a sufficient number of cross arms to support even a small proportion of the telephone lines which radiate from an exchange. Furthermore, open-line construction for city conditions would be very expensive and difficult to maintain. Hence, in the city exchanges, lead-covered cables, each containing from 20 to 1,200 pairs of conductors, are employed. Where a number of these cables are routed parallel to one another, they are carried in ducts in underground subways. In the residence sections they are supported on poles. It follows that the circuits and connections in a large city telephone exchange are exceedingly complicated. There are thousands of small wires, each of which serves a different purpose. Considered as a whole telephony involves careful work and attention to detail. Much of it is of the same order as fine instrument making. Departments of telephone companies include: Engineering department, commercial department, auditing department, plant department, traffic department. PLAN No. 1219. ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT This department plans and supervises the development and construction of the property as a whole. In it plans and specifications are prepared for buildings, exchange layouts, subways, and other components. To obtain a position of responsibility in the engineering department one must have had theoretical training and a number of years of telephone experience, but there are usually engineering-department positions in which men of little experience but with some theoretical training can start as draftsmen or clerks, advancing as they acquire experience. In this respect, the engineering department of a telephone company offers somewhat the same possibilities for disabled men as do similar departments in street railways or electric-power companies. Hours of work and compensation will be about the same. However, for a man who has had telephone experience, it is desirable usually to continue in that line. Telephony is probably more exacting and involves greater detail than does power work and may on that account be preferred by some. PLAN No. 1220. COMMERCIAL DEPARTMENT Contracts for telephone service are obtained by the commercial department. It is the sales organization of a telephone company selling telephone service to the public. In this work there should be opportunities for soldiers with minor disablements who have had prior telephone experience, and who possess the “selling instinct.” The salary will probably range from $60 to $160 per month. PLAN No. 1221. AUDITING DEPARTMENT The qualifications for men in this department are about the same as those required of men in any accounting organization. These are treated in detail in one of the other Federal Board monographs. PLAN No. 1222. PLANT DEPARTMENT Much of the telephone plant is built and all of it is maintained by this department. It is often segregated into two general divisions, (1) construction division and (2) maintenance division. To administer these there are a construction superintendent and a maintenance superintendent. Then each division may be further subdivided in sections as follows: (_a_) Aerial-line section, (_b_) cable section, (_c_) repair section, (_d_) wire chief’s section, (_e_) installation section, (_f_) cable-report section, and (_g_) clerical section. Men employed regularly in the construction division may be assigned temporarily to the maintenance division when up-keep work is particularly heavy, and vice versa. PLAN No. 1223. AERIAL LINE AND CABLE SECTIONS--PLANT DEPARTMENT By the aerial line and aerial cable sections the overhead lines are built and maintained. The work is somewhat similar to that performed by the corresponding division of an electric light and power company. It is necessary to set and guy poles, place cross arms on them, and string wire. In modern city construction, however, few cross arms are required, because cable and twisted pair “block” wire has almost wholly superseded open wire. The handling of telephone cable is an occupation peculiar to telephone work. Where placed overhead, the lead-covered cable is suspended on steel messenger wire supported on poles. Great care must be exercised in installing cable. It is damaged easily and may then be a source of expensive and provoking trouble. Most of the work in the construction department involves considerable physical exertion, but there are often foremanships and inspectorships which men incapable of great physical exertion and indoor work could fill. General working conditions, qualifications, hours, rates of pay, and the like are about the same as those detailed for the distribution department of an electric-power company. PLAN No. 1224. UNDERGROUND CABLE SECTION--PLANT DEPARTMENT This section has to do with installing, joining, and connecting telephone cables. Much of the work is splicing. Telephone cable consists of from 100 to 600 or more pairs of copper wire. Each wire is separated from its neighbors with a wrapping of paper or other insulating material. Then the bunch of conductors is covered by a protective sheath, usually of lead. In splicing, the lead sheath is first