4. The ideal teacher must be willing to be forgotten--to have his kind

acts overlooked--to be generous, even in the absence of praise. If praise and recognition are essential to him the prospective teacher may as well give up the profession. TEST QUESTIONS FOR SELF-EXAMINATION The discharged soldier can decide to some extent what his teaching chances are by asking himself questions like the following: Have I attended evening school or taken instruction work, or gone to lectures, or enrolled in correspondence schools, or done anything previous to entering the Army which would lead anyone to suppose that I was ambitious to advance in my vocation? When in the Army, did I obtain recognition for capacity for leadership and for teaching others? Have I in the past looked upon teaching as a desirable profession where one could render service at a fair compensation? Have I “Stick-to-it-iveness” to attend a teachers’ training school and adapt myself to classroom work with books, catalogues, reports, and lectures on the theory and practice of education? One looking forward to a position in vocational education should ask himself such questions as the following: Have I actual technical knowledge of some trade or am I only capable of practicing a few operations connected with the trade? Have I ever been interested in social and economic life that lies behind the vocational life? Did I ever join any organization connected with an occupation or pursuit which promotes the economic and educational welfare of its members? Each prospective teacher should ask, Have I a strong personality? Nothing awakens within a child sleeping moral qualities so well as contact with a strong attractive personality. The problem of the school is to find the teacher inspired with patriotism, filled with zeal, and favored with intellectual interests. TEACHING NOT EASY WORK The question of health, also, is an important one for the person who is looking forward to teaching. Many people feel that school hours are short, and that, therefore, a great amount of physical endurance is not needed in the work of teaching. Because of the particular strain of the teacher’s work it is a mistake to think of the workday at all in terms of hours. It has been said that one hour of teaching is equivalent as far as fatigue is concerned to two hours of ordinary study done in quiet without the necessity of speaking. The four or five hour teaching day, therefore, becomes the equivalent of an eight or ten hour day, and on top of that must be added two hours a day for correcting papers, preparing lesson plans, etc. It is said that teaching is hard on the eyes and the nerves and the lungs, so that people suffering seriously from either eye, nerve, or lung trouble should hesitate to go into teaching as a life work, unless there are prospects of early recovery. It is further stated that a higher percentage of deaths occurs from tuberculosis among teachers than among persons in other occupations, although the mortality from this disease is higher for female teachers than for male teachers. Teachers, especially beginning teachers, frequently suffer from nervous strain. Almost 50 per cent of the nervous cases are said to appear during the first 5 years of teaching, while during the first 15 years of teaching 87 per cent of such cases occur. Nevertheless it is to be noted that insurance companies class teachers among their good risks. TRAINING REQUIRED Men who have gotten no farther than the eighth grade in their general education might be fitted to teach some vocational subjects. Teachers of elementary subjects, either in the ungraded rural schools or in the graded city schools, should have the equivalent of a high-school education, and teachers in high schools should have the equivalent of a college education with emphasis placed upon the subject taught. Teachers in normal schools should have a year or two of work beyond the college course, and teachers in colleges and universities are generally expected to have from one to four years of post-graduate work. In addition to this general training in subject matter one should have professional training dealing with the methods of teaching and supervising. The demand for men with this special training in the teaching profession is growing. The minimum general education required for a principalship of a school is graduation from a good high school. In addition to this there should be at least two years of study, which is largely professional, such as one would get in a normal school or in the department of education in a college or university. Even further study than that, of course, is desirable, and the best positions generally go to men who have spent several years in study beyond college graduation. Recent studies show that men who have received even a small amount of professional training advance more rapidly than those who have depended alone on their native ability and general education. For the positions that are largely administrative and supervisory men who have already had experience in the field of teaching may secure the necessary technical preparation by taking a year’s training in any of the numerous colleges of education or normal schools which prepare for these fields. Present-day courses in theory and practice, leading directly to positions named above, offer unexcelled professional training in these fields. Various States of the Union have different laws governing the certification of teachers. Some of the States require a definite amount of education of a general nature, plus education of a professional nature, plus an examination. Other States depend more upon the examination. The present tendency is to raise the requirement for a general education, to add to the requirement for a professional training, and to lay less stress upon the examination. Anyone who is thinking of entering the teaching profession, however, should before doing so look up very carefully the laws in force in the State in which he plans to teach. Applicants for teaching positions in educational institutions of any grade must generally show the authorities in control that they possess whatever qualifications may be considered necessary, including education, training, experience, and personality. In general, the higher the grade of the institution, the higher the requirements. Colleges, technical schools, and universities all practically require for the lowest teaching positions on their regular staff at least a degree equal to that granted by the institution. Schools of secondary grade do not, as a rule, set the standard as high, while schools of intermediate grade set up intermediate qualifications. The requirements for teachers in schools of secondary grade vary widely. If under private control, no definite statement can be made, since each school sets up its own standards. Good privately controlled schools, however, tend to set up about the same requirements as schools of corresponding type that are under public control. In the great majority of States teachers in schools under public control must be certified before they can be employed. This certificate is usually granted after some form of examination has been successfully passed and is commonly given by the State educational authorities. Usually certificates are granted only to persons having certain educational and other qualifications. The requirements, examinations, subjects, etc., are usually given in bulletins issued free by the departments of education of the different States. Some large cities have certifying systems of their own. In most States teachers of agriculture must be graduates of a four-year course in an agricultural college or institution of similar grade, and in addition, must have had a practical farming experience. In trade and commercial schools and departments the general tendency is to secure for practical or shop instructors men who actually know the occupations that they are to teach. In industrial day schools and in evening courses in these schools, there is generally required proof of a certain length of journeyman experience in the trade to be taught following an apprentice experience or its equivalent, and proof also of an elementary school education or its equivalent. Teachers of technical or related subjects (shop mechanics, drawing, etc.), are usually required to have had several years of technical training and to have had some contact with industry. SALARIES Financial returns from teaching are not large. But teaching usually pays at least a comfortable living from the very first. Many people enter the profession for this reason. It is said that the money returns from teaching are, on the average, less than in law, medicine, or business. Salaries of high-school teachers, however, are said to be on the average somewhat higher than those of ministers, doctors, and lawyers. In all lines of teaching the salary range is rather large. The number of years that it takes to reach the maximum salary varies greatly in the different States. In Indiana it is said that the maximum for men, excluding principals, is reached on the average in 6 years, whereas in Massachusetts the maximum salary for men, excluding principals, is not usually reached under 15 years. In Massachusetts the maximum salary received by teachers is about twice as great as the minimum salary. The beginning wage for men teachers in rural schools ranges from $60 to $90 per month. The beginning wage of men teachers in the graded schools in cities is considerably more. The minimum salaries of all teachers, men and women included, in 85 of the largest cities in the United States, ranges from $405 to $1,080, whereas the maximum for such teachers in the same cities ranges from $630 to $1,820. Teachers in industrial arts receive from $1,000 to $2,500 a year, while supervisors of such subjects receive from $1,600 to $3,000 a year. Salaries paid State and local directors for administering vocational instruction range from $2,500 to $5,000. Principals and superintendents of schools generally receive salaries ranging from $1,000 to $4,000, and in some of the larger cities salaries for superintendents have recently been materially increased. During the past three or four years some superintendents of our largest cities have been getting from $10,000 to $12,000. REWARDS OTHER THAN FINANCIAL While the salary for teaching is not as great as one would probably receive in commercial lines, nevertheless there are other rewards that tend to make teaching attractive. In the first place, there is apt to be more permanency in a teaching position than in a commercial position. Teachers are not easily dismissed without cause. Hours are shorter, thus giving regular opportunity for exercise in the open air. In most States neither dissatisfaction of pupil nor parents is cause for dismissal of the teachers. In many States, too, if the schools are ordered closed, the salaries of teachers must go on in full. The rather long vacations in teaching give opportunity for travel or study or work, as one may elect. Social insurance is rapidly being provided for teachers. Pension systems for city school teachers started in Chicago in 1893. At the present time there are 21 State pension systems, while 4 other States have laws permitting local organizations to set up pension plans. In addition to the State systems there are 64 city and county systems in operation. Some of these systems are not satisfactorily worked out, but within the last few years a great deal of careful study has been given to this work. The movement for social insurance is recent but wide-spread and still growing. A total of 34 States are at present represented in this movement in either State systems or local systems within the State. Retirement in these systems is most frequently on the basis of 30-year service. In about six-sevenths of the systems the teachers contribute to the funds, most frequently 1 to 2 per cent of their salaries. In schools reporting pension systems for teachers the average salary is $730 a year, while the average pension is $500 a year. Finally, teaching is its own reward. For the person who likes children, who appreciates the social advantages of the profession, who wishes to make his life count greatly in the lives of other people, and who has an ambition to do something for the national service in a vital way, the profession of teaching should be attractive. HOW MANY YEARS WILL IT TAKE TO ESTABLISH ONE’S SELF IN THE TEACHING PROFESSION? For men teachers the rate of advancement in salary varies greatly with different communities and with different personalities. The number of years of teaching necessary before the maximum salary is reached ranges from 6 to 15 years or more. Men continue to be advanced, however, by being promoted to principalships after their chances for further advancement as teachers are reduced to a minimum. HOW GREAT IS THE NEED FOR MEN TEACHERS? At one time education in the United States was largely in the hands of men. At the present time it is largely in the hands of women. A tendency is growing to bring more men into the teaching profession. The demand for teachers is generally and greatly increased of late. The growth of high schools during the past generation has been very rapid. Twenty years ago there were 200,000 pupils enrolled in 2,500 high schools of our country, thus representing one in every 210 of the population. To-day there are approximately a million and a half pupils in approximately 15,000 high schools, representing one in every 66 of the population. In some localities one person in every 25 is enrolled in a secondary school of some sort. This expansion of the secondary schools of the United States has not yet ceased. There has been marked increase also in attendance at normal schools and colleges, but this increase, while great, has not been as rapid as the increase in high-school attendance. The very recent development of vocational training is adding to the demand for men in the teaching profession. It would seem, therefore, that the teaching profession would offer an attractive field for many of our returning soldiers, sailors, and marines. Undoubtedly, the disabled soldier, sailor, or marine returning from this great war has a number of very great assets which he could market to advantage in educational work. Not the least among these is the advantage which he will enjoy over the civilian because of the natural admiration of young people for the soldier, sailor, or marine. With this as a start, other things being equal, his chances of success and of advancement as a teacher are very good. The attitude of the community toward him will be one of respect and admiration. From this he can reap rich rewards in influence and friendships. Every man who has gone to war must have thought more deeply than ever before about his country and its many problems. He comes home, perhaps, with many changed points of view. Naturally he desires to play a part in refashioning the spirit or the customs or practices, and even the institutions of this country. There is no more effective place in which to do this than in the schoolroom through the continuous everyday influence which the teacher brings to bear upon the lives of young people. PLAN No. 1103. FARM MANAGEMENT AS A VOCATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT This monograph was prepared by Dr. Walter J. Quick, Special Agent for the Federal Board for Vocational Education, under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Division of Research. Acknowledgment is due E. H. Thomson, Acting Chief, and Dr. E. V. Wilcox, agriculturist of the Office of Farm Management, United States Department of Agriculture, for suggestions and data, also to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance. If you have been asking yourself the question, “Can I now with my disability undertake to manage a farm on business principles and expect to make a financial success of it?” you will be interested to learn that farm management is one of the most important training courses offered you by the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Upon good business management depends success in farming, that most important industry in the United States--the industry which many of you boys returning from the war will wish to enter, the one which needs you perhaps more than any other, and in which you may expect to earn ample rewards through scientific methods. Farm management has been defined as “the science of organization and management of farm enterprise for the purpose of securing the greatest continuous profit.” It is the business end of farming. It deals with farm organization, methods, accounts, and credits, and is, therefore, of interest to all classes of farmers, including owners, managers, and tenants. BUSINESS METHODS PAY In agricultural affairs as they have been carried on, the lack of business methods has been amazing. Absolute mismanagement has frequently been the principal cause of discouragement, failure, and abandonment of farms. This influence has prevented many from taking up farming, but one who has a genuine love for the farm and who has or can get some practical experience on the farm may take a course of intensive study in farming and farm management under the direction of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, and then develop into a successful farm manager. The candidate must not forget, however, that farm management is a profession, and that a person without experience should not expect to become a successful farm manager in a few weeks by taking a short course at some agricultural school. What is worth getting requires time and effort in this as well as in other things. Many who have felt full confidence in farming, and have invested their money in it and applied business principles to it, have proved that the same measure of success will attend farming under business management as attends other industries when properly managed. Tens of thousands of farmers in the United States have demonstrated this by earning substantial profits. DIVERSITY OF FARM BUSINESS Whatever has been true in the past, the manager of a farm to-day must be a business man capable of negotiating complicated transactions, buying and selling, and attending to the diverse details of organization and management. You should consider well your adaptability for the diversifications of general farm life; your inclination to acquire an intimate knowledge of the principal affairs and at least a comprehensive acquaintance with everything related to farming. As a manager you must keep accurate accounts; you must know live stock as well as crops; you must be a mechanic, and ready to lend a hand with your laborers if your condition permits; in a word, you must be broad minded and tactfully co-operate with your men. You must have a practical knowledge of crops, of their seeding and harvesting, of the principles of plant breeding, propagation, and adaptation to soils. You must understand animal husbandry, breeding, growing, and feeding the animals produced to a market finish or for milk production. DOVETAILING ACTIVITIES By careful study the many activities on the farm can be so dovetailed together as to produce a maximum of crops and live stock economically. Systematic organization must be extended to every department of the farm. Labor must be efficient and well employed; teams and machinery, sufficient and in good condition; and marketing timely, it being borne in mind that quality and condition are quite as important as is quantity of product. MISMANAGEMENT WORSE THAN BAD WEATHER Variations in profits from farms are more largely due to mismanagement than to unfavorable seasons or fluctuating prices. Farming has become decidedly a business proposition. The abnormal demand now being made upon the United States for food and other agricultural products to be consumed at home and in European countries makes the extensive application of scientific farming imperative. Many farms, unprofitable because of mismanagement, could by reorganization be systematized and developed into profitable, lucrative undertakings. Accompanying this reorganization, the application of business principles and practical management to scientific methods is of paramount importance. With this better farming there must be associated reliable accounting, demonstrating a business warranting banking credit. It is often claimed that farmers can not keep books, when as a matter of fact, while they do not do bookkeeping in the generally accepted term, nine out of ten, from notes jotted down, have as accurate knowledge of the financial side of their enterprise as the majority of business men. This has been repeatedly proven by the hundreds of farm surveys, representing many States, by the Office of Farm Management of the Department of Agriculture, through which it was found possible on almost every farm to obtain an accurate financial statement from the memoranda kept by the farm owners, their managers or tenants, and to ascertain the profits. Thorough organization with method and accounting simplifies management, curtails expenses, makes possible larger returns with less outlay, and establishes credit, which will not longer be denied the farmer when he adopts business methods and can show the bank his statement of annual business conditions. FUNDS FOR DEVELOPMENT AVAILABLE Farms have been likened to huge sponges from their ability to absorb money and labor, but the capable manager can make investment of money and labor in farming profitable. Uncle Sam, it may be noted, has arranged for the advance of money through the Federal Loan service, and local banks stand ready now as never before to accommodate the farmer temporarily with the necessary funds for development operations. Many farms, like some manufacturing plants, are being run to only half capacity or less by a “one-horse tenant,” caretaker, or discouraged farmer. They are awaiting men and money, ready to absorb both, and if they are reorganized and managed on a business basis they will become highly profitable. THE NEED FOR MANAGERS Only 60,000 farms out of 6,361,000 employed managers and superintendents according to the 1910 census. But it is practically certain that more than one farm in a hundred would have been operated by managers had there been a larger number of effectively trained men available to men owning, or in position to own, farms large enough to justify the employment of a manager. With the number of improved farms increased to probably 7,000,000 by this date, the demand is greater for this class of trained men. The department of Agriculture and the State agricultural colleges report inability to fill numerous calls for farm managers and superintendents, and the advertisements in the agricultural and live-stock papers for them indicate that the demand continues. The small percentage of profits from the inefficient management of idle and incompetent tenants makes tens of thousands of farm owners not living on their places very desirous of securing active farm managers, capable of introducing scientific methods. We believe, in fact, we know, that there are in the country numerous “old time” farm owners who are barely making a living, while their farms are constantly depreciating in value. Unquestionably such owners would receive better returns by employing farm managers. The combination of a number of farms with co-operative handling, under a competent farm manager, on the community principle, would reduce expenses for machinery, teams, and power, and make possible more economic employment of labor. The existence of such conditions offers an excellent field of activity to the man who is trained well enough to see and to use these opportunities. Knowing the possibilities such a man might be able to so thoroughly convince the owners of a number of inefficiently operated farms of the advantage of having them worked as a unit and thereby get them to adopt his plans. The country is full of landed estates of sufficient area to justify the owners in employing specially trained men. Syndicates and individuals have been for years buying groups of neglected farms and orchards in the southern States. These are almost invariably being handled by scientifically trained farm managers. The properties have improved under modern methods of culture and have in most cases shown profits within two or three years, notwithstanding the necessary outlay to bring the run-down property into productive condition. Similar conditions obtain in New York and other northern and western States. RESPONSIBILITY OF THE MANAGER Managers are responsible for success in farming. Upon their experience and ability depends the securing of the “greatest continuous profit,” and, in fact, the securing, in many cases, of any profit at all. They direct, plan, and systemize the regular farm duties. The manager must arrange an advantageous distribution of farm labor, keep in intimate touch with all the farm work, know how to do it and be able to judge when it is well done, know what reasonably to expect of his men, know how to direct labor so as to meet adequately each season’s demand and so as to provide employment at all times. The manager must study the efficiency of different classes of workers. Too often farm profits are thought to depend upon small wages rather than upon experience and ability. The good manager will not make this mistake. The old belief that anyone can farm has been abandoned. Almost anyone can learn to farm, but the losses by the inexperience of an apprentice must be carefully avoided. Many a prospect of a full crop of corn as evidenced by the regularity of “stand in the row” has been reduced to a three-fourths return by an inexperienced plowboy plowing the young plants out or leaving them covered. An experienced plowman with an improved cultivator would have made a profit possible where the inexperienced hand caused a loss. The better worker is worthy his hire and better wages. The demand is growing in farming as in other industries for trained workers. The yields that the farm manager is able to secure are dependent so largely on his knowledge of labor and ability to direct it, that particular study should be given the labor problem of the farm by anyone preparing to assume the responsibilities of farm management. Farm work is not accomplished by separate groups of workers so much as by the same group of workers being employed in the appropriate undertakings at different seasons, as the manager directs. The competition for satisfactory farm labor has become so keen that far-sighted managers pay special attention to the conditions under which their laborers, as well as their skilled hands, live. A little money judiciously expended in providing buildings that are livable and homelike, a little liberality in the matter of time, a chance to garden, to keep a cow or a few hens, or to do some of the many other things that serve to keep satisfactory labor, may return a profit far out of proportion to the expense represented. In other words, the farm manager must profit by the experience of the manufacturer and avoid excessive “labor turn over.” SMALL FARMING AS A PREPARATION FOR FARM MANAGEMENT Large farms and estates employ crews of men and utilize expensive equipment. They especially require the services of well-trained and reliable farm managers, capable of selecting practical foremen and laborers, and of keeping well in hand the details of all farm processes necessary to economical management. But good management is essential also on small farms, operated by owners or tenants, as well as on large estates. The owner, and generally the tenant as well, are their own managers, and managing a small farm well is one way of learning the profession of the farm manager. The small farmer as well as the large must consider well the location, climate, soil, lay of land, water supply, and other features of his farm, so as to determine the most suitable type of farming under existing conditions. He, as well as the large farmer, must keep accounts, organize the farming operations in proper sequence, determine upon cropping, direct the preparation of soil, fertilizing, seeding, cultivating, harvesting, and all the minor details of live stock, breeding, raising, and feeding, do the buying as well as the marketing of crops, live stock, and live-stock products. AREA OF EMPLOYMENT The geographical area of farm operations, and consequently of the demand for farm managers, is co-extensive with the United States. IMPLEMENTS AND MACHINERY The farm manager must have an intimate knowledge of tools and machinery and an inclination to employ only the best and most modern implements, even if special financing for a year or so must be undertaken in order to farm most profitably. Tractors, modern machinery, and labor-saving implements should be studied, wisely selected, and purchased, even if it is found necessary to buy on terms. WHY TAKE TRAINING You can hardly have had sufficient agricultural experience, if you have not had college or vocational training in some agricultural institution, to justify you in not taking advantage of the opportunity for a vocational course in farm management, if you look forward to a career in this profession. If you have had only limited practical experience you may become a farm foreman, in which as wide an experience is not required, thus securing for you an opportunity for development and promotion to the higher place of manager. The training that will develop a good farm manager is equally valuable for promotion to the position of county agricultural agent. This work is increasing, attractive, and remunerative. Men with sufficient training, experience, and ability to “mix” with the farmers can do a valuable work. All training and experience with money saved for an initial payment are stepping stones to farm ownership. Notwithstanding disabilities, which are seldom disqualifying and rarely prohibitive, you with farm experience occupy an ideal position for training in farm management and its accompanying opportunity for advancement. Opportunity for promotion is exceptional in farm management and will naturally be accorded you--in fact, you will be given preference--if your efficiency is evident. Men with ideas, who think and do things, are in demand on the farm. Having taken the vocational training in farm management, having skipped no links in the chain of development, and having acquired by reading and observation all the information pertaining to it, promotion will be but natural and rapid in the occupation which you have made a specialty, and upon which you have made yourself a reliable authority. Think it over seriously. Upon training depends your future, your occupation, and your success in life. You may succeed without training, but you are more likely to succeed if you have been retrained and readjusted to the new conditions which will confront you in earning a livelihood. After training you should not expect to begin at the top unless you have had practical experience and are in a position to become an owner or a tenant at once. SALARIES The positions of farm manager, superintendent, or foreman are considered from the salary rather than the wage standpoint and are usually of annual engagement for the calendar year, as practically all farm operations have ended with the close of the year, making it a most suitable time for the changing of men, if found advisable. The salary paid is proportionate to experience and efficiency and commensurate with that of other callings. As in other occupations, it may be small at the start, but will increase with efficiency. Commonly farm managers and superintendents are receiving annually from $1,000 to $3,000, and on large estates often $4,000 or $5,000, with many perquisites, such as dwelling, garden and truck land, fuel, and the privilege of keeping a cow, pigs, and poultry. Farm foremen are paid from $500 to $1,200 with perquisites. Sometimes the beginning salary is a little less than the minimum, but often carries a contingent bonus when the year ends with satisfactory results. The general level of pay is likely to advance under the unusual conditions which now obtain in agriculture. Your salary in the country may be less than in the city, but your living expenses are greatly decreased by the perquisites mentioned, and in not having presented to members of the family the temptations of the city to spend money unnecessarily. Then, too, the healthful conditions of the country prevent much sickness and consequent loss of time and there are therefore fewer doctor’s bills. Therefore the saving from the annual income as farm manager is equal to, and in a majority of cases, exceeds the returns from a city position, besides placing you in line for independent ownership. As in other positions, that of manager and the amount of salary commanded varies with the magnitude of the farm and the capacity of the manager to develop himself and the opportunities entrusted to him. A farm boy, after two years in an Agricultural College, took a foreman’s position starting at $600 a year and perquisites, the second year he received $900, then became manager at $1,800, and now receives $3,000. In five years he has quadrupled the income. OVERCOMING YOUR DISABILITY Your disability has an excellent opportunity of being overcome in farming. Handicaps that would interfere in other training courses are corrected in many of the farm processes by the therapeutic exercises so interesting and variable. The opportunities are so great that the handicapped may develop his own vocation on the farm. Devices to beat your handicap and make it possible for you to do the things you did not imagine you could perform have been invented and manufactured in almost every country for the benefit of the disabled in war, which Uncle Sam has now available for your use. When you are advised that your handicap permits you to return to the farm, the sooner the practice of your training is begun the greater will be the therapeutic value. This is your reconstruction, your individual man-struggle for restoration in correcting the disability which you acquired in the great world-struggle. As a farm manager, landowner, tenant, supervisor, superintendent, or foreman, the experienced man capable of using a trained brain in directing others can succeed in spite of almost any disability. If the occupation places you in position to devote your time principally to the management of your farm, or the one you have in charge, you can assign to others such work as you may be incapable of performing yourself. EDUCATION Your knowledge of the common school branches, especially English, mathematics, and current literature will greatly assist you in studying the elementary principles of chemistry; in comprehending the analyses of soil and water, the protein and carbohydrate contents of the feeds, milk, and plants, quite necessary in the selection of feeds for the proper balancing of rations; in the understanding of plant breeding, growth, and propagation; in studying entomology and obtaining a practical knowledge of insects, pests, diseases, and the bacteria of milk, water, etc., and in acquiring some knowledge of physics and its application to the soil, drainage, buildings, machinery, heating, lighting--all vastly important to the farm manager. Technical training is valuable in adapting many farm processes to increase the profit on certain crops and makes special projects worthy of careful consideration by the disabled, seeking side-line opportunities on the farm for alternating employment when regular operations can not be pursued. The knowledge to be gained in the vocational training course will depend upon your previous education, experience, and application. All the time necessary will be allotted to the course. It is, however, advisable not to overtax your strength, but acquire efficiency gradually. You will be advised by the training instructors as to your ability to undertake new features and widen the scope of instruction. Getting back home to work again should be, and doubtless is, your greatest ambition, hence the importance of reaching your decision at the earliest possible moment and applying for the training which Uncle Sam has in readiness for you. Seek an early opportunity for advisement while in the hospital. You will find the attitude of your old friends, your own family, and your former employers all that you could possibly expect, in their desire to assist you in getting “over the top” in agriculture. The disposition of your fellow workmen will be to give you every encouragement and to lend a helping hand whenever and as long as you need it. They will take a justifiable pride in you and your determination to be a man among your former fellowmen in civil life and to train for a self-supporting and honorable occupation--one that will enable you to remain true to agriculture and to your country in its efforts to produce for the world the food which is now so greatly in demand; to prevent hunger and starvation, and to quell food riots in the war-afflicted countries. The new year 1919 is upon us and spring is rapidly approaching, reminding us of farming activities and that activities in farming should have our prompt attention this year of all others, that starvation may cease with a bountiful harvest. To you is offered free this exceptional opportunity to readjust yourself back into civil life in American agriculture by selecting farm management as your vocational training course. It is all up to you. Give it consideration _now_. Agricultural literature is available in all libraries and consists of treatises and textbooks suitable for reading with the idea of the definite study for perfecting knowledge to be applied in pursuing any or many lines of agriculture. Many books have been written in the story plan and are most attractive and inspiring. Others are the best translations from other languages; even “Farm Management of the Romans” can now be secured in nearly all libraries of countries prominent in agriculture. Libraries now make it a point to keep the leading current agricultural periodicals on file for the reader. The Department of Agriculture bulletins, agricultural reports, farmers’ bulletins, and special works on agriculture are always available to everyone desiring them; likewise similar literature issued by State agricultural colleges and experiment stations, applicable directly to local State conditions, are especially helpful and will be supplied regularly as printed, to all addresses supplied. We append a list of bulletins germane to the subject of this monograph and which will be found interesting and beneficial. AGRICULTURAL BULLETINS The Use of a Diary for Farm Accounts. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 782. Farm Practices that Increase Crop Yields in Kentucky and Tennessee. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 981. Farm Practices that Increase Crop Yields in the Gulf Coast Region. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 986. Labor Requirements of Dairy Farms as Influenced by Milking Machines. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 423. The Normal Day’s Work of Farm Implements, Workmen, and Crews. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 412. A System of Farm Cost Accounting. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 572. A Method of Analyzing the Farm Business. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 661. Systems of Farming in Central New Jersey. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 472. Farm Management Practice of Chester County, Pa. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 341. Seasonal Distribution of Farm Labor in Chester County, Pa. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 528. Labor Costs and Seasonal Distribution of Labor. Utah Agricultural College Experiment Bulletin No. 165. A Normal Day’s Work for Various Farm Operations. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 3. An example of Successful Farm Management in Southern New York. Bulletin of the United States Department of Agriculture No. 32. Value to Farm Families of Food, Fuel, and Use of House. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 410. Lease Contracts Used in Renting Farms on Shares. Bulletin of the Department of Agriculture No. 650. Replanning a Farm for Profit. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 370. Waste Land and Wasted Land on Farms. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 745. A Simple Way to Increase Crop Yields. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 924. Clearing Land. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 974. Better Use of Man Labor on the Farm. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 989. Saving Farm Labor by Harvesting Crops with Live Stock. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 1008. A System of Tenant Farming and Results. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 437. PLAN No. 1104. OCCUPATIONS IN THE AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURING INDUSTRY ACKNOWLEDGMENT This monograph was prepared by M. R. Bass, special agent of the Federal Board for Vocational education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings of the research division for editorial assistance. The purpose of this monograph is to give a brief description of some of the work done in the manufacture of automobiles. No attempt has been made, however, to go into the machine shop side of the industry, a field in which lie possibilities for placing thousands of reeducated men in good positions. The monograph is limited to automobile assembly work. Manufacturing automobiles and automobile accessories is one of the foremost industries of the United States. One manufacturer alone is known to have turned out more than 3,500 complete automobiles in one day, and to have turned out in one year some 350,000 cars. Many concerns produce from 50,000 to 125,000 cars annually. The 1914 census of the industry gives the value of the automobile products as $632,831,474, and wonderful changes in the last four years have greatly increased the value of the products of this industry, which was practically unknown 20 years ago. A recent study developed the fact that there are some 85 occupations in the automobile manufacturing industry, which in its various branches offers excellent opportunities to mechanics, apprentices, and men who wish to take up a new trade. A man with even very limited qualifications can surely fit in somewhere. The industry is still growing rapidly and branching out into what may be called an automotive industry, embracing the manufacture of motor trucks, tractors, and airplanes, as well as of automobiles. A mechanic in one branch of the industry may shift easily to other branches. Certain factories have discontinued general manufacturing, and have specialized in the manufacture of automobile units or parts, such as engines, transmissions, frames, and axles, and the manufacturer who used to build practically all of his automobile has been persuaded to buy certain units from these specialty manufacturers. Small manufacturers have thus been enabled to build a part of a car and to buy the rest from unit manufacturers, and many small factories have been started in this way. Work in the various automobile factories varies from purely unskilled to highly skilled labor. The unskilled employments include those of machine operators, assemblers, subassemblers, tool room keepers, janitors, watchmen, and checkers, while the skilled employments include those of special machine men, tool makers, die sinkers, heat-treatment experts, dynamometer testers, ignition experts, inspectors and general mechanical experts. Good wages are paid, common laborers in some plants receiving from $3 to $5 per day. Well-trained, skilled mechanics, of course, earn much higher rates. Standardization of automobile parts is gradually bringing about standardization of the automobile as a whole, which greatly simplifies the work of the mechanic who builds and repairs automobiles. Trucks are being more extensively used by wholesale and retail merchants. Overland freight is being carried by truck trains, between small towns, and even long-distance hauling is meeting with success. This increased motor-truck service is increasing the demand for mechanics in the factories, and also for truck drivers. Automobile factories are usually located in large cities, where raw material and supplies are at hand. Shipping and labor conditions also are carefully considered. A very large percentage of the automobile output is manufactured in the States of Michigan, Ohio, New York, and Indiana. The State of Michigan alone produced 80 per cent or four-fifths of the pleasure vehicles manufactured in 1914. ORGANIZATION OF AN AUTOMOBILE PLANT Large plants are made up of a number of departments. The office is the chief executive department. Here the plant is checked up, all correspondence taken care of, and all financial, educational, and business matters attended to. Closely connected with the office usually are the drafting rooms, where new models, changes in models, and experimental changes are made, since all such changes are first made on drawings. The engineering and experimental departments may also be located in the office building. In the experimental department all changes are worked out, and research work is carried on. If such changes prove to be a betterment they are made on the blue prints, and are then made in the factory throughout. Since even a minor change may cost the factory thousands of dollars, all changes must be carefully considered. Other departments include those organized for engine, frame, axle, and chassis assembly, the paint department, and other departments according to size of factory and product manufactured, whether a complete automobile or an automobile unit. The staff of men who handle a department usually includes a general superintendent, assistant superintendent, department foreman, section foreman, timekeeper, inspectors, and checkers. The superintendent in many cases is a man who has come up through the ranks, and superintendents of this kind are usually the most efficient. Assistant superintendents, foremen, and others also are usually men picked from the ranks. Men with common-school educations are holding responsible positions in many factories and are drawing large salaries. In each factory will be found an efficiency man or production manager, whose duties are to put into operation new methods, machines, and devices to increase production. There will be found also an educational and welfare department in each factory, which looks after the welfare of workers, settles disputes between workmen and foremen, and in individual cases shifts workers from one shop operation to another. As a rule, the hospital or first-aid division is located in this department, which may undertake also the organization of training classes in such subjects as will increase efficiency, and may arrange for entertainments and the organization of clubs. PROGRESSIVE ASSEMBLY METHOD OF MANUFACTURING Progressive assembly means assembly of parts by stages, or step by step. In this work a man does one operation only, although he may be frequently changed from job to job, according to his ability as workman or mechanic. Special equipment is required for this method. The work starts with the frame as a skeleton, which is placed either on a conveyer, that is moved very slowly, or on a special framework equipped with casters that it may be moved freely from place to place. Where the conveyer is used, the conveyer is from 100 to 200 feet long, and moves at the rate of about two feet per minute, although the rate varies from factory to factory. By the time the frame or skeleton reaches the end of the conveyor the automobile is practically complete. The various units have been attached as the frame moves slowly down the floor. In some factories the automobile is so completely assembled that the engine is started and, after a short road test, the car is driven to the shipping platform. This means that in some factories an automobile is completely assembled in less than an hour. As the automobiles are placed close together on the conveyer a finished machine is turned out every minute or so. Let us now proceed through the progressive assembly by units. PLAN No. 1105. PLACING THE FRAME The frame with its necessary brackets and springs having been assembled in a subassembly department, is placed upon the conveyer. Where the frame is heavy, an air or hydraulic hoist is used. This operation is usually done by two men, who must be able to move about freely but are not compelled to climb or to move rapidly. A man capable of hooking a chain to the frame and who is able to move a short distance can easily qualify. PLAN No. 1106. FRONT AND REAR AXLES The frame having been placed upon the conveyer, the spring and front and rear axles are then attached. The rear axles are usually mounted by two men with the aid of a hoist. These axles like the frame have been assembled in a subassembly department of the factory. The men who attach the axles to the frames need not be expert mechanics but must know how to handle wrenches and hand tools. They must be able to move about freely and be able to start the nuts or bolts and tighten them. Special tools are used where possible to save time. Time is a big factor in this department. If the mechanic does not complete his operation in a given number of feet on the conveyer, he will interfere with the next operation. The conveyer is moving all the time and he must complete his operation within his allotted space. PLAN No. 1107. MOUNTING THE TRANSMISSION Following the assembly of the axles to the frame, the transmission gear set is mounted and bolted into place. In many cases the transmission is attached to the engine (unit power plant), in which case this operation is completed when the engine is put into place. The men doing this operation need not be skilled mechanics, but must be able to use hand tools and move about freely. A man with an artificial leg could do this work easily. Again a man with one good hand and part of other could do this work. PLAN No. 1108. PLACING THE ENGINE The engine is the next unit attached to the frame. In placing the engine a hoist is used and no heavy lifting is required. The engine is lowered into place and securely bolted. The propeller shaft also is attached and necessary connections are made. Usually the engine has had the carburetor, ignition system, and starting and lighting equipment attached to it in the engine department. For this operation men do not need to be mechanics. A workman must be able to handle hand tools such as wrenches, screw drivers, and hammers, should have strength enough to help place the engine, and should be able to move about freely. This work is all done standing and moving about. All work of this nature is passed upon by an inspector. PLAN No. 1109. MOUNTING