stripped from the end of the cable. Then the different corresponding pairs in the cables to be connected are joined together. Each joint is insulated with a paper sleeve slipped over it. When all of the pairs have been connected, a lead sleeve is slipped over the splice and “wiped” with hot solder to the lead sheath of the cables which have been joined. This work requires much skill and experience. Not only does the cableman splice the cables, but he must also connect them to the distributing frames in the central office and to the terminal boxes on the poles. A terminal box on the end of a cable is one whereby the aerial circuits are connected to the underground cable conductors. About the only way to become a proficient cable splicer is through experience as a cable splicer’s helper. This vocation should offer opportunities for men who have only minor disablements, and who should work out of doors nearly all of the time. The use of the hands and fingers is necessary. Cable splicers must sometimes climb poles. In very bad weather the cablemen are given indoor tasks. A cable splicer will ordinarily receive from $60 to $110 per month, and a helper from $40 to $85. PLAN No. 1225. REPAIR SECTION--PLANT DEPARTMENT This section assembles the frames, racks, cables, and other minor central-office accessories, and clears the troubles in the subscribers’ instruments, private branch exchanges, and the central offices. Workers in this division may be classified into four groups: (1) Equipment installers, (2) line and instrument repairmen, (3) switchboard repairmen, and (4) wire chief and testers. PLAN No. 1226. EQUIPMENT INSTALLERS--REPAIR SECTION Equipment installers include the apprentices of the industry. New men are frequently placed in these positions for training. They cut and form switchboard cable, and do other equipment-installation work around the exchange. Practically no experience is required of a beginner. But an equipment-installation foreman should be a well-informed, thoroughly trained man. He usually advances to this position from the ranks. The work on the whole is light and should afford opportunities for men with minor disablements of little technical training who have full use of their hands and fingers. PLAN No. 1227. LINE AND INSTRUMENT REPAIRMEN--REPAIR SECTION Line and instrument repairmen are the “trouble shooters.” They locate troubles and faults which occur on lines or in subscribers’ instruments. After some experience a repairman usually knows from the symptoms of a fault just what the difficulty is and where it may be located. Ability to climb poles is usually essential for this work. A knowledge of principal telephone circuits, cable and line layouts is also requisite. A repairman is usually promoted to this work from some other position with the company. For proficiency it requires experience on the job. Hours are eight or nine a day, and compensation may be from $60 to $110 per month. PLAN No. 1228. SWITCHBOARD REPAIRMEN--REPAIR SECTION Switchboard repairmen are men of ability and a number of years’ experience. Their functions are to maintain and repair local and toll switchboards, private branch exchanges, and sometimes the auxiliary equipment in offices, such as ringing machines, charging generators, and storage batteries. As already noted, switchboard equipment is quite intricate and requires the attention of a competent repairman to maintain it in efficient operating condition. The switchboard repairman’s job may be considered as a possibility for a man who enters the telephone industry in a minor position. The work is practically all inside, in the telephone-exchange buildings. While it requires manipulative skill, and full use of the hands, little physical effort is necessary. The salary will range from $75 to $125. PLAN No. 1229. WIRE CHIEF’S SECTION--PLANT DEPARTMENT This section tests lines, switchboards, cables, and instruments, and locates troubles which may occur in these. Some of the men who are employed are switchboard inspector, testers, wire chief, night wire chief. The work is done almost wholly indoors. It requires some knowledge of the elementary principle of electrical practice and the functions of the switchboard and its accessories. The testing is done from a central testing desk, or testing switchboard, which is located in the terminal room of a telephone exchange. At this desk the wire chief or his assistant operates the keys and switches whereby the tests are made. To be a good wire chief in a city telephone system usually requires from six to 10 years’ experience. Duties of subordinate positions may be mastered in shorter periods. All of these jobs require experience, which can be obtained by a man who starts with the telephone company as an untrained beginner. A wire chief may receive from $75 to $175 per month. PLAN No. 1230. INSTALLATION SECTION--PLANT DEPARTMENT Installation and removal of telephones and private-branch exchanges is the work of this section. There is constant demand for new stations and for shifting about old ones, which provides work for a large number of men. For this work little experience is necessary. A