THE RADIATOR The next operation is mounting and bolting the radiator into place, and connecting the water hoses to the engine. This operation is one that requires sufficient strength to lift the radiator into place, and is usually taken care of by one man. He also must be able to handle hand tools. PLAN No. 1110. SECURING THE STEERING GEAR The steering gear is next secured to the frame, an operation which is usually taken care of by one man with possibly some little assistance by a helper. The operation requires a man who can lift the gear and put it into place. It is rather an awkward piece to handle and the employee should be physically able to handle it. PLAN No. 1111. WHEELS AND BEARINGS The next operation is mounting front wheels and bearings. This requires a little more skill and care than some of the other operations that have been mentioned. The mechanic must clean and lubricate the wheel bearings and mount and adjust the wheels, which must be neither too loose nor too tight. He must also secure his adjustment by means of the locking devices furnished. If he is a careless mechanic he may leave something undone, thereby endangering the lives of users of the car after it leaves the factory. The man who looks after this operation must be capable of lifting the wheels into place and adjusting them. The operation calls for a man with a normal body, although minor defects would not prevent him from doing the work efficiently. The rear wheels require practically the same attention that the front wheels do. However, this operation may vary with the particular type of rear-axle construction. PLAN No. 1112. DASH AND INSTRUMENT BOARD The next operation is lowering into place and securely bolting the dash and instrument board. This is commonly taken care of by two men, whose requirements are the same as for axle, transmission, and engine assembly. The operation is unnecessary where the dash is not a separate unit. PLAN No. 1113. STARTING THE ENGINE The dash on some cars has the fuel tank attached to it. In such cases the chassis is now practically completed. We will say it has now reached the end of the conveyer. Here gas and water are put in the containers and the engine is ready to start. This operation is sometimes accomplished by placing the rear wheels of the car between two revolving drums, which will cause the rear wheels to revolve. The gear-shift lever is placed in some selected gear position and the clutch engaged; this in turn revolves the engine, and if the ignition is switched on, the engine will start. This operation saves considerable energy in cranking, or saves the electric current in the starting battery. After the engine is started, the chassis may be driven away on its own power, an operation which requires a man who can efficiently handle an automobile. PLAN No. 1114. INSPECTION The chassis is now driven to the road-test department, where it is inspected for grease in the gear cases and such other inspections as may be necessary. Inspectors here need not be highly trained mechanics. Men with handicaps could take care of this work very nicely. PLAN No. 1115. ROAD TESTING Possibly a road-test body is next attached to the chassis. This body usually contains sufficient weight (rocks, iron, or sand) to make up the equivalent of the automobile body. The chassis is then given a run over the country roads. Here the trained mechanic is necessary, able to adjust the carburetor, ignition, starting and lighting equipment, brakes, rear axle gears, and clutch. In fact almost any part of the car may need adjustment. He must be able to locate trouble of all kinds. In many cases the chassis test is very limited and the tester makes out a report, the work indicated being done in a department by less skilled mechanics who have specialized in one job, such as, for example, brakes. Where this method is used, the tester must be sure of his report. A road tester need not have a perfect body, but he must have practical experience and be physically able to handle a car. [Illustration: Plan No. 1114. He that Hath a Trade Hath an Estate] There are many jobs in the testing department that a handicapped man can do, and the chances for advancement in this department are very good. PLAN No. 1116. DYNAMOMETER TEST After the chassis has passed the inspector of the road-test department it may be given a dynamometer test. This is accomplished by attaching an electric dynamometer to the rear wheels either by belts or chains. The engine is then operated at various speeds and the horsepower developed noted. If it is not up to the average, a close inspection is made to determine where power is lost, whether in the engine, transmission, or rear axle. The dynamometer tester must be a man who has been trained for this particular job. He must understand his machine and be able to use simple formulas. Slight physical disabilities would not interfere with his efficiency. This is a desirable occupation and usually leads to something better. After the final chassis test the chassis is thoroughly washed and new wheels mounted. This is a job similar to that spoken of under front and rear wheels. The chassis then goes to the paint shop for its final finish. Here the body and fenders are fitted. PLAN No. 1117. IN THE PAINTING DEPARTMENT There are many jobs in the painting department that are very well adapted to a handicapped man. He can become a rubber (one who rubs the surface of a body to make it smooth) if he has only one hand and one good leg. He can learn to paint, or he can learn to do upholstery work. This is one of the branches of the automobile industry in which the work is easy, and being inside work it should be a desirable occupation. The pay is good in any of these branches of the work. PLAN No. 1118. COMPLETING THE CAB Following the body and fenders the top is put on, then the windshield and instruments. The tires and demountable rims are then mounted. (An old set of tires are used for road-test work.) This is another place where handicapped men may fit in, as certain handicaps would not interfere with the putting on of rims and tires. PLAN No. 1119. FINAL INSPECTING AND TESTING The car is now completed and is delivered to the final test department. Here we have inspectors, testers, and checkers. In this department the car is carefully inspected as to missing parts in final assembly, finish, tires, and general condition. An expert makes a final test of the car. He drives it a few miles and notes the general running of the car. He may make final adjustments on the carburetor, etc. If the car passes his inspection, it is carefully checked as to equipment and tagged. In this department the tools are put in and the car made ready for shipment or to be driven away. The men in this department must be men who have come up through the ranks, or men who are thoroughly familiar with the construction of the particular make of automobile. The inspector is usually a man who is able to fill out reports and keep his records. The checker does similar work, while the final tester must be a mechanic whose judgment of the mechanical condition of the car is not to be questioned. Handicapped mechanics could qualify for this position providing they were able to handle the car properly. One good hand and a part of the other and possibly one leg would allow a man to do this work. Wages are good and the position is a responsible one. PLAN No. 1120. PREPARATION FOR SHIPPING From the final test department, the car goes to the shipping department. There a crew of men load the cars and block them for shipping. The men employed here must have good strong bodies as they have to move the cars by hand and oftentimes considerable lifting is necessary. A handicapped man could hardly qualify in this work unless his injury had been very slight. Wages for this work are higher than those of common laborers and the work is steady. PLAN No. 1121. UNLOADING, STORING, AND DELIVERING CARS The car is now ready for shipment and is transported to the agent of the manufacturer. Here a small crew unloads the cars and takes them to the warehouse for storage. The men in this unloading crew are usually a little better grade of men than the loaders. Usually each one of these unloaders can drive or steer an automobile. The cars are sometimes driven away from the unloading platform under their own power, while in other cases they are towed at the end of a rope or cable. This branch of work is not very steady, and oftentimes the crews are made up of mechanics from the repair shop. After the car has been placed in the warehouse for storage some one must check it up. This is usually done by the record clerk. The agent now puts his salesman out to sell the car and after it has been sold it is necessary for some one to deliver it to the customer. The car is brought from the warehouse to the garage or service department where it is inspected. This inspection consists of filling the fuel tank, oil reservoir, radiator, and grease cups, inflating tires, and making a road test. After delivery the customer must be instructed as to the proper way to handle the car, and several men are employed for this service. AFTER HISTORY OF THE CAR The car is now in the hands of the customer, and after he has had some service out of it, it finally becomes necessary for him to have the car gone over and adjusted. He brings the car to the repair department for this work, which requires various specialists such as, for example, engine specialists, and specialists on ignition. In time the car is practically worn out or the owner wants a new one, and he therefore trades his old car on a new one or sells it outright. Possibly the used-car dealer gets hold of it for resale. If so, he cleans it up, adjusts it, and possibly has it painted. Here again the services of helpers, mechanics, and salesmen are required. Eventually the car finds its way to the junk dealer as no longer usable. This dealer tears the car to pieces and sells the brass, aluminum, iron, and steel taken from it. In many cases the car is an orphan--i. e., a car that is no longer manufactured--and the junk dealer saves such parts as may be sold to owners who have cars of the same make, but who are unable to purchase new parts. In this way many old cars are rebuilt and the life of the car extended several years. But in the end the car and its parts find their way to the scrap-iron dealer. The scrap-iron man carefully assorts the various metals. Frames and other parts are cut to pieces with oxy-acetylene cutting torches, and the pieces are eventually sold to manufacturers, automobile companies, and other buyers. Material used in a car 10 years ago may in some cases be remolded and used in a car of the same make. From the beginning of the first piece made to the return of the junked automobile, the services of many thousands of men, skilled and unskilled, are required at every stage in the manufacture, maintenance, and salvaging of cars. CONDITIONS OF EMPLOYMENT Working conditions as found in various factories are very good. In most factories the employee receives a great deal of attention. Practically all of the large factories have built hospitals, private schools, lunch rooms, rest rooms, club rooms, and play grounds, and have established welfare departments. The factories have been carefully surveyed and the ventilation and sanitary conditions brought to the highest point of efficiency. The average day is nine hours. Some factories work 8 and a few work 10 hours per day. Living conditions are good in practically every locality where the automobile industry may be located. Street-car systems allow employees to live out in suburbs, where their rents are cheaper and where they may have small gardens. There are some occupations, as stated above, which are not the most desirable for a man who has the education and ability to learn something better, but many of these occupations pay good wages, the work is steady, and the man can always find employment in them. Very few of the factories shut down during normal years, which means that a man is practically insured of steady work. MOTOR TRUCK AND TRACTOR ASSEMBLY What has been said here concerning automobile assembly applies equally to motor truck and tractor assembly. MANUFACTURE OF AUTOMOBILE UNITS In the following paragraphs general statements will be made regarding the construction of each automobile unit, the nature of the work, the physical and mental qualifications of workers, and the desirability of the occupation involved. While the same class of work differs considerably from factory to factory, it is nevertheless true that up-to-date factories have much in common. PLAN No. 1122. FRAMES Automobile frames are made of pressed steel. Steel for the frame is run through a powerful press, which presses the side and cross members into proper shape. These presses are handled by men trained for this particular job. They must know when the work is right and how to adjust the machines. The dies which form the frames often break and require replacing and adjusting. After the frame parts have been pressed into shape and sheared to length, they are passed to the assembly department. Here large punch and drill presses are used to make holes for rivets and bolts. The holes are first marked from a template or are layed out by a layout man. A template is a jig or fixture that will allow all the holes to be marked uniformly so that parts will be interchangeable and uniform. This worker or layout man must be able to read blue prints. He must also be able to move about freely. After the frame members are marked they go to the press men where the holes are made. These men do not need to be expert mechanics. They are known as machine operators, and do nothing else but punch and drill holes in these pieces. A handicapped man could operate many of these machines. The parts are now passed to the assembly floor where the frame is to be assembled. Here we find men who assemble the parts from blue prints. Other men clamp or bolt the frame together. Oftentimes the frame is put in a jig to hold it until completed. Rivet men work on the frame next, or possibly the same men who assemble it will rivet it. Some frames are hot riveted while others are cold riveted. Where the frame is hot riveted, the rivets must be heated. The common practice is to heat the rivets in an oil or gas furnace. Rivets are passed to the riveter while red hot and he places them in the holes; he is usually the buck up man, i. e., the man who holds the rivet in place with a large bar while it is headed on the other side. Two men are required for riveting, which is done with an air hammer. Each rivet takes but a few seconds. In a few places riveting machines (squeezers) are used which save considerable time. The man who does this work must be able to move about freely, and should have two good hands in order to handle the tools and rivets. The frames may next pass to a department where other parts are attached, such as step-board hangers and spring hangers. It is now ready for shipment or for the paint department, as the case may be. The frame construction does not require a large number of expert mechanics. Oftentimes some of this work is paid for by the piece. All of the piecework is inspected; and if not up to standard, must be corrected. Framework is considered rough work and a man should be in good health to undertake it. General working conditions are good and work is steady. PLAN No. 1123. SPRINGS Automobile springs are manufactured from high-grade steel. The steel must be heat treated and tempered so as to withstand thousands of vibrations which may tend to crystalize the steel and cause it to break. If the spring is tempered too hard it will break, and if it is not hard enough it will sag. Heat treatment of spring steel is a science in itself. Red-hot steel is run through a mill which rolls it to the proper thickness and width. It is heat treated and forged to the proper shape and tempered in a bath, (oil-water, etc.), as may be best suited to that particular steel. The compounding of the steels used in making springs requires careful attention. Here experts who have made a study of steels and alloys are employed, and the men engaged in this work must generally have had college training. Rolling mills and forge machines are handled by men who have been trained to operate them. A handicapped man could handle some of the machines, some of which require two good hands while others require but one hand. Some can be operated by men with one leg. Springs are assembled after being matched and formed, and are then ready for shipment. In assembling springs they must be scaled and oiled. The oil is to prevent rust while the scaling is done to remove the shell-like crust that may form in tempering. The spring bolt bushings are also installed in this department. A man having one good leg and two hands could assemble springs. Spring work as a whole requires a great number of men, some of whom must be highly trained in their special work, while others need no special training. The work is inside, wages are good, and factories run practically the year round. Spring factories are usually located near large automobile centers. While some automobile manufacturers make their own springs, the majority purchase from spring factories. PLAN No. 1124. FRONT AXLES AND SPINDLES Front axles, unlike the frame, are forged instead of being pressed into shape. In the pressed steelwork the dies that shape the piece move slowly under great pressure. In the drop-forge work one die is stationary, and the other attached to a large weight operated by power is lifted several feet and released, striking the piece laid upon the stationary die a hard blow, and forging the metal into the shape. Before being placed in the drop forge machine the metal is heated in a blast furnace to the proper temperature. Front axles are drop-forged from a solid bar of steel. They are forged into an I-beam form which gives them great strength. The end of the axle is forged into the shape of a fork or yoke. This rough forge work is done by men who are capable of handling the weight of the axle and who can handle the machine. Care must be exercised or the dies will be ruined. Two to three men are usually necessary for each drop forge machine. They must bend the axle to proper shape while it is still hot. The axle is given a rough jig test before it goes to the heat-treatment department. After the axle is forged it goes to the heat-treatment department, where it is heated to take out any internal strain. In forging steel, the structure is disturbed and put under strain, and reheating of heat treatment relieves this strain, giving the steel greater strength. The men who run these heat-treatment furnaces have been trained for this particular work, and they must move about freely and be able to handle the axles. From the heat-treatment department the axle goes to the machine shop for the machine-work. In another section of the axle department steering spindles are drop-forged. These parts are much smaller and are made in many different shapes. In fact, very few automobiles of different makes use the same shaped steering spindles. As this work is lighter, a man with one good leg and one arm can do some of the operations. A forge or blacksmith shop is usually connected with the drop forge department. In the forge shop the steering spindle arms are bent to the proper angle so as to give perfect steering to the automobile. The men must be qualified to do simple forge and bending work, and handicapped men could fit in here very well. In the forge and spindle departments working conditions are not of the best, as there is noise, smoke, and the smell of hot steel. The light of the fires also is hard on the eyes. Pay is good, however, and the work is steady. Small parts of the front axle are made and furnished in the machine department. All parts are finally passed to the assembly department. In the assembly department the front axle and spindles are assembled ready for the automobile. Here we find stands for holding the axle forging, while the spindles are being attached. This operation requires men who can put together these parts. They must be able to handle tools and do the work in a thorough manner. Considerable judgment must be exercised. The bolts and parts must be lubricated before assembling, the proper adjustments made, and all nuts and bolts securely locked in place. The inspector passes upon all this work to see that it is properly done. A man must be able to use hand tools and move about, and should be able to use both hands freely. In another department hubs for wheels are made. Here are the powerful presses in which the hubs are pressed out, and the punch and drill presses for making holes. Operators of these machines have duties similar to those of men in the spindle department. Hubs require some machine-shop work, which is done in the machine shop. Either ball or roller bearings must be placed in the hubs to reduce the friction. PLAN No. 1125. BEARING MANUFACTURE Bearing manufacture is practically an industry in itself. In this plant or department, a force of real mechanics is employed, men who are authorities on steel and the heat treatment of steel. The wheel bearings of an automobile receive many severe shocks and strains, and a poor piece of steel or a poorly heat-treated piece of steel may do considerable damage to the car. Roller and ball bearings are used in several places in an automobile. They are used in the engine, magneto, generator clutch, transmission and rear axle. Wherever it is desirable to reduce friction to save power, an antifriction bearing is used. Research work as connected with bearing manufacture covers a large field. It includes not only work in the laboratory but as well work done in the field, wherever tractors are used. The engineers are always watching their product for any chance to improve it. In manufacturing bearings, whether ball or roller, a high-grade pure iron is selected. This raw material is put into furnaces and melted. Alloys are added in proper portions to make a tough, close-grained long-wearing steel, able to resist shocks. Samples of this steel are tested in the laboratory as to their hardness, grain, and tensile strength. This is work for a carefully trained metallurgist, who must have well-trained assistants. Handicapped men who are technically qualified can take up this branch of the industry. After the steel has been compounded it goes to the drop-forge department, where the balls or rollers are rough forged. The trip hammer in this department is controlled by one foot, and the steel must be turned over several times in passing through the various dies. The rough-forged balls or rollers are next taken to the machine shop or grinding department. In the various departments of the bearing manufacturing plants small electric cars are used to pull trailers loaded with parts to various points of the factory. The operator of these cars must be a man who has the free use of one foot for operating the brake, and he must have two hands to operate the control levers. This work is usually done standing on the truck. However, some of the operators are provided with seats. The balls and rollers are next machined and ground to size. They are then carefully assorted as to sizes and passed to the inspection department, where men sitting at benches carefully check and test each piece, using special testing devices and machines. This department could readily use a man with one leg, but he should have the free use of two hands. A loss of one or more fingers would not be a serious handicap. As this work is all inspection work, it is done sitting. The department is usually quiet, and the work is not hard. Conditions and pay are good. In another department the races (inside and outside) and the retainers are manufactured. The work is similar to that done in the ball or roller department, although the pieces are different. It includes forging, machining, grinding and inspecting. The bearing parts have been made and tested, the bearing is now ready for assembling. In the assembling department men sit at their work. A man with one leg, and possibly one who had lost both feet, might find employment. Some of the work is done by machinery, while some is handwork. The pieces are placed upon benches, and the bearing is then assembled and placed in a machine that clinches the cage or retainer so as to hold in the balls or rollers. The bearing is then ready for the inspector who determines whether or not it has been properly put together, and if the balls and rollers are free in the cages. The next step is to lubricate the bearings with an acid-proof grease to prevent rust. The bearing is then wrapped in oil paper and placed in a box ready for the storeroom or for shipment. There are several operations in this department where a handicapped man could secure employment. The work as a whole is not hard, conditions are excellent, and the wages are good. Some of the work is noisy and is not desirable for men with certain disabilities, but on the other hand there are places where men who have only one eye, arm, or leg could find employment on equal terms with other men. It should be noted that large bearing factories have many improved methods of manufacturing which vary considerably from that described above. Only a general statement has been attempted. PLAN No. 1126. REAR AXLES The building of rear axles is practically an industry in itself. There are several large companies who do nothing else but manufacture gears, and front and rear axles. In this branch of the industry we find all kinds of work going on, including forging, pressed-steel work, machining, heat treatment, and oxy-acetylene welding. The rear-axle housing may be a casting or it may be pressed steel, or a forging. Where castings are used we have foundry work employing molders, core men, flask men, and cupola men. Most of the jobs in the foundry require men of sturdy build and good physical condition. Some foundry work, however, such as inspection, core work, and testing small castings, can be done sitting. Again there are jobs, such as trimming, grinding, and filing, that can be done by a man with one arm or one leg. The average foundry man is well paid and works short hours, but the work is dirty and not generally well suited for handicapped men. The pressed-steel department of the rear-axle factory is equipped with special machines for pressing various parts into shape. Some of these machines could be operated by a man with one good leg or one leg and one arm. In another department of the axle factory, brake supports are assembled. Here men stand at benches, riveting and bolting to the axle, housing the various necessary braces, and other pieces. Some of this work is heavy and some very light. Gears for the rear axle, some eight in number, have been machined in the machine shop, heat-treated in the heat-treatment department, tested and inspected in the inspection department, and are now ready for the assembly of the differential. In the machine shop and inspection department much of the work could be done efficiently by handicapped men who have been trained for it. Some of this work requires technical skill, some a technical education, but some of it requires just plain everyday common sense. The differential housing (two halves) is usually a malleable casting. It is machined in the machine department and inspected in the inspection department. All of the necessary parts for assembling the differential are brought to the differential assembly department. Here men fit gears, rivet gears to cases, and assemble the differentials. In some places this work is done by the progressive method, one man putting on one piece and another man another piece, while in other places one man assembles the whole differential. In this department, a man with one leg and two good hands could very well do the work. He must be able to use hand tools, and must know how properly to adjust the gears in the case. The operation is quickly learned and does not require a highly trained man. After the differential is assembled, it passes to the inspector, and if it meets the necessary requirements, it is ready for the rear axle. The rear-axle housing having been equipped with brake supports, trues rod and brake levers, is ready for the brake bands and shoes. The brakes are lined with an oil and waterproof lining, which is riveted to the bands or shoes. This operation is done in a riveting machine, each rivet being countersunk and headed. Riveting is done by one man who does nothing else but rivet brake lining to the bands or shoes. A handicapped man might do this work. The lining having been riveted to the bands, they are now ready for assembling on the rear-axle housing. In some factories a whole axle is assembled by two men, while in others using the progressive method, it is assembled by a number of men, each man doing one specific operation. After the fittings have been applied to the axle housing, it is then ready for the differential assembly, which is the work of one or two men. They must know how to install the bearings properly on the differential and drive-pinion shaft, and must know how to adjust the gears. If the gears are not properly adjusted, they will be noisy and the wear upon them will be considerably increased. It takes practice to do this work efficiently. Men who assemble the rear axle and differential must be able to move about freely, and should have the free use of both hands. After the axle has been assembled, it is inspected and passed to the testing department. In the testing department, wheels are applied and the axle mounted on a stand for testing. The axle is driven by an electric motor, brakes being applied to provide the equivalent of a load. The tester then notes the noise of the axle, and the contact surfaces of the teeth, and if final adjustments are necessary they are made in this department. The men are rear-axle experts, and understand thoroughly all the adjustments of the rear axle. They must be able to handle the axles and lifting is often times necessary. The axle after being tested is numbered, tagged, and sent to the storeroom for shipment. In the rear-axle factory, there are many classes of workers which have not been mentioned. Some of these are draftsmen, tool-room helpers, storekeepers, clerks, checkers, timekeepers, janitors, gate keepers, machine hands, truckmen, and mechanics. Much of the work done by these men could be done by men handicapped by loss of hand, leg, eye, or hearing. All of the work pays a good living wage, and working conditions are good. PLAN No. 1127. UNIVERSAL JOINTS Unit manufacturing has been specialized to such an extent that there are now factories which manufacture nothing but universal joints. These are small but very important units. In the universal joint factories we find steel presses, drop-forge machines, machine-shop equipment, and assembly departments. The work as carried on in these plants has been fairly explained in other parts of this monograph. PLAN No. 1128. TRANSMISSIONS Transmissions are another unit of the automobile that are sometimes made in a specialized plant. There are several well-known transmission firms who make nothing else but transmissions and gears. The transmission case is usually made of aluminum and is cast into the proper shape. In the foundry are found the same classes of workers as in the axle factory, only the men are casting aluminum instead of steel. The case having been cast is dumped from the sand, cleaned, trimmed, and inspected. Any small holes are welded shut, and the case is then cleaned ready for the sand blast. In sand blasting a stream of air and sand is played against the part. The air is under high pressure and the sand fed in plays upon the aluminum at a high velocity, cleaning and smoothing it. Operators of the sand-blast machine wear masks and dust-proof suits and work in a special cabinet. It is impossible to work without this protection. After being inspected the transmission case is passed to the machine department, where it is machined to receive the bearings, covers, etc. Gears, shafts, and shifting forks used in the transmission are also made in the machine shop. The gears and shafts are next heat treated and tested. They are then ground to insure accuracy and are again tested for trueness. This testing operation is done by men who sit at benches. Part of this work is done sitting, and could be done by a man with one leg. Gears are tested as to hardness and for centers. Special equipment is used for these operations, and a man does not need experience other than that learned at the work in a short time. From the inspection department the transmission case, shafts, gears, and bearings (the bearing having been made in another department or purchased) are taken to the assembly department. Here we find men standing at benches putting together the various parts of the transmissions. Gears are riveted or keyed to shafts, bearings are fitted to cases, and shafts and parts put in the case. Shafts and bearing are then adjusted and the adjustments locked. The assembled transmission is now ready for the inspectors, who check the work. The work in the transmission assembly department is similar to that of the rear axle department. Some transmissions are heavy and some light. The employee in this department must be able to move about freely, and must be able to use such hand tools as wrenches, files, and hammers. He needs no special instruction. The transmission is now passed to the testing department where it is tested for noisy bearings and gears. If it passes this test, the covers are put on to keep out dirt. It is then numbered and sent to the stock department. In a transmission factory there are many occupations that could be filled by men with slight handicaps. Much of the work can be done by men who have lost fingers, one hand, a leg, or foot, and by men who are not physically strong. The factories pay good wages, hours are reasonable, and the work is steady. Much of the work is piece-work. PLAN No. 1129. CLUTCH Practically all parts of the clutch are made in the machine shop. After the parts have been machined and inspected they are sent to the assembly department, where the work is similar to that described for other units. It requires a man who can use both hands and move about. Wages for this work are practically the same as are paid the assembler in the other unit factories--from 80 to 60 cents per hour--and general conditions are the same as in other factories. PLAN No. 1130. ENGINES There are a number of concerns which build only automobile engines, and the automobile engine factory is usually a large plant. Usually about three classes or grades of engines are built in a factory which makes a specialty of engines. The first class or grades of engines go into the higher-priced cars, the second grade into the second-class cars, and the third grade into the cheaper cars. The engine factory must have its foundry in which are employed such foundry experts and helpers as patternmakers, coremen, cupolamen, molders, and machine operators. Some engine parts are aluminum, some brass, some steel, and some cast iron. There is much work in the foundry that could easily be done by handicapped men--by men, for example, who have stiff joints and who are unable to move about freely, and men who have lost one arm, a hand, or a leg. The crank case of the engine is usually cast of aluminum. After this part has been cast it goes to a cleaning and inspecting department, where it is carefully inspected before any machine work is done upon it. After it passes inspection it is rough jigged and the machine work is started. After the milling, operations are done on the case--such as smoothing the sides, top, and bottom--and the case then goes to a layout department, where it is placed upon a large surface plate. Layout men, using surface gauges and such other tools, mark out the dimensions and spot holes for bolts, studs, etc. The crank case then goes back to the machine-shop department, where it is drilled, tapped, and machined. It is then inspected, after which the bearings are fitted. Some engines have the bearings babbitted into the case, while others have them detachable, the bearings being machined to fit the case. After the bearings have been fitted into the case they are reamed with a bearing reamer. The lower half of the crank case, which is usually the oiled reservoir covering the timing-gear case, and other crank-case parts are finished in their respective departments. The crank case, having gone through a number of small operations, is now ready for the assembly department. There are a number of places in the crank-case department where handicapped men could find employment. Some of the operations could well be done by men who have lost a hand, eye, or leg, or by men who have stiff joints. The work in this department is usually noisy, and possibly not well suited for men of a nervous temperament. The crank shaft of the automobile engine is usually drop-forged. However, a few shafts are made from a solid block of steel. When the shafts are drop-forged, a number of machine operators are employed. The men operating these forge machines need not be experts in that they are trained in the factory for this particular job. Some of these machines could very easily be operated by men with one arm, or with one leg and one arm. If the crank shaft had been drop-forged, it goes to the heat treatment department for heat treating. It is then sent to the machine shop where it is rough turned, and in a number of cases is then sent back to the heat-treatment department. The shaft is then machined, rough ground and finished ground to size. It is now passed to the inspection department where the journals are inspected as to size, length, and trueness. The shaft then goes to a balancing machine where it is given a running test and carefully balanced. The flywheel, having been machined in another department, is then fitted to the crank shaft and the shaft and flywheel are balanced together. This balancing of the shaft and flywheel has much to do with reducing the vibration of the engine when in use. After passing this test the shaft is ready to be fitted to the crank case. The fitting to the case is done by scraping--an operation which requires a man who has had previous training in this line of work to develop a very particular skill in it. A man must be very efficient to turn out the proper amount of work each day. The scraping operation does not, however, take much time with present-day equipment. After the bearing is scraped to fit the shaft, the bearings are shimmed and tightened to the proper tension, and the shaft and case is ready for a block test. It is important that these bearings be tightened to the proper tension, since if they are too tight the bearing may burn out from the increased friction, while if they are not tight enough the engine will soon develop a knock when it is put into service. The greater part of the work done on the crank shaft is done in the machine-shop department. Outside of this department, however, there are a number of jobs that could be done by handicapped men, among them being those of inspectors, balancing machine hand men, and bearing scrapers. Inspectors and balancers should have the free use of two hands. They are not required to move about rapidly, but should be able to move from one place to another. The bearing scrapers could be men who have lost part of one hand, one eye, or one leg. This work requires bending over so that a man who has had stomach wounds or injury to the back could not do it. The cam shaft for the engine is drop-forged and rough turned, the work being similar to that done in the other drop-forge departments. The shaft then goes to an electroplating department where it is copper plated. It is then sent back to the machine department where the cam faces and such other places that are to be hardened are ground to a slightly oversized measurement. The shaft is then sent to the heat-treatment department where it is hardened. The process of this hardening is to pack the shaft in a large metal box together with such hardening compound as has been selected by the factory. The box containing the shafts to be hardened is then put into a heat-treatment furnace where it is heated to a proper temperature and allowed to remain there for the proper length of time, after which the shafts are quenched in a bath to finish the heat-treating process. The copper plating, which has been put on the shaft in a previous operation, prevents the carbon from entering the shaft during the heat-treating process. The carbon enters the shaft only where the copper plating has been removed. After heat treatment the shaft is rough tested for trueness. It is then sent to the grinding department where it is ground to the final dimensions. The shaft then goes to the inspection department, where it is carefully inspected before being sent to the stock assembly division. Such other parts, as timing gears and shafts, are machined and inspected in other parts of the factory. The valve tappets of the average automobile engine are of the mushroom or button-head type. This type of tappet is either drop-forged or made of pressed steel. The work requires about the same class of workmen as have been mentioned in drop-forge and die work under frames and axles. After the tappets have been formed into shape they are then rough turned, after which they are heat treated, machined, and inspected. They are then assembled ready for the engine. The assembly and inspection departments are about the only places where handicapped men could be used to an advantage, with exception of the machine-shop work. The assembly and inspection work of the valve tappets can be done sitting down, and can be handled very well by men who have lost one or even both legs. They should, however, have the free use of one hand, and of at least part of the other, so as to enable them to use special testing tools and equipment. Connecting rods for engines are drop-forged and machined in their respective departments. They are then inspected before the bearings are fitted to them. This inspection work could be very well done by a man with two hands and one leg, or by a man who is capable of lifting light weights and who can move about with ease. The bearings of the average automobile engine are detachable, and are made in a special department and sent to the connecting-rod assembly department for installing in the connecting rod. Here the bearings are fitted to the connecting rod in both upper and lower halves, after which the bearing is reamed. The bearing is then scraped to a shaft until it has the proper bearing surface. The rod is then jigged in a fixture so that it will be in proper alignment when it is installed in the engine. The connecting rods are then carefully weighed so that all rods or pairs of rods are of equal weight. They are then tagged or marked and sent to the crank shaft department, where they are fitted to the crank shaft upon which they are to be used. The connecting rod department could furnish employment for a number of disabled men. Some of this work is done sitting down and some is done standing at a bench. The bearing work done on the connecting rods could be done by men who have one good leg and one good arm, and the free use of the stub of the other arm, or a device could be used to take the place of the other hand. No special educational requirements are indicated for this work and no special instructions are necessary. Cylinders for engines, having been cast in the foundry, are rough-tested, the core sand removed, and the cylinders scaled. Some of this work is done sitting down and could very well be done by men who have received injuries to their legs. However, they should have the free use of both hands. Cylinders, after being scaled and cleaned, are sent to the machine department where they are machined and ground. This work is all machine-shop work. After being ground, cylinders are inspected for trueness and general condition. The valves are then ground to the cylinders. This operation can be done by men who have the free use of one hand and of part of the other hand. Some of this work is done sitting down, so that a man need not have two good legs. Some of the valve grinding is often done in machines, in which case it is necessary that the operator watch a number of valves on the machine at one time. This operation would require a man who could move about freely in order to inspect the machine. Pistons for the engine, having been machined and ground, are inspected as to sizes, dimensions, etc. This operation could well be done by a man with two good hands, but he must be able to stand at a bench and move about freely. The pistons are then fitted to the cylinders so as to get a proper fit in each cylinder. They are also carefully balanced in pairs and equal weights are selected as nearly as possible. The fitting of pistons to cylinders and the balancing of them could well be done by handicapped men. The piston pins also are fitted to the piston and to the connecting rod. This work is done standing at benches, and could be done by men who have the free use of both hands. Piston rings which are made from castings in the machine shop, where they have been ground, are sent to the inspector who carefully inspects each ring. This work is light and is well suited to a man who could sit at a bench, but he must have the free use of both hands. Piston rings are fitted to cylinders and pistons in another department. This operation requires a little more skill than some of the others mentioned and a man must have some mechanical ability to learn to do the work efficiently. There are, however, many minor injuries which would not prevent a man from doing this work. The manifolds, both inlet and exhaust are cast in the foundry department. They are then machined, where necessary, after which they are inspected. This department could employ disabled men for inspection work. There are a number of bolts and screws and special fittings which must be carefully inspected before they can go to the assembly department. Every bolt must be looked over as to its general condition before it can be used. This work alone offers employment to a large number of men in every automobile engine factory. It is very light and a man in very delicate condition could efficiently perform a number of these operations. In a number of positions one hand is all that is necessary. Men could either sit or recline on the bench and do the work. In fact, men in bed even could come up to production in this particular kind of work. The oil pump for the engine, having been machined in the various departments is assembled by men who sit at benches. This work is very light work and can be handled to advantage by men with handicaps. They should, however, have the use of both hands. We have now mentioned the various units which go to make up an engine and have come to the point where it is necessary to assemble these various parts. In the up-to-date automobile factory, the engine assembly is done by the progressive system. The conveyor system which is used in engine assembly is similar to that used in the chassis assembly, described in another section of this bulletin. The crank case is usually mounted upon this conveyor or movable stand. The crank shaft, having been assembled to the case in another department, is now ready for the connecting rods, and the rods with the pistons are attached. The cam shaft, tappets, and tappet guides are then installed, and the cylinders are mounted. The engine moves on to another section where the manifolds are attached to the cylinders. It then passes to a section where the carburetor is mounted. Next the ignition system is attached, and the starting and lighting and such other units as this particular engine may require are installed. All these operations have taken place while the engine has been moving. Special tools are used during these operations, such as air wrenches, socket wrenches, and any tool that may save a few seconds time. The work that is done on this engine conveyor system is considered to be hard work in that each man must keep moving at top speed in order to turn out the required production in that department. The men are well paid and they must be qualified to take care of their particular section of this conveyor. There are a number of places, however, where handicapped men can be used in this work. Very few of these operations could be efficiently handled by a man who did not have the free use of both hands. He could, however, carry on some of this work, if he had received injuries to one of his legs. All of this work is inspected and a man is carefully checked as to the work he has done. After the engine has been inspected, it is ready for a block test. The conveyor carries the engine to this block-test department, where the engine is mounted on a special stand and is connected to an electric motor, which drives the engine at sufficient speed to lubricate it and to work in the moving parts. The block-test mechanics are men who can pick out noises and defects in the engine. They must watch the engine for hot bearings, loose bearings, and in fact this department is a sort of running-test inspection department. If the engine does not show any defects and meets normal requirements, it is given a running test under its own power. This test is oftentimes done on the same motor or electric set that it has been run in by, or in other words the electric motor becomes a generator. This test is known as the dynamometer test. The engine running under its own power is loaded down by the resistance of the electric generator and the horsepower noted. The carburetor and ignition is adjusted to bring the engine to the normal horsepower. If the engine fails to come up to normal horsepower, it is rejected and must go back for rebuilding. After it passes the horsepower test, the oil is removed and the engine is sent to the storeroom or chassis assembly department as the case may be. The inspection department of the engine assembly could employ a number of disabled men provided they were qualified by mechanical experience. The block test department could employ men with slight handicaps who have had previous experience in engine work. They should, however, be expert gas engine men. This is true also of men in the dynamometer-test department. In the engine-assembly department, however, some helpers and less skilled mechanics could very well find employment even though disabled. All work in engine factories can be termed desirable employment, since up-to-date factories are well equipped, and well heated, lighted, and ventilated. Pay is good and the factory usually runs the year around. Engine factories are usually located near large automobile centers, for the same reason that the automobile factories are located there, namely, railroad