helper may become proficient in a few days and may soon be competent to install instruments without supervision. The work may be graded in such a way that an ambitious man may advance to more responsible and remunerative positions, such as switchboard installing and testing. One possibility for those who like installation work is the position of private-branch exchange installer. His work consists in the installation of complete private-branch exchanges in factories, stores, public buildings, and elsewhere. He must supervise the running of all necessary wires and cables in buildings, setting of switchboards, connecting instruments, and making final tests to insure correctness of installation. Much time is spent out of doors traveling between jobs. The remainder is spent in buildings in which installations are made. A beginner may receive from $40 to $70, and a foreman from $75 to $110 per month. This work can be handled by a man who has only minor disablements and who has full use of his hands. Such training as is necessary will usually be given to him by the company which employs him. However, as with other electrical vocations, a short preliminary theoretical course will be of considerable value. PLAN No. 1231. CABLE REPORT SECTION--PLANT DEPARTMENT Making definite records of every circuit in the telephone system is the task of the cable report section. Such records are essential to enable the wire chief to locate definitely any telephone fault, even though the circuit involved an exceedingly devious rout. The work is clerical. A general familiarity with the complete telephone layout is desirable, but a beginner with little experience may be employed. The qualifications, possibilities, rates of pay, hours, and the like are about the same as those for accounting or auditing clerical work. However, a man who has had some previous telephone experience will be able to utilize it in this department. PLAN No. 1232. TRAFFIC DEPARTMENT This department has charge of the telephone traffic. The operators, practically always young women, make connections on calls by subscribers. There are usually no men on the floor of a telephone exchange except the switchboard and maintenance men. A large telephone exchange may have a male traffic manager. Large companies may have a traffic-engineering department which plans and directs the arrangement of switchboard sections, and the division of lines between operators in order to insure efficient service. Men with some prior telephone experience who can not do heavy physical work, might qualify for minor positions under direction of the traffic engineer. These would be of the same general character as those with the engineering department, except that they deal only with traffic. Rates of pay, working hours, and future possibilities are practically the same as in an engineering department. PLAN No. 1233. STEAM RAILROADS Practically all steam railroads now have electrical departments. The men in such departments install and maintain the electric train lighting equipment and do such electrical construction--installation of generators, motors, wiring, and the like--as may be required on the system. Each steam road may have an electrical superintendent to whom electricians and their helpers report. The railroad electrician’s work includes maintenance of electric train lighting generators, storage batteries, and electric wiring of cars and buildings; it includes armature winding and rewinding, and installation of generators and motors. Obviously, years of experience and training are necessary, but at the bottom of the ladder there are opportunities for inexperienced men to start in as helpers. The work is interesting and steady. Usually full use of hands and good sight and hearing are required. While there is some lifting and heavy work, on the whole the duties are not arduous. About half of the work is out of doors and half inside. The rates of pay for a beginner will vary from $40 to $75, for a journeyman from $75 to $150, and for a superintendent from $125 to $300. Men are furnished free with a certain amount of railroad transportation for themselves and families, the amount of transportation thus allowed increasing with the man’s responsibilities and with the length of his service. PLAN No. 1234. BEEKEEPING AS A VOCATION ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. Acknowledgment is due Dr. E. F. Phillips, Apiculturist of the Bureau of Entomology. United States Department of Agriculture; to F. C. Pellett and C. P. Dadant, editors of the American Bee Journal, Hamilton, Ill., and A. I. Root Co., Medina, Ohio, for suggestions, data, and illustrations; also to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance. The increased use of honey during the war and the possession of some previous knowledge of bees may have directed the attention of a large number of you, who are disabled, to the possibility of making beekeeping your life work. During the war the shortage of sugar made the larger use of other sweets imperative, and it was essential that the use of these substitutes be augmented to the greatest possible extent. The necessary