facilities, power facilities, and general living conditions. PLAN No. 1131. CARBURETORS Carburetors are usually made by a manufacturer who makes a specialty of making carburetors. Carburetion is one of the most interesting subjects in the automotive industry, and manufacturers in this line employ large staffs of experts and research men. They employ also engineers for the purpose of making tests of the various types of carburetors, and of the different classes of fuels. Some carburetor factories have their own foundries where they make their own castings, which are usually of aluminum or bronze. Some of the highest types of foundry men may be found in this department, as this particular branch of work must be of very high grade. Manufacturers take pride in the appearance of their castings. In a foundry of this type there are several occupations that disabled men could do, such as pattern work, core making, molding, and even flask work. After the castings have been poured they are ready for cleaning and scaling. Part of this work is done in the sand blast. The castings are then carefully inspected, after which they are ready for the machine-shop department. There are a number of machines used in carburetor work which do not really come under the head of machine-shop equipment, in that they are punch presses. These presses are used for punching the float parts for the carburetor and other similar pieces. The float is usually made up of two pieces, pressed from a flat piece of stock into a cup shape. These two halves are put together and soldered to make an air-tight chamber. This construction, of course, will vary with the different makes of carburetors. Where this work is done, disabled men could handle the pieces very nicely. They could also do such soldering as is done on floats. There are many small screws, nozzles, and similar parts made in the machine shop which require a large number of machine operators. The machines include among others automatic screw machines. After these parts have been machined, it is necessary that each part be carefully inspected before it goes to the assembly department, and this inspection work is very light work, well suited to disabled men who are unable to do heavy work. The use of one arm is about all that is necessary to perform one of these operations. There are also a number of testing operations in carburetor factories which could be handled to an advantage by handicapped men. After the carburetor parts have been machined the carburetor is ready for final assembly. This work is usually done by men sitting at benches, who assemble the various sizes of carburetors on the various benches. The work could be done by men who have lost the use of their feet or legs, as it does not require very much moving about. After the carburetor has been assembled, it is given a preliminary test on a rack to determine whether or not the float level is too high, and whether or not the joints of the carburetor lack fuel. After the carburetor passes this test it goes to a machine department, where it is tried out on an engine. The running test is the most skilled work done along this line, and requires men who understand the operation of gasoline engines and who are capable of attaching and detaching a carburetor quickly. It is not necessary in all cases that every carburetor be tested on an engine. Where this is not done the carburetors are inspected and passed on to the shipping department. On the whole, there are a number of desirable places in the carburetor department which are well suited for handicapped men. The working conditions in these factories are good and the wages paid are about the same as those paid by any general assembly or manufacturing plant. PLAN No. 1132. IGNITION A number of factories make a specialty of building ignition apparatus for automobiles. In them we find the usual organization found in other similar factories. Some of these factories build ignition systems on a large scale, in which case the organization is elaborate. One of the most important factors of the ignition system is the insulation. A compound has been discovered, known as “bakelite,” which has a very high resistance to electricity. This substance usually comes to the manufacturer in powdered form and the manufacturer puts it through his mixing process. The bakelite for parts to be made is carefully weighed for each piece. It is then placed in jigs which hold contacts, segments, etc. The jigs or molds are then placed in a molding machine to which is applied considerable pressure and heat. The heat causes the bakelite to run together, forming one solid piece of material when it is properly cured. After the standard heat has been applied to the bakelite for the proper length of time the mold is placed in another press and cold water is run around it to chill or set the bakelite. The molded part is then removed from the press and is ready for inspection. When the part comes from the mold it is very shiny and smooth in appearance. The inspection of this part is to determine whether or not the contacts have stayed in proper position and whether or not there are any flaws in the bakelite. Bakelite parts are used in many places in the ignition system. There are a number of places in the bakelite section of the ignition factory where disabled men might well find employment. Men with one leg could weigh out the bakelite, and a man with one leg and one arm could possibly run the presses around the bakelite for curing. This work is done in a dry department; the conditions are very good and the wages are reasonable. In the coil department of the ignition factories we find various types of work going on. Here are machines for winding the primary and secondary coils, testing machines, etc. The ignition coil is made up of an iron core, an insulator around the iron core, a primary winding, a secondary winding, and a condenser. Some coils have vibrators attached, in which case the vibrators are mounted on the outside of the coil windings. The core of the coil is made up of a bundle of soft iron wires. The fiber tube is commonly used as insulating material. This tube is filled with the soft iron wire. The primary winding, of which there are about two layers, is wound on the outside of the fiber tube. This operation takes but a few seconds, the tube being placed between a pair of centers on a small motor driven machine similar to a small lathe. The wire is guided on to this tube while it is revolving. This work is done sitting, and could very well be done by men who have received injuries to their legs, or by men who have received injuries to their spine. The main requirements are that the operator shall have the free use of both hands, and be able to see properly the work that is going on. The secondary or high-tension winding of the coil is similar to the low-tension winding. The high-tension winding, however, has many turns of very fine wire no larger than the ordinary thread used on sewing machines. This wire is insulated, and care must be exercised that the insulation is not broken. The secondary winding also is wound on a fiber tube on a machine similar to that on which the primary coil is wound. Between each layer of wire in these windings a small strip of insulation is placed. This, of course, is done at the end of each layer of wire. In carrying out this operation the operator must be very careful that the insulation is not broken; that the insulation is properly placed, and that the layers of wire are smooth and uniform. The condenser of the ignition coil is made of two layers of tin foil and several layers of insulation, such as paraffin paper. This operation requires a person who is very careful, since if this particular part is not carefully constructed it will not function properly. The condenser is also machine wound in a number of cases, and skill comes with practice in this work. Requirements for this job are about the same as found in the coil winding, viz., that the operator must have the free use of both hands, and be able to watch his work carefully. After these various parts have been made in their respective departments they are ready for the industrial tests. This is done with meters to determine the amount of resistance that each coil has. If the resistance is not the same as found in other coils, the insulation is broken or the coil is shorted, in which case the coil is rejected. The condenser test is somewhat different. Here we find that special meters are used for determining the capacity. These testing operations require a man who has been trained for this particular job. The work is usually done sitting down. After these various parts have passed inspection they are sent to the coil assembly, where they are put together in their proper relation. Where the coil is a box coil, the windings and condenser are placed in a box and hot paraffin or an insulating compound is poured into the box. After it has cooled all the ignition parts are held securely in place. The coil is then finished and is ready for the final test. This work is all light work, and there are a number of positions in which handicapped men could be employed. In another part of the ignition factory, we find the breaker mechanism and other ignition apparatus being manufactured. This mechanism requires considerable machine work, which is done on special machines in the machine-shop department. After these parts have been machined and inspected they come through the assembly department, where the ignition apparatus is assembled. Here we find the workers at benches assembling the very fine delicate parts of the apparatus. The small springs, platinum points, screws, etc., must be placed in their proper places and with proper tension. After the ignition apparatus has been properly assembled it is inspected, and then goes to the testing department, where apparatus is tested as to its efficiency, etc. In another department, wires are cut and made into proper lengths for certain ignition jobs. Here the terminals are soldered to the ends of the wires. Sometimes these operations are done on a conveyer system. This work is done sitting, and is well adapted to disabled men. In the ignition, assembly, inspection, and testing departments, there are a number of operations that could be done by men with one arm and no legs, one leg and two arms, one eye, one arm and one leg, by men who have lost their hearing, and even by men who have been blinded. The work as found in the ignition department is light, working conditions are good, and the pay is average. Where the ignition manufacturer manufactures magnetos, we find a little different class of work going on. Armatures are wound with primary and secondary windings, and this is done on a somewhat specialized machine. Insulation, also, is somewhat specialized, and assembly work differs somewhat from other assembly work. Magnetos must be made, charged, and tested. Condensers are of a special design. As a whole, however, the work in the magneto department requires about the same class of workmen as are found in the ignition department. PLAN No. 1133. STARTING AND LIGHTING EQUIPMENT The electrical equipment of the automobile has reached a point of development which has brought about a large demand for this particular kind of apparatus. A number of factories make a specialty of this kind of equipment. The starting and lighting equipment of the automobile, being made up of a number of pieces of material, requires considerable machine work, which will not be described here. The armature, which is made up of a shaft, laminated core, and a commutator, is all built in a sub-assembly department, after which the armature passes to the winding department, where special machines are operated. The operators of these machines do not need to be experts, but they do become very efficient at this kind of work after a short time. The wire is wound on the armature in the proper slots and the ends come out to the proper length. The sleeves are then put over the ends of the wires for insulation and the wires trimmed to exact length, after which the wire ends are soldered to the proper commutator bars. The generator also has field coils or windings. These windings are wound on jigs for this work and are later placed in the fieldpieces of the generator. Each coil is tested before it is assembled to the field, and each armature is tested before it is assembled. After the pieces have been made in the various departments the generator is sent to the assembly department. Here the assembler is furnished with the generator castings, coils, pole pieces, bearings, armature, plates, brushes, and such other fittings as may be necessary. He proceeds to assemble the complete generator, after which the generator passes to the inspection department where it is inspected and tested as to its output. The starting and lighting factory offers a number of splendid opportunities for the placement of disabled men. Handicapped men could very efficiently wind armatures. It has been said that a blind man could wind an armature after some practice. Men without legs could do the soldering of these armatures; men without legs could wind and test field windings and could assemble generators; men with one arm could test and wind field windings and do several other operations. The starter motor as used in the automobile is a piece of equipment similar to that of a generator, about the only difference being that the starter motor is a little heavier machine, and the armature is wound with heavier wire. It is made for the purpose of cranking the automobile engine, and must withstand considerable abuse. Disabled men could make the tests on generators and starter motors with very little difficulty. The output of a generator must be controlled to a limited degree. This is done by what is known as voltage regulation. There must be some kind of a relay to disconnect the storage battery and generator when the engine is not running. This is done by what is known as the circuit breaker. The voltage regulator and circuit breaker of the automobile starting and lighting system is made up of coils, springs, and breaker mechanism, depending upon the type of regulator and circuit breaker used. This work is all light work, usually handwork, and could be done by disabled men to a large extent. The assembling of this work requires the free use of both hands and a man must be able to see the work that is being done. As a whole, work in ignition, starting and lighting departments is very desirable work. The working conditions are considered very good, the hours reasonable, and the pay about the same as in other manufacturing concerns. PLAN No. 1134. RADIATORS The demand for efficient radiators for the up-to-date automobile has almost created a separate industry in itself. Cooling systems for automobile engines have developed to such a point that a large force of experts are employed in the work of improving such systems. There are a number of factories which employ hundreds of employees in the manufacture of radiators for the automotive industry. These factories use a large amount of steel, tin, copper, and brass. They have developed special machines for the purpose of making peculiarly shaped cores in an endeavor to increase the radiating surface without increasing the cost. Large punch machines are used in making these shapes, and these machines have been so perfected that practically all the operator has to do is to feed through the machine one continuous roll of metal and take away the shaped cores. The cores are sent to the assembly department where they are then placed in proper formation. They are then dipped in a molten bath of solder which closes the ends of the tubes or solders them together, and then go to the final assembly department where each core is incased in the proper shaped casing and the radiator pipe and hose connections are soldered on. The radiator is then ready for testing, which is done in a tank where compressed air is forced into the radiator. If there are any leaks, they will show by bubbles arising from them. The work as done in these factories requires some experts and some novices. Some of it can be done by men who have been handicapped, and there is considerable demand for men capable of handling this particular branch of the work. Working conditions as found in the radiator factories are good and hours are reasonable. PLAN No. 1135. STEERING GEARS The steering gear is one of the most important units of the automobile. A number of factories have been organized for the sole purpose of manufacturing a particular type of steering gear. In these factories we find ordinary drop-forging machines, machine-shop equipment, woodworking, and assembly work. This work requires men who are able to move about freely and who have the free use of both hands. Some of the work is piecework (at least in some factories), and men must be able to come up to at least a reasonable production in order to qualify. The conditions as found in other manufacturing plants are found also in the steering-gear factories. PLAN No. 1136. WHEELS In the wheel factories, we find a number of special machines such as spoke machines, felloes machines, and trimming machines. These are practically automatic, the material being fed through them and the finished product coming out. After the parts have been made in their respective departments, they are ready for assembly. This requires a certain amount of handwork. The wheels must be assembled so that they will not loosen when they have been put into use. After they have been assembled, it is often necessary that a band be mounted on them. After a wheel has been assembled, it is put into a machine which trues and trims it, and it is then ready for the automobile manufacturer. As the woodwork in the wheel factory is covered in the bulletin on woodworking, no further comments are made here. PLAN No. 1137. BODIES With the increased production of automobiles, large manufacturers have seen fit to purchase their bodies from body manufacturers. This has encouraged the body manufacturers to increase their production which has brought increased activities in this particular branch of the work. In the body factories are employed woodworkers, sheet-metal workers, sand blasters, painters, upholsterers, and top builders. In the woodworking department the work is similar to that of cabinet making, only the men are building skeleton instead of closed-type work. After the frame or skeleton of the body has been built, the metal or covering is fitted and secured to the framework. The body is then sent to be sand-blasted to make it smooth and also to assist in making the paint cling to a shiny surface. It then goes to the painting department where it is given a priming coat, several filler coats, color coat rubbing, varnishing, and a final finishing coat. The woodworking department requires men who are able to handle tools and who are able to move about freely. The sheet-metal department requires men who are capable of using screw drivers and who are able to drive nails. The sand-blast department requires men with a normal body who can wear a dustproof suit, and who can handle the sand-blast equipment. The paint department requires men who are capable of moving about freely and who have the free use of one hand. In the upholstering department are found machines for sewing, and racks upon which the upholstering is built before being put into the body. A number of these operations are done sitting, so that a man without legs could very efficiently do this work. The upholstering is first made upon racks or frames, and is then cut out and tacked to the body. In this way the work is much easier done than by building it upon the body itself. The machine operators should have the use of one foot. However, with special equipment, the loss of both legs could be overcome in some of the work. The work in the upholstery department is very desirable in that it is dry and quiet, and employment is steady. Pay is good, and hours are about the same as in any other factories. PLAN No. 1138. ACCESSORIES The word “accessories” means extras or special pieces of equipment which are applied to the automobile. Under this heading are included wind shields, speedometers, clocks, indicators, horns, mirrors, spark plugs, and various other pieces of equipment. As this work inquires a great variety of machines, such as punches and presses, and a varied machine-shop equipment, no attempt will be made here to go into details. What has been said in preceding sections has covered the work carried on in these factories. For example, the work done in speedometer factories is somewhat similar to the work done in starting and lighting factories; and the work done in horn factories is somewhat similar to that done in ignition factories. Suffice it to say, that there are hundreds of occupations in the accessory departments and factories alone which offer employment to men who have met with accidents which prevent them from having the free use of every member of the body. There are a number of occupations which lend themselves particularly to men who are not able to do heavy work, as for instance, in the assembly of speedometers, clocks, and horns. Conditions in these accessory factories are first class, wages are good, and hours are about the same as in the average manufacturing plant. CLASSIFICATION OF OCCUPATIONS WITH REFERENCE TO DISABILITIES In passing through an up-to-date automobile factory, there are thousands of operations being carried out at one time. The foregoing account does not cover hundreds of minor operations, skilled and unskilled, which could be efficiently done by disabled men. Many of these operations are entirely suitable for individuals who have been slightly disabled. The following tabulation classifies the principal occupations which have been mentioned, with reference to certain type disabilities. It will be understood that neither the list of disabilities nor the several lists of occupations specified under these disabilities are complete. POSSIBLE OCCUPATIONS FOR MEN WITH CERTAIN DISABILITIES _Total blindness._ Folding cartons, counting parts, armature winding, bolts and nuts, inspector of packing of parts in cartons, inspecting and testing. _Loss of one eye._ Almost any occupation that the man is otherwise qualified to work at. _Deafness, total or partial._ Drafting clerk or checker, frame assembly, spring assembly, axle assembly, bearing assembly, transmission assembly, clutch assembly, engine assembly, bearing work, cam-shaft inspection, con-rod assembly, cylinder assembly, ring inspection, oil-pump assembly, carburetor assembly, coil winding, condenser assembly, coil assembly, coil testing, armature winding, generator assembly, magneto assembly, magneto test, general wiring, radiator assembly, wheel building, body building, upholstering, painting, many kinds of inspection work. _Stiff neck._ Punch press and machine work, and occupations listed under deafness. _Injured spine._ Drafting, inspection work, light assembly work, checking, timekeeping, messenger, gatekeeper, small electric machine operator, traveling-crane operator, heat treatment checker, employment department clerk. _Loss of one arm._ Drafting, inspection, checker, foreman, timekeeper, gatekeeper, messenger, electrical machine operator, traveling-crane operator, heat treatment checker, light assembly work, armature winding, electrical testing, drop forge operator, punch press operator, machine shop work, employment department clerk. _Loss of both arms._ Checking, gatekeeper, and other work in proportion as man becomes skillful in the manipulation of artificial appliances. _Loss of part of finger an one hand._ Practically any work for which man is otherwise qualified, providing he has learned to use remaining fingers. _Stiff arm or shoulder, or partial loss of use of arm._ Drafting, checking, inspecting, foreman, timekeeper, gatekeeper, information department, employment department, machine operator, lighter assembly work, magneto work, coil work, generator work, soldering, chipping and trimming, foundry (light work). _Loss of both legs._ Upholstering, drafting, checking, inspecting, gatekeeper, timekeeper, clerk, information, employment department, machine operator, small assembly work, testing of electrical equipment, soldering, pyrometer checker in heat treatment department. _Loss of one leg._ Drafting, checker, inspector, foreman, timekeeper, gatekeeper, employment department, practically any assembly work, painting, upholstering, salvage department, body work, soldering, foundry work, machine operator, tester, dynamometer tester. Loss of a leg should not be a serious handicap. _Shell shock and nervousness._ Drafting, checker, inspector, timekeeper, gatekeeper, lighter assembly work, painting, upholstering, body work, soldering, coil work, generator assembly, magneto assembly, cut-out assembly, electrical testing. _Heart trouble and epilepsy._ Drafting, checker, inspector, light assembly work, painting, upholstering, coil work, generator assembly, cut-out assembly, electrical testing. _Tuberculosis._ Loading crew checker (outside), inspector, car clerk, yard stock keeper, special salvage department as found in some factories especially set aside for tubercular people, outside trucking. _Rheumatism._ Drafting, checker, inspector, painting, upholstering, body mechanic, wheel assembly, general assembly work, salvage department, machine operator, ignition expert, soldering, coil work, magneto assembly, generator assembly, cut-out assembly, testing of electrical equipment, laboratory work. _Other disabilities, such as body wounds, etc., leaving patient in delicate condition._ Drafting, checker, inspector, foreman, clerk, employment department, information department, gatekeeper, electrical machine operator, light assembly work, machine operator, upholstery, soldering, light inspection work, magneto assembly, generator assembly, stationary motor assembly, Bakelite machine operator; many other operations which require very little strength and skill. PLAN No. 1139. OXY-ACETYLENE WELDING ACKNOWLEDGMENT This monograph was prepared by Edward Matteossian, Special Agent for the Federal Board for Vocational Education, under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Division of Research. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings of the Research Division for editorial assistance. WHAT THE WELDER DOES He handles a torch, or blowpipe, at the tip of which a flame is produced by the burning of a mixture of two gases--acetylene and oxygen. A high degree of heat is produced by this flame, which can be concentrated at any point by proper handling of the torch. The welder’s activities may be divided into two operations--welding and cutting. WELDING In welding, metals, like or unlike, are joined together by melting them until they fuse, “adding material” being used where it is required. The welder also builds up worn parts or adds metal where it is lacking. Common metals which can be treated by this process include the following: Cast iron, steel, malleable iron, aluminum, copper, brass, bronze, lead, and nickel. Precious metals also can be welded. Each metal has its peculiar characteristics and mode of treatment, and the welder who would turn out a good job must master the special technique for handling each metal. Welding forms the larger part of the welder’s activities. It is much more difficult than cutting, and also has a wider field of application. CUTTING Cutting can be learned in a few hours. It is restricted in its scope, as it can be used only on steel and wrought iron. The cutting torch is similar to the welding torch with the difference that it is equipped with a special outlet for oxygen under pressure. The operator turns on his usual welding flame until the object is heated to a cherry red, and then presses a device which turns on the oxygen, causing the metal to burn away rapidly. The torch is then advanced slowly along the line of the cut to be made. By practice comes the knack of steadiness and of moving the torch at just the right speed to cut clear through the metal--not too fast for complete penetration, nor too slow, causing loss of oxygen. WORK IN THE OPEN AND IN THE SHOP Where the job can not be brought into the shop, welding and cutting are done out of doors, and may be carried on under all conditions of weather. Very commonly the process is used in cutting scrap, wreckage, and piling, and in welding piping and mains. Inside work varies from shop to shop according as the shop is part of a manufacturing plant or of a foundry, or is purely a job welding shop. Some account of the common uses of the processes in different industries is given in the section below on “Industrial Applications.” In steam and electric railway shops and yards, in shipbuilding, in the manufacture and repair of automobiles, in installing pipes and mains, in sheet-metal and metal plate work, in the manufacture of furniture, containers and other metal products, and in foundry work, welding and cutting is being extensively used to-day, and each day the welder’s field of operations is still further extended. WHAT LOCALITIES NEED WELDERS? The answer is: All localities where industrial plants are located, or where street railways are operated, or where farm machinery and implements are made or repaired, or where automobiles are used or built. Such localities will probably include your own home town or some town not far away from home. THE WELDER’S TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT The numerous makes of torches on the market are of two general types--the medium, or positive, pressure torch; and the low pressure, or injector torch. Practically all the oxygen used comes in compressed form in cylinders. Acetylene is more commonly generated on the premises, owing to the cheapness of this method. It is piped into the buildings and is always readily accessible. Generators, like torches, are of various makes, but they vary in type to correspond to the two kinds of torches, _i. e._, pressure generators, and low-pressure generators. Generators are automatic in their action, being controlled by the flow of gas. Where the gas is not generated in the establishment, and especially in outdoor work, dissolved acetylene is used. This comes in cylinders which are filled with porous material and contain acetone, a liquid, in which the gas is dissolved under pressure. Welding equipment varies according to circumstances. In general a welding unit includes welding and cutting torches; hose and connections; oxygen and acetylene regulators and gauges; a supply of various tips; filler rods; goggles; friction lighters; gloves; asbestos sheets; fluxes; hand tools, such as pliers, files, hammers and cold chisels; welding table; preheating arrangement; fire brick; carbon blocks; and V-blocks. It may include also, hand shear, anvil, hand forge, bench and pipe vises, emery grinders, drill press, hack saw, jigs, lathe, hoist, and work bench. Practically all of the necessary equipment is furnished to the welder, sometimes with exception of goggles, gloves, and overalls or leather apron, which the welder may have to obtain for himself. WHY TAKE TRAINING? The aim of re-education is to turn out a good welder who has not only the manipulative skill, but who in addition is well-grounded in the necessary theoretical knowledge. It can not be too strongly pointed out, in the view of the highly unsatisfactory method of turning out welders obtaining in the past, that the course can not be too thorough. The need is for good welders, not for half-trained men. Really good welders in this country are not many, and there is in this field a splendid opportunity for the well-equipped man, but for him only. An employer will always be looking for a better man if he has a half-trained man on the job. OVERCOMING YOUR DISABILITY The question is not primarily one of the handicap, but rather of the man behind the handicap. It is not the exception, but rather the rule, that a partially handicapped person, endowed with ingenuity will, even though at a disadvantage, beat the sound man who does not possess any ingenuity. This is borne out by numerous instances of foreign experience in re-education. This applies, of course, especially to the less serious disabilities and not at all to those which are manifestly debarring. In the case of a welder, the latter would include blindness or defective vision, paralysis, shell shock and nervous disorders, loss of both arms or hands, tuberculosis, ankylosis of the upper members, spinal trouble, stiff neck, and dizziness. Ankylosis of the knee or wrist might be overcome to some extent. Amputation of one leg will simply limit the field of activities. Where both legs are gone it would still be possible to enter some specialized field where work at the bench is all that is required. In such cases, however, it might be advisable to take up soldering or electric resistance welding. Loss of limbs would be an embarrassing handicap for most jobs, and prohibitive for outside work which necessitates climbing, crawling, stooping, or getting into abnormal positions. Men who have trouble in getting about should not enter this field. Only physically sound men should undertake work in confined spaces, in a boiler for example. One partially amputated arm would probably not be deterrent. Indoor work is manifestly unsuited to men with weak lungs, as the air in the shop is generally more or less heated and vitiated. Outdoor work might be pursued with benefit. Men with weak backs would generally be at a disadvantage. Kidney or intestinal trouble might or might not be deterrent, depending on the gravity of the trouble and the degree to which physical stamina and general health are affected. Rupture would not be a handicap except where heavy work is to be done, and in that class of work there is usually a helper around. Impairment of efficiency due to loss of one eye, which may make difficult the acquirement of precision in distancing the flame from the material to be welded, may nevertheless generally be overcome. The welder must have one good arm and hand with which to hold and manipulate the torch, and enough of a stump left in the other arm to be capable of using the filler rod and of puddling. Amputation, ankylosis, or paralysis of a finger or two are not prohibitive, so long as the proper grip and manipulation of the torch can be preserved. DEVICES FOR OVERCOMING HANDICAPS Special “automatic pincers” are being used by French autogenous welders, to take the place of a missing hand, for those who have lost only part of the forearm. Drawings of this appliance are here given. The upper drawing shows the opening of the pincers through extension of the forearm, and the lower two drawings represent modification of the upper pincers for the use of welders. Those who are incapable of using their hand through any cause are equipped with a special tool holder which is attached to the forearm. Where the handicap consists of the loss of an arm, cutting may be taken up to advantage. There is restricted field of employment for disabled men in the operation of automatic welding or cutting machines. SAFETY AND HYGIENE As in other occupations, there are in welding, certain safety measures to be taken to avoid accidents. These are clearly defined and are made an integral part of the welder’s training until observance becomes automatic. This applies, of course, to the man who is physically sound as well as to the disabled. In the case of the handicapped, the matter becomes one of ascertaining if the disability interferes with the carrying out of these safety measures; and if so, if the difficulty can be overcome. If not, some other occupation must be selected. In the welder’s case, however, these precautions are mostly “don’ts,” and do not present serious difficulties to be overcome. Acetylene is not poisonous and the impurities in the gas which are poisonous are not present in sufficient quantity in the American carbide to be dangerous. The characteristic odor of the gas is a protection against fire, explosion, and suffocation. One cubic foot thoroughly mixed with 10,000 cubic feet of air can be detected. HOW PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE HELPS In selecting any vocation, a man’s former occupation must be carefully taken into account, and particularly is this true in the case of welding. Previous experience, training, and education are such important factors in the student’s success or failure that particular attention should be paid to them. Experience as a blacksmith, machinist, boilermaker, patternmaker, sheet-metal worker, molder, electrician, and in kindred occupations will be in every case of great value. All experience in handling metals, as well as all mechanical experience is a valuable asset. For a man who has had such experience, it will be comparatively easy to become a good all-round welder. It goes without saying that no disabled man should take up the course unless he feels an interest in the work or in some special branch of it. It is this interest coupled with ingenuity which will make it possible for the welder to handle new problems successfully and to devise better and more efficient ways of doing things. In the case of a former welder who is capable of taking up his former vocation, a short course of training will suffice. A former welder whose handicap prevents him from taking up his old trade may, with the proper training and necessary qualifications, become an excellent teacher, a welding foreman, or a superintendent. ARE WELDERS GOING TO BE NEEDED? The process is of comparatively recent application, dating back to about the year 1904. Its growth has been extremely rapid, especially of later years, as regards development of technique, extension of its applications, and perfection of apparatus. Regardless of this progress, however, it is no exaggeration to state that the process is as yet in its initial stages, and that in the near future its field of utility will be greatly extended. As contrasted with the growth of oxy-acetylene welding, the supply of good welders has lagged far behind the demand. Unlike European countries, this country has only lately come to realize the importance of well-grounded, thorough, practical training for prospective welders. In view of these two factors--the remarkable expansion of the process and the shortage of welders--prospects look bright for the future. QUALIFYING AS A TEACHER OF THE WELDING PROCESS In any occupation where the demand for labor is increasing rapidly, there is bound to be a demand for men to teach the processes and practice of the occupation. If you master the trade you yourself may qualify as a teacher. GETTING TO WORK AFTER TRAINING In contemplating placement after training the following factors are to be taken into account: Your choice of a field. Your special fitness. The industrial demand. It is the disabled man’s privilege to decide what he will specialize in and he will be allowed the freedom of choosing which branch of welding he will take up, such choice being of course subject to the guidance of the vocational adviser. Most welders will exhibit a tendency toward some special branch or type of welding, even while they are learning the art. The instructor will keep in constant touch with the pupil during the course to determine if there is such a trend in him, and if so to encourage it. Some take to one metal in preference to others; some to one operation in preference to others; some may give evidence of ability as all-round welders. The demand for welders is so varied that knowing the demands in general it will in most cases be possible to satisfy preferences and special aptitudes. This will be the aim always. If as a trained welder you desire to get started on your own hook, several questions will arise in your mind? Where shall I be located? What are the demands of the locality in which I shall live? What is my fitness for the work? How about the necessary equipment? The locality should be such as to give you ample opportunity to make good. It might be hard for you to go against much competition at the start. Likewise, to act as a pioneer of the industry in some locality which knows nothing about the work, might not be desirable. In placing retrained welders, local demands will be carefully considered to the end that no man shall be placed where he may have work coming in which he is not capable of handling efficiently. WHAT IF YOU DO NOT TAKE TRAINING? You will not be a real welder; probably you will not get a chance to try your hand at manipulating the torch at all. If you do get a chance you may get hurt or hurt others trying to weld without training for the trade. Train for it, and then go to it, and if you fail come back for more training or for training in some other trade. INDUSTRIAL APPLICATIONS Some idea of the wide range of application of the oxy-acetylene processes may be gained from a brief survey of their uses in several industrial fields. PLAN No. 1140. STEAM RAILWAYS Oxy-acetylene welding is used in the shops of practically every railroad in the country as a means of reducing cost of repair and of reclaiming worn parts. Each craft usually does the welding of metals that originates in its department: Blacksmiths handle wrought iron and steel; boilermakers, boiler plates and flues; machinists, cast iron; coppersmiths, brass pipe work. The process is generally used in the reclamation of broken engine frames, damaged cylinders, broken spokes in driver wheels, cracked valve chamber bushings, broken steam and exhaust pipes and air pump heads; in mending cracks, cutting out and welding patches on side sheets of fire boxes, flue sheets and door collars; in welding front end doors when damaged, engine truck frames and cradles, frame braces and brackets, tender bolsters, guides, and pedestals. The process is used to some extent also in building up worn diamond crossings and frogs. Both cutting and welding are used in the upkeep and repair of steel cars. At the scrap yard the welder cuts up old boilers and other scrap for salvaging. PLAN No. 1141. ELECTRIC RAILWAYS Applications of the process by electric railways are similar to those by steam railways. There are, however, more opportunities for doing welding at the table. Of such a nature are restoring of armature bearing housings and frame heads, worn axle seats for motors and axle caps, journal boxes, pinion seats and keyways, brush holders, trolley bases, and third-rail shoe castings. Heavy broken parts such as truck frames, drawheads, brake hangers and body bolsters are repaired. To some extent the process is used also in bonding rails and in welding steel trolleys. Most of the work is handled in the shop, where, however, electric welding is coming into more general use, owing to the availability and economy of electric power. PLAN No. 1142. SHIPBUILDING Extensive use is made of the process in cutting all kinds and shapes of steel plate. Hydrogen is very generally used, instead of acetylene, and welding machines have been introduced. Welding proper is more generally applied in reclamation work, damaged or broken parts of the ship and of its machinery and propellers being often welded by this process. Electric arc welding is fast coming to the front in this field, except for cutting where the gas process can not be replaced. PLAN No. 1143. AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY Oxy-acetylene welding of automobile parts is not in general very difficult, but as in all other welding mastery of fundamentals is here also essential to success. The work is varied in character, including cast iron, aluminum, steel, and wrought iron welding. The process is extensively used in the repair of automobiles, and to a lesser degree in their manufacture. Both the industry itself and the repair work provide excellent fields for the prospective welder. Repair work is done generally in either a job welding shop, where a number of welders are employed and where all kinds of welding is carried on, or else in a garage or automobile repair shop where a welder is employed to do the necessary work. In small communities the welding shop is usually run by one man who owns it and who does all the welding. In the large welding shops acetylene is generated; in other cases dissolved acetylene is used. A welder who is expert in the welding of aluminum is particularly valuable in this work. In manufacture, the work is done in the shop. It is often simple and well suited to workers who must elect a sedentary employment. The process is broadening its scope in this field. Closely related to the automobile is the motorcycle. A number of its parts, such as handlebars, special jigs and muffler heads, are welded in manufacture. In repair work the scope is somewhat similar to that of automobile repairing. PLAN No. 1144. PIPE AND MAIN WORK In the welding of pipes and mains, the process is finding increased application and this field presents good prospects of expansion in the future. Extensive work in this country as well as in Europe, where it is more largely used, has demonstrated that welding is not only the most economical method but as well the most efficient in that leaky joints are eliminated. Welding does away with threaded joints, and thus makes possible the use of much lighter pipe, since there is no need for making allowance in thickness for threading. Moreover, joint couplings are dispensed with. The expense saved in maintenance alone is tremendous, as the joint is water-tight and there is therefore little likelihood of trouble arising from leaks. In making connections, Y’s, T’s, crosses and drips are made on the spot, being cut out of odd lengths of pipe and fitted together. This effects an economy in that these odd pieces are saved. The process has its greatest application in the welding of gas, steam, air, oil, water and ammonia pipes and mains, and the work is chiefly outside work, although it is used to some extent on interior pipe connections. Special fittings or connections may be welded in the shop. Outdoors welding is generally performed on sections of pipe while above the ground, the whole section being finally lowered into the ditch. The welding of these several sections to each other has to be done in the ditch or trench, a pit being generally dug in order to give the welder sufficient room for carrying on the work. Obviously this work requires suppleness in the worker. Where there is a large amount of welding, the apparatus most commonly used is a portable generator, with which is mounted a set of oxygen tanks. In other cases a small two-wheeled truck carrying one oxygen and one dissolved acetylene cylinder may suffice. In this kind of work, the welder is generally assisted by one or two helpers who do the heavy work, placing, holding, and turning the pipes while the welder keeps on welding. Some overhead welding is done which forces the welder to assume a strained position. PLAN No. 1145. SHEET METAL Welding sheet metal is an important application of the process, which is superseding to a large extent riveting and soldering. Very careful work may be required but in the main the work is not particularly difficult, and it can be easily mastered if the training given is thorough. Electric resistance welding, however, is superseding oxy-acetylene in many manufacturing operations. PLAN No. 1146. METALLIC FURNITURE Extensive use of oxy-acetylene welding is made in the manufacture of metallic furniture and in kindred trades. Welding is an efficient and economical way of joining various parts together, as well as of making the parts themselves. The work may be more or less routine and much of it is done at the bench. This is a comparatively easy type of welding, in which a man can become proficient in a short time. It would be eminently suited to the welder who has trouble in going about or who is easily fatigued, and who would be better off in some sedentary work. The process is largely used in the manufacture of steel desks, chairs, filing cabinets, office safes, stepladders, and surgical, hospital and dental furniture. PLAN No. 1147. CONTAINERS Welding is fast superseding old methods in the manufacture of containers of various kinds out of sheet metal. In this class is included the manufacture of steel barrels, range boilers, kitchen utensils, light air tanks, and storage tanks. This kind of work needs a well-trained man on the job. Except in the case of larger objects, the work can be done at the welding table, and it is not of a straining nature. PLAN No. 1148. METAL PLATE Metal plate welding is quite similar in its scope to sheet metal work. It is largely used in the manufacture of ammonia and air receivers, vacuum driers, steam driers, and vats. The process is not used in boiler work to any extent, as the consequences of a faulty weld might be extremely serious. PLAN No. 1149. FOUNDRIES In steel foundries the process is extensively used in cutting away risers, gates, and heads from castings. As compared with the old method of cutting with a saw, the gas process is much quicker and much more economical. This sort of cutting work is simple and does not require great dexterity. The welder should be capable of bending over or assuming more or less cramping positions, as he has to work on the castings in positions in which they have been left on the floor. Welding is almost universally used in the reclamation of defective castings, and by this process castings are saved which for some slight defect would have been consigned to the scrap heap. The process finds application also in the welding of blowholes, cold shuts, porous spots, and cracks. It is used to some extent in manufacture, two parts being cast separately and joined by welding. PLAN No. 1150. FORESTRY PURSUITS ACKNOWLEDGMENT This monograph was prepared by Capt. S. T. Dana, in the Forestry Service of the Department of Agriculture, under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings of the Research Division for editorial assistance. WHAT FORESTRY IS Forestry is the business, or the art, or the science, depending on the point of view from which you look at it, of handling forests for timber production or stream-flow protection. It does not, as is often mistakenly thought, have anything to do with fruit trees, or even with street and park trees. The care of these comes under horticulture and arboriculture. Forestry is distinct from either in that it has to do primarily with entire stands of trees, or forests, rather than with individuals. Forests are really nothing more nor less than tree societies, or communities, comparable in many ways with human communities, every member of which has an influence upon and in turn is influenced by its neighbors; and it is this fact that gives to forestry its distinctive character. Forestry should also not be confused with lumbering. Lumbering has to do merely with harvesting the trees on any given area, with cutting them, transporting them to the mill, and converting them into lumber or other products. While the chief task of the forester is to manage forest lands, he has to do with the production of trees as well as with their utilization. Forestry is concerned fully as much with the future as with the present. Like agriculture it looks forward to keeping the land continuously productive by the growth of successive crops. Only in the case of forestry the crops instead of being wheat, or rye, or corn, are trees, which in turn can be converted into fuel, fence posts, telephone poles, railroad ties, wood pulp, lumber, and a host of other wood products. How much the forests mean to the economic development of a community through the crops which they produce and the employment which they offer is evidenced only too plainly by the desolation which has followed destructive lumbering in many a once prosperous forest region. In addition to yielding crops which have a commercial value, forests in mountainous regions perform another important function which is none the less valuable because its benefits are difficult to measure in dollars and cents. By decreasing erosion and regulating stream-flow the mountain forests conserve water for domestic supplies, irrigation, power, and navigation, and at the same time help to lessen the damage caused by destructive floods. So far-reaching is this influence and so great is the population affected by it, that the treatment which such forests receive becomes a matter of vital interest to the general public. One of the primary concerns of forestry is to see that they are handled in such a way as to afford the maximum amount of protection, even if this involves, as it not infrequently does, the restriction or entire prevention of lumbering operations. WHAT FORESTERS DO In order to handle to the best advantage the area under his charge there is a wide range of work which a forester may be called upon to do. He must be able to identify different kinds of trees and must know the uses to which each can be put and the sites to which they are best adapted. He must be able to map the area and to determine the amount and value of the timber upon it. He must be able to draw up a complete plan for protecting the forest from fire and to carry out the details involved in its execution. He must know how to control the attacks of destructive insects and fungous diseases. He must be able to handle the many details connected with the collection of seed and the production of young trees in forest-tree nurseries. He must know where and how to plant these, or how to sow the seed on areas where this is preferable. He must know whether any given stand is too dense, and if so, what and how many trees should be taken out to stimulate the growth of those that are left. He must be able to determine the rate at which trees are growing and the age at which they should be cut and to make plans for harvesting them in such a way as to secure natural reproduction. And finally, he must be able to draw up a “working plan” providing in detail for the handling of the entire forest in such a way as to keep it continually productive. All of this obviously involves a good deal of office work in the formulation of plans, the maintenance of records, and the miscellaneous administrative work connected with any business enterprise. It also involves a good deal of practical out-of-door work. The average forester must take long walks and horseback rides. He must often camp out in a tent or with no shelter whatever. He must take his part in fighting forest fires, which means the liberal and energetic use of the axe, the mattock, and the shovel. He must run compass and transit lines, and make topographic maps. He must estimate the size and contents of standing trees by the use of calipers and height-measures, and must scale the fallen timber. He must mark, or blaze, the trees to be removed in lumbering and must see that the operations are carried out in accordance with the approved plans. He must collect tree cones, extract the seeds from these, sow them in the nursery, care for the young seedlings, and later set them out in the forest. He must also do a hundred and one other things which are not strictly forestry but which are so closely connected with it that they must be handled by the forester along with his other work. Grazing is a good example of this, since most of the forest regions in the United States produce forage as well as trees. In order to utilize this to best advantage the forester must know how many stock the range will support and how they should be handled. In regions where mineral deposits occur he must be familiar with the mining laws and must have at least enough knowledge regarding mining to enable him to deal intelligently with prospectors and others. Since most of the forests occur in undeveloped regions he must know how to open these up by building ranger and lookout stations and by constructing such other permanent improvements as roads, bridges, trails, and telephone lines. In short, the average forester, particularly in pioneer regions, must be a veritable jack-of-all-trades. WHERE FORESTERS WORK Forestry is primarily an out-of-door occupation. Some indoor work in the formulation of plans, writing of reports, handling of correspondence, and other office routine, is of course necessary, particularly in the case of those charged with the administration of large areas. But the average forester must spend the bulk of his time in the open, in the forests for which he is caring. Sometimes his headquarters may be in a small town or sometimes in a more or less isolated situation in the woods themselves. In either case his daily work will ordinarily take him into the open in sunshine and in rain. Occasionally he may be absent from home for several weeks at a time carrying his bed and provisions on his back, or, if he is fortunate, on a pack animal. So far as geographical location is concerned, opportunities for foresters have heretofore been mainly in the mountain regions of the West where the National Forests are located. As forestry comes to be practiced more and more on State Forests and on private lands, however, similar opportunities will develop in the East. There is no reason why large numbers of foresters should not eventually be employed wherever forests occur, and this means practically throughout the country except in the Great Plains and in the farming regions of the Central States and Middle West. WHAT HANDICAPS ARE SERIOUS Generally speaking, a forester must be able-bodied and in good physical health. He must have a strong heart, sound lungs, and a constitution able to stand exposure to all kinds of wind and weather. Heart disease, tuberculosis, and other serious organic troubles are handicaps that point to the choice of another occupation. On the other hand, there are certain disabilities, and particularly injuries of various sorts, that do not constitute any serious drawback. Injuries to the mouth, nose, ears, scalp, and other parts of the head, for example, do not disqualify unless they interfere to a dangerous extent with one’s eyesight or hearing. Some deafness is allowable provided it has not gone so far as to prevent communication or to endanger one from falling trees or other accidents. Even blindness in one eye is not a real handicap if the other eye is still sound. The loss of an arm or a leg incapacitates a man for the physical work required of most foresters, but minor injuries to these limbs, such as loss of a finger or a toe, do not disqualify one. For certain specialized duties one can have sustained even more serious injuries and still be able to give satisfactory service. One may be badly crippled and yet be successful in research work provided he is able to move about more or less freely, has some use of his arms, and can handle a microscope. Men at fire-lookout stations need little more than good eyes and sufficient hearing to use a telephone. On the other hand, one would hardly wish to take up fire-lookout work as a permanent occupation, and unless his condition can be improved sufficiently to enable him to resume active physical work his chances for advancement are poor. Special appliances for handling tools are not necessary, as is the case with many industrial workers. The average forester must be able to turn his hand to a wide variety of activities and to use such homely implements as the axe, the hammer, the shovel, and the mattock. The danger of further injury is no greater in forestry than in most other outdoor occupations. Accidents due to forest fires, bucking horses, falling trees, and rolling stones are always possible, but the proportion of those seriously injured in such ways as these is not large. Those employed by the National Government receive compensation in case of injury incurred in line of duty. WHAT TRAINING IS NECESSARY Forestry requires the services of three more or less distinct grades of workers--the professional forester, the forester ranger, and the forest guard. The professional forester handles the larger and more technical phases of forest management. He determines what the forest under his charge contains, how much it is worth, how fast it is growing, when and how it should be cut, what kinds of trees should be favored, and other questions of the same kind; and also exercises general supervision over the execution of whatever measures are decided upon. The forest ranger acts as a sort of semi-technical assistant to the professional forester. He does not need so thorough an education as the professional forester but must have sufficient technical knowledge to enable him to carry out intelligently the plans formulated by the latter. His work is to a large extent “practical” and involves the routine of fire protection and fire fighting, marking the trees to be removed in timber sales, scaling the felled logs, handling planting operations, surveying, building trails, running telephone lines, and doing other work connected with the administration of the forest. The forest guard is ordinarily a non-technical assistant who helps the forest ranger in those aspects of his work which require little or no knowledge of forestry. Forest guards are frequently appointed for short periods only to help the regular force during the busy season and particularly in the work of fire protection and fire fighting. Previous experience in the woods or in similar occupations such as lumbering and surveying constitutes a valuable, but not essential, preliminary training for foresters of all grades. Twenty-five years ago the professional forester was almost unknown in this country and there was not a single educational institution at which he could secure the necessary training. To-day the profession is well recognized and there are more than 20 schools offering instruction of a grade similar to that required of civil engineers, doctors, lawyers, ministers, and other professional men. As a basis for the more technical phases of his education the man who desires to become a professional forester must have had courses of collegiate grade in botany, geology, organic chemistry, mathematics through trigonometry, plane surveying, mechanical drawing, economics, and either French or German, or preferably both. With these as a foundation he is ready to go ahead with the technical subjects such as dendrology, silvics, silviculture, forest mensuration, forest valuation, forest management, and forest regulation. Obviously a comprehensive training of this sort can not be obtained with less than four years of collegiate work, at least two of which must be devoted almost entirely to professional forestry subjects. If a man has already had a college education, however, he can readily prepare himself for the profession by two years of post-graduate work. The degree of bachelor of science in forestry is usually given on the completion of a four-year professional course, and of master of science in forestry, or master of forestry, on the completion of a five-year professional course or of two years of postgraduate work following four years of regular college work. For the forest ranger no such intensive training is necessary. With a high school education as a background, one year of rather elementary training in such subjects as fire protection, surveying, timber estimating and scaling, nursery practice, methods of planting, range management, and report writing is sufficient to enable a man to qualify. In general, the course covers much the same ground as that taken by the professional forester, but in a much briefer and more elementary way. Those who have already had considerable practical experience along these lines can secure a sufficient foundation for their work in three or four months, although even for such men the longer course is preferable if time to take it can be found. Many of the forest schools of the country now offer courses of this sort and the opportunities for instruction are ample. Since forest guards are engaged almost wholly on nontechnical work no particular course of training is necessary. No one with any ambition, however, would wish to remain a forest guard indefinitely when other opportunities are open to him merely by taking a free course of instruction. If one wishes to take up forestry, therefore, and is not in a position to take the professional course, he should by all means attempt to qualify as a forest ranger. Should lack of other openings then make it necessary for him to serve as a forest guard for the time being, he would be in a position to take advantage of the first opportunity for advancement. WHAT OPPORTUNITIES ARE OFFERED Opportunities for employment for foresters may be classed as fairly good. The point has now been passed where the supply is totally inadequate to meet the demand, but at the same time the war has greatly depleted the ranks of foresters throughout the country, and there is no question that many new men will be needed during the process of reconstruction and afterwards. The National Forests already offer opportunities for the employment of many men and it can not be doubted that similar opportunities will soon be offered in State forests as well as in the case of forests still in the hands of private owners. With the steady decrease in the timber supply, the Nation will soon be face to face with the necessity of practicing forestry extensively as a national safeguard and unless private owners take upon themselves the task, there is little question but that the Federal and State Governments will take matters largely into their own hands. Altogether it is a safe prediction that any one who desires to engage in forestry and who qualifies himself for the work will be able to find employment. The entering salary for forest guards in the national service averages about $900 a year and for forest rangers about $1,100 a year. Technically trained foresters ordinarily enter at approximately the same salary as forest rangers, $1,100 or $1,200 a year, but with greater opportunities for advancement later. In State and private work approximately the same entering salaries may be expected although some private owners may be unwilling to pay quite so much to forest guards and forest rangers at the start. WHAT ARE THE CHANCES FOR PROMOTION? Chances for limited promotion are reasonably good. It should be recognized frankly, however, that one can not hope to get rich in the profession and that a comfortable living is all that can ordinarily be looked forward to. In exceptional cases unusually able and well qualified men will doubtless be able to draw salaries of $4,000 or $5,000 a year. The average professional forester, however, can hardly hope to advance much beyond $2,500 or $3,500 a year except by acquiring an interest in some lumber business or in the forest itself. For the forest ranger a salary of $1,500 or $1,600 may reasonably be looked forward to. Moreover, this salary often carries with it a ranger station which can be occupied as long as he stays in the service, and also an opportunity to produce some crops for his own use. Forest guards can hardly hope for more than $900 or $1,800 a year. In other words, in forestry, as in all other professions, the better educated you are the better are your chances for promotion. Even at best, however, the chances for large salaries are small and those who are bent on getting rich should look elsewhere for an opportunity to do so. On the other hand, one who is satisfied to make a comfortable living, to spend a large part of his life in the open, to occupy a responsible and respected place in his home community, and to enjoy the satisfaction which comes from having an important share in a work of great public service, can not look for a more congenial or attractive occupation than forestry. APPENDIX ON FORESTRY SCHOOLS AND COURSES These lists have been compiled by the Forest Service to aid in answering inquiries as to institutions at which instruction in forestry may be obtained. While every effort has been made to avoid errors, the Forest Service does not vouch for the completeness of the lists, their accuracy, or the relative merits of the courses offered. More detailed information regarding opportunities for disabled soldiers and sailors to take training courses in forestry may be obtained from representatives of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. SCHOOLS WITH COURSES LEADING TO A DEGREE IN FORESTRY _University of California, College of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Berkeley, Cal._--Two four-year courses, one in forestry and one in forest engineering, both leading to the degree of bachelor of science. Nineteen weeks of each of these courses are spent in camp, most of the time on a national forest. A five-year course combining the work of both courses leads to the degree of master of science in forestry, which is also granted on the completion of one year of graduate work in connection with either course. _Colorado State Agricultural College, Fort Collins, Colo._--Four-year course in forestry leading to the degree of bachelor of science in forestry. _Colorado College, Colorado School of Forestry, Colorado Springs, Colo._--Two-year course leading to the degree of forest engineer, open only to applicants who have completed two years of college work or an equivalent course of study. The fall and spring terms are spent at Manitou Park, the property of the school, near Woodland Park, Colo. A two-year course for graduate students leads to the degree of master of forestry. _New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University, Department of Forestry, Ithaca, N. Y._--Five-year course in professional forestry, leading after four years to the degree of bachelor of science and after one additional year to that of master of forestry. Field work includes five weeks in camp in the Adirondacks in the summer following sophomore year, 10 weeks each in the summers following junior and senior years, and three months of practical work in the forest in the fall term of senior year. _Georgia State College of Agriculture at University of Georgia, Georgia State Forest School, Athens, Ga._--Four-year professional course leading to the degree of bachelor of science in forestry. Considerable latitude for specialization is offered during junior and senior years. Eighteen weeks of the course are spent in field work in camp, and three months in practical work in specialization. _Georgia College of Forestry, Greensboro, Ga._--Three-year course of ten months a year leading to the degree of bachelor of science. Headquarters of the college are on a timber tract five miles from Greensboro. Trips are required to the hardwood region of northern Georgia and the long-leaf pine region of southern Georgia. _Harvard University, Department of Forestry, Bussey Institution, Jamaica Plain, Mass._--Graduate specialization and research leading to the degree of master in forestry. Special elective work is offered in dendrology, silviculture, forest management, wood technology, and (in cooperation with the Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration) a two-year course in lumbering. The technical work is carried on at the Harvard Forest, the Arnold Arboretum, and the Bussey Institution. _University of Idaho, School of Forestry, Moscow, Idaho._--Two four-year collegiate courses, one in general forestry and one with special attention to lumbering, both leading to the degree of bachelor of science in forestry. _Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Department of Forestry, Ames, Iowa._--Four-year undergraduate course leading to the degree of bachelor of science in forestry; also a five-year course leading to the degree of master of science in forestry. Both courses include three months of work in summer camp, in addition to which all candidates for degrees must have at least three months of practical work. A five-year combined course in forestry and landscape gardening leads to the two degrees of bachelor of science in forestry and bachelor of science in horticulture. _University of Maine, Department of Forestry, Orono, Me._--Four-year undergraduate course in forestry leading to the degree of bachelor of science in forestry. Special attention is given to forest management and forest engineering applicable to the northeastern United States. _Michigan Agricultural College, Department of Forestry, East Lansing, Mich._--Four-year course in forestry leading to the degree of bachelor of science. Graduate courses leading to the degree of master of forestry are also offered. A summer term of seven weeks between the sophomore and junior years is held near Cadillac, Mich. _University of Michigan, Department of Forestry, Ann Arbor, Mich._--Four-year course leading to the degree of bachelor of science in forestry; also a five-year course leading to the degree of master of science in forestry. Graduates of other colleges of university rank require two years of graduate study. _University of Minnesota, Department of Agriculture, College of Forestry, University Farm, St. Paul, Minn._--Four-year course in forestry leading to the degree of bachelor of science and offering three lines of specialization: Technical forestry, lumbering, and wood chemistry. Two months of freshman year, from June 1 to August 1, and four months of junior year, from April 15 to August 15, are spent at Itasca State Park. One year of graduate work leads to the degree of master of science. _University of Missouri, College of Agriculture, Department of Forestry, Columbia, Mo._--Five-year course in forestry leading to the degree of master of forestry. The degree of bachelor of science in forestry is conferred upon the completion of four years’ work. Field work includes a summer course of 10 weeks on the university forest of 50,000 acres in the Ozark Uplands. _University of Montana, Forest School, Missoula, Mont._--Two four-year courses, one in forestry and one in forest engineering, leading respectively to the degrees of bachelor of science in forestry and bachelor of science in forest engineering. The course in forestry aims to prepare men for the work of forest rangers and forest supervisors, and for such work with lumber companies, timber-owning corporations, and the like, as involves the administration, protection, and utilization of forests; that in forest engineering for work as scalers, cruisers, lumbermen, logging engineers, and in general all engineering work in the forest. A graduate course in forest engineering leading to the degree of forest engineer will be offered later. _Ohio State University, Department of Forestry, Columbus, Ohio._--Four-year undergraduate course in forestry leading to the degree of bachelor of science in forestry. At least one summer of practical work in the woods is required before graduation. An optional fifth year is offered leading to the degree of master of science in forestry. _Oregon Agricultural College, School of Forestry, Corvallis, Oreg._--Two four-year courses, one in forestry and one in logging engineering, leading respectively to the degrees of bachelor of science in forestry and bachelor of science in logging engineering. _Pennsylvania State College, Department of Forestry, State College, Pa._--Four-year course in professional forestry leading to the degree of bachelor of science. Field work includes six weeks in camp at the end of freshman year, eight weeks at the end of sophomore year, and eight weeks during senior year. Opportunity is given for special study in lumbering. _Pennsylvania Department of Forestry, State Forest Academy, Mont Alto, Pa._--Three-year course in forestry of 48 weeks a year leading to the degree of bachelor of forestry. The course is maintained for the training of foresters for the State Forest Service. Appointments are made from a competitive examination open to residents of Pennsylvania between 19 and 25 years of age. The State supplies board, tuition, and quarters, and requires bond for the successful completion of the course and three years’ service on State forests. _New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y._--Four-year courses lending to the degree of bachelor of science. Five-year professional courses leading to the degrees of master of forestry and doctor of economics. Special opportunity is offered in lumbering, pulp and paper making, city forestry, forest entomology and botany, and forest pathology, and for research work at the State Forest Experiment Station. _State College of Washington, Department of Forestry, Pullman, Wash._--Four-year course leading to the degree of bachelor of science in forestry. _University of Washington, College of Forestry, Seattle, Wash._--Four and five year courses, arranged for specialization in general forestry, logging engineering, forest products, and the business of lumbering. At the end of the fourth year the student receives the degree of bachelor of science and at the end of the fifth year of master of science in forestry. Students who wish to specialize should take the five-year course. _Yale University, School of Forestry, New Haven, Conn._--Two-year graduate course leading to the degree of master of forestry. Field work includes 10 weeks at Milford, Pike County, Pa., in the summer term of junior year; three weeks at Union, Conn., and in the Adirondack Mountains in the spring term of junior year, and 12 weeks in the South in the spring term of senior year. Advanced work in dendrology, silviculture, forest management, forest products, and lumbering is open to those who have already had a general course in forestry. Special students are accepted in limited numbers provided their scholastic attainments are such that they can take the work to advantage. SCHOOLS WITH SHORT COURSES IN FORESTRY OTHER THAN RANGER COURSES _Alabama Polytechnic Institute, Auburn, Ala._--An elementary course in forestry covering seven weeks is given to senior students in the agricultural course. The work comprises a study of forest conditions in Alabama, care of woodlands, uses of the different southern woods, methods of preservation, etc. _Berea College, Berea, Ky._--A short course in the fundamental principles of forestry is given as part of the course in agriculture. _University of California, Berkeley, Cal._--Nonprofessional instruction in general forestry is given throughout the regular college year by means of two courses open to any student in the university. _University of Chicago, Ill._--The department of botany offers a course in forest ecology, dealing mainly with the life, activities, and death of trees; the structure and rôle of their various organs; and their relation to climate, soil, and their organic environment. Forest succession and its causes and the great forest formations of the United States and Canada are also taken up. _Clemson Agricultural College, Clemson, S. C._--A course in general forestry is required of all students in the agricultural course during the latter part of junior year. _Connecticut Agricultural College, Storrs, Conn._--A course in wood lot forestry covering one semester is required of all students in the regular four-year courses. The course is designed to give the student a working knowledge of the best methods of handling the farm wood lot with special reference to Connecticut conditions. The field work covers the identification of the economic species, measurement of growth and yield, improvement cuttings, and reforestation. A similar but less comprehensive course covering one semester is required of all students in the two-year course in the School of Agriculture. _Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y._--Five elementary courses are offered for agricultural and other students in the university covering the farm wood lot, elements of forestry silviculture, mensuration, management, utilization, and conservation. Two other courses, the field of forestry and wood technology, are open to both general and professional students. General courses in forestry are also given in the summer school and in the short-term winter course. _Delaware College, Newark, Del._--An elementary course covering one semester is elective for juniors and seniors in agriculture. It deals with the elements of silvics, methods of silvicultural management, natural and artificial regeneration, forest protection, forest mensuration, wood utilization, lumbering, wood preservation, forest economics, forest finance, and a study of the characteristic lumber trees of the United States, their classification and identification. _University of Georgia, Athens, Ga._--A short course in farm forestry is required of seniors in agriculture, and an elementary course in wood lot forestry of one-year men in agriculture. A nature study during the summer, open to teachers, a vocational course in wood and its uses, and a correspondence course in farm forestry are also offered. _University of Idaho, Moscow, Idaho._--A course in general forestry is offered for students in the various departments of the university, and a short course in farm forestry for students in the College of Agriculture. _Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Ames, Iowa._--A course in farm forestry designed to meet the needs of the Iowa farmer is required of practically all agricultural students during their first year. It includes a discussion of windbreaks, shelter belts, and wood lots with respect to their value on the farm, and also a little work on dendrology, forest planting, silviculture, preservative treatment of timbers, and the utilization of forest products. _Kansas State Agricultural College, Manhattan, Kans._--Courses in farm forestry, silviculture, and dendrology are elective for all students in agricultural and general science courses during the winter term of junior year. A course in forest nursery practice is elective for students in the School of Agriculture during the spring term of the third year, and also, without credit, for all students in college courses in agriculture and general science. _Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, La._--A year’s course in general forestry is required of juniors in the teachers’ course in agriculture, and additional courses of one year each in forestry and in the propagation and care of ornamental and shade trees are elective for seniors. Courses in forestry covering two years and a course in the propagation and care of ornamental and shade trees covering one year are elective for juniors and seniors in the College of Agriculture. The aim is not to turn out trained foresters, but to teach forestry in connection with the agricultural courses, with special reference to the management of farm wood lots. _University of Maine, Orono, Me._--A course in general forestry is open to all students, and is required of all students in the College of Agriculture. _Maryland Agricultural College, College Park, Md._--A course in farm forestry comprising 20 lectures and 60 hours of demonstration work is given to seniors in agriculture and horticulture, and to the second-year men of the two-year courses in agriculture and horticulture. The course includes wood lot management, nursery practice, planting, forest botany, and estimating timber crops. _Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass._--An elective major course is offered in the department of forestry during junior and senior years, which takes up such studies as dendrology, silviculture, forest mensuration, and allied subjects. During the winter several lectures are given by the State forester on “State Forest Policy.” The course is intended to give the students the same kind of education regarding true forest land that they receive concerning tillable land, and also to prepare students for the graduate schools of forestry. A lecture course dealing especially with wood lot management is offered to students of the short winter and summer schools. _University of Minnesota, Northwest School and Station, Crookston, Minn._--An elementary course in forestry is offered dealing with the planting of windbreaks and wood lots, the characteristics and adaptability of the more common trees, and the methods of propagation and conservation of planted and natural forests. _Mississippi Agricultural and Mechanical College, Agricultural College, Miss._--Courses in farm forestry and dendrology of one term each are offered for students in agriculture. _University of Missouri, Columbia, Mo._--A summer school of forestry for lumbermen, timberland owners, and rangers is given on the university forest of 50,000 acres in the Ozark Mountains, in connection with the summer course for regular forestry students. _University of Montana, Missoula, Mont._--Special courses in surveying, scaling and cruising, lumbering, forest appraisal, and logging engineering are offered in connection with the short course for rangers. _Mount Hermon School, Mount Hermon, Mass._--An elementary course in the care of lawns, shrubbery, and forests is given during one term. _University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebr._--A course in farm forestry covering one semester is elective for all students of the university and is designed primarily for agricultural students. It is an elementary course designed to familiarize students with the best trees that will grow in the State of Nebraska, as well as the methods of handling the farm wood lot. _New Hampshire College, Durham, N. H._--Courses in forestry are required of all four-year and two-year agricultural students, and are elective for all students of the college. Beginning with junior year, four-year students in agriculture may elect forestry as a principal subject and are then given advanced forestry work together with other agricultural and associated subjects. Every encouragement and assistance is given a student desiring to make forestry his profession, with the understanding that he will complete his training at some school offering a complete course in forestry. _North Carolina College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, West Raleigh, N. C._--A course in forestry is offered as one of the senior horticultural electives. _North Dakota Agricultural College, Agricultural College, N. Dak._--An elementary course in forestry covering six weeks is offered in the third term of junior year in the four-year agricultural course. _North Dakota State School of Forestry, Bottineau, N. Dak._--Instruction similar to that in the agricultural high schools is offered with special attention to horticulture and forestry. The forestry work consists of a study of the plains and prairie regions and has to do particularly with windbreaks, shelter belts, etc. A special three-year course is also offered for the preparation of landscape gardeners, landscape engineers, and city foresters. _Oklahoma Agricultural and Mechanical College, Stillwater, Okla._--A course in elementary forestry is required of all horticulture students during the first term of junior year. _Purdue University, Lafayette, Ind._--The work in forestry consists of a line of electives within the school of science. The subjects covered are forest botany and dendrology, elements of silviculture, forest mensuration, forest management, forest protection, forest utilization, forest pathology, and technical forestry. The latter includes a study of structural timbers with demonstrations in the testing laboratories and also work in surveying and making forest maps. _Rhode Island State College, Kingston, R. I._--A course in forestry dealing with the management of New England wood lots is required in the second term, junior year, in the agricultural course. _South Dakota State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, Brookings, S. Dak._--A course in forestry is required in the second semester of the sophomore year in the horticultural group and in the third-year of the three-year school of agriculture. It is elective in the second semester, junior year, in the animal husbandry and dairy husbandry groups of the four-year collegiate agricultural course. _Leland Stanford Junior University, Stanford University, Cal._--Courses are offered in the study of trees, forest pathology, and other matters basal to the study of forestry. _Syracuse University, Syracuse, N. Y._--A field course in elementary forestry, forest ecology, and botany, soils, geology, and woodcraft, open to any man over 15, is given by the New York State College of Forestry during August at Cranberry Lake in the western Adirondacks. Courses in forestry are also given for students in the university outside of the College of Forestry, and especially for those desiring to teach. _University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn._--An elective course in forestry covering one term is offered in the senior year of the four-year agricultural course. The work deals chiefly with the management of farm wood lots and small holdings of hardwood timber. _Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station, Tex._--Courses in the principles of forestry, dendrology, silviculture (with special reference to planting), and wood technology and utilization, each covering one semester and elective for juniors and seniors in agriculture and science, offered in the college year 1916-17. No attempt will be made to equip students for the profession of forestry. From time to time, however, additional courses will be offered to meet the needs of students along farm forestry, planting, timber preservation, and other lines. _University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt._--Students in agriculture are required to take one course in forestry during their sophomore year. The aim of this course is to give all agricultural students a working knowledge of forestry, which can be applied to their own farms or in the teaching of agriculture. The more advanced courses are open to those who wish to pursue the subject further. _State College of Washington, Pullman, Wash._--A one-year practical course is offered in the elementary science department, planned to equip young men to become logging engineers. _University of Washington, Seattle, Wash._--Two courses of 12 weeks each are offered--one in lumber and its uses for men engaged in offices at the mills, lumber salesmen, engineers, contractors, and builders; the other in logging for the training of logging foremen or others engaged in work at logging camps. _Winona College of Agriculture, Winona Lake, Ind._--A course of one-half semester in the principles of forestry is offered in the two-year agricultural course. The growing of trees for fences and the preservative treatment of fence posts are taken up in a practical way, and some work is also offered on lumber and its use on the farm. _University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis._--Nine elective courses, each running through one semester, as well as a number of special lectures in various departments of the university, are given by members of the Forest Products Laboratory of the United States Forest Service, where opportunity for research work is also offered. The object of the work, which is open to both undergraduates and graduates, is to enable men to acquire a thorough scientific and practical training in organic chemistry and wood technology and to apply this knowledge in scientific and commercial operations and investigations in the wood-using industries and in teaching. _Wyman’s School of Woods, Manising, Mich._--A 24-months’ course in forestry, logging, and woodcraft is offered, on the satisfactory completion of which students are granted a certificate of efficiency in logging and engineering. A 10-weeks’ out-of-door summer course is also offered to afford those students who are contemplating forestry as a profession an opportunity to become familiar with the character of the work. _Yale University, New Haven, Conn._--An elementary course of eight weeks is offered during the summer at Milford, Pike County, Pa., for those who desire a general knowledge of the subject. TREE SURGERY _Davey Institute of Tree Surgery, Kent, Ohio._--A 20-months’ course for the training of tree surgeons is offered, including instruction in botany, plant pathology, dendrology, entomology, fruit growing, spraying, and the theory and practice of tree surgery. SCHOOLS WITH RANGER COURSES IN FORESTRY _University of California, College of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, Berkeley, Cal._--Beginning in January, a 12 weeks’ course designed especially for rangers and loggers is offered. _Georgia State College of Agriculture at University of Georgia, Georgia State Forest School, Athens, Ga._--A ranger course of eight weeks, open to men in the Government service and to lumbermen, is offered during the summer. _University of Idaho, School of Forestry, Moscow, Idaho._--A three-year ranger course, extending from November 1 to April 1 of each school year, is offered. The course is so arranged that a single year’s work may also be taken. _University of Missouri, College of Agriculture, Department of Forestry, Columbia, Mo._--A course for lumbermen, timberland owners, and rangers is offered on the university forest of 50,000 acres in the Ozark Mountains, in connection with the summer course for regular forestry students. _University of Montana, Forest School, Missoula, Mont._--A three months’ ranger course is offered during the winter, with opportunity for specialization and the election of advanced work. The course is designed primarily for men who have already had considerable experience in woods work. _New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y._--A one-year course of practical training is offered at the State Ranger School located on the college forest of 2,000 acres at Wanakena, in the western Adirondacks. The course is designed to fit men for such positions as guards, rangers, forest-estate managers, tree-planting experts, and nursery foremen. _Oregon Agricultural College, School of Forestry, Corvallis, Oreg._--A five months’ course is offered for those desiring to prepare for the position of ranger in the United States Forest Service or for work in the State protective associations. _State College of Washington, Department of Forestry, Pullman, Wash._--A six weeks’ course is offered in the Winter School for the preparation of forest rangers. _University of Washington, College of Forestry, Seattle, Wash._--Two courses of 12 weeks each are offered, one in forestry for the training of forest rangers, guards, or woodland owners; the other in logging for the training of logging foremen or others engaged in work at logging camps. PLAN No. 1151. AUTOMOBILE MAINTENANCE AND SERVICE ACKNOWLEDGMENT This monograph was prepared by Charles W. Sylvester, under direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance. In no other industry, perhaps has progress been so rapid and marvelous as in the manufacture and maintenance of automobiles, which to-day employs hundreds of thousands of men and women in a great variety of occupations, and represents investment of many millions of dollars. Two great divisions of the industry may be made, one including the manufacturing plants which produce new cars, and the other, the maintenance and service shops and departments which operate and keep cars in repair and good running order. This monograph deals with occupations in “Automobile maintenance and service.” WHAT MEN DO IN THESE OCCUPATIONS In automobile maintenance and service, specialization is rapidly creating six principal groups of workers. It is true that in small garages one man may “tinker” with all parts of an automobile, but it is, in fact, just as essential to employ, for example, a battery specialist for a machine as it is to employ an eye specialist for a person. The six groups include: (1) Repair-shop men, who deal primarily with the mechanical treatment of the car when it has been disabled; (2) starting and lighting experts, who repair and adjust electrical equipment, including wiring, lights, motors, and generators; (3) ignition experts, who look after the testing, adjustment and maintenance of current supply, short circuits, contact breakers, vibrators, spark plugs, coils, condensers, connections, distributors, and magnetos; (4) storage-battery men in stations where batteries are charged, repaired, rebuilt, tested, and kept in good working condition; (5) tire-repair men, who take care of the splicing, patching, retreading, building up, inside repair, and vulcanizing of casings and tubes that have been disabled by punctures, blisters, blow-outs, rim cuts, and general wear; and (6) automobile and truck drivers, who are responsible for operation of cars on the road. The work of these groups embraces a greatly diversified field of employment and offers a wide range of occupational choice. [Illustration: Plan No. 1150. Auto Repair] WHERE MEN IN THESE OCCUPATIONS WORK Men are employed in the maintenance and service of automobiles and trucks in every community. In every village, town, and city shops and service stations are to be found. Private garages commonly have some equipment for making minor adjustments and small repairs, and chauffeurs are expected to keep their automobiles in good running order. Public garages, which in many cases are maintained in connection with automobile sales agencies, often employ several general repair men, and sometimes employ starting, lighting, and ignition specialists. The repair shops are established principally for the purpose of repairing and rebuilding all types of cars with their parts and accessories. They offer a large field of employment for repairmen and experts. Service stations, often referred to as oil and gasoline filling stations, include shops where special types of work are done. They may be classified as battery, speedometer, ignition, starting and lighting, and tire-service stations. Many men, if they have been trained, find employment in these places. Chauffeurs and truck drivers find employment in both private and public service--chauffeurs in driving taxicabs and private pleasure automobiles; and drivers in the operation of light and heavy delivery trucks for retail and wholesale houses, and also in hauling materials for road and building construction, farm produce, and manufactured products. Automobile plants and garages employ men as testers in the working out of new cars, and for the purpose of locating and determining trouble when a car is not working properly. Finally, men with a knowledge of automobiles, parts, accessories, and equipment can find employment as salesmen in garages, sales agencies, and retail and wholesale stores. PLAN No. 1152. AUTOMOBILE REPAIR-SHOP WORK THE OCCUPATION Repair-shop work consists in overhauling, adjusting, and repairing all types of motor cars and their parts. In the small garages where only a few men, often only one, are employed the mechanic must handle all kinds of work. Some large garages, as has been noted, employ specialists, and in many localities there are service and repair shops maintained especially for this work. Oxy-acetylene welding, a trade separate and apart from repair work, which is used to a very large extent in the repairing and building up of broken castings and forgings in automobile repair shops, is taken up in another monograph. In some shops there are enginemen, axlemen, transmission men, and other mechanical experts. All of these may be classified as mechanics. Other men found in repair shops are known as trouble-finders or inspectors, helpers, foremen, and carburetor specialists. The mechanic should be able to do skilled work on all mechanical parts of any car. His work consists in adjustment, care, overhauling, and repairing. Adjustment and care include valve, carburetor, clutch-spring, brake, and steering-mechanism adjustment, and cleaning and lubrication of parts. Much of this work can, however, be done by the automobile driver or helper in a garage. Overhauling includes repairing, but refers generally to the tearing down of the whole machine for cleaning, inspection, adjustment, and testing, together with replacement of worn and broken parts. Work on the engine requires in many cases its removal from the chassis, and disconnection of all attached parts. Some of the jobs to be done on automobile engines are removal of carbon from pistons, refitting of pistons, regrinding valves, replacing and scraping bearings, adjustment of fans and valve rods, setting timing gears, correcting the firing order of cylinders, repairing and replacing broken parts. The mechanic is required to remedy clutch troubles, by adjustment or replacing of worn leather on the cone. Transmission repairs include replacement of gears, fitting keys, taking up the wear in the main bearings, or complete replacement and repair of shifting-rod connections to overcome looseness. The universal joints in driving mechanisms often require disassembling and rebushing, while the mesh of the drive pinion and bevel gear of the differential will need adjusting. Work on the differential and rear axle may involve tearing down the rear construction. Such work requires skilled mechanics, especially to determine the trouble and make the proper reassembly. The play in wheels needs careful attention and exact adjustment, although it requires no particular skill or knowledge. Trouble found in the front wheels is ordinarily due to lack of alignment, and must be remedied to relieve not only a tremendous wear on tires but to prevent uncertain and difficult steering. A sagging in the frame, often caused by a fracture, can best be repaired by welding. Brakes require attention to eliminate noises and dragging, which causes a noticeable lack of power, and worn brake linings must be replaced. The cooling system, made up of pump, fan, radiator, and connections, will require adjustment and repair, including replacing the rubber hose, mending broken parts of the pump, putting on new fan belts, and soldering leaks in the radiator. Cleaning the radiator and taking cold-weather precautions against freezing also are necessary tasks. An inspector or trouble finder in a repair shop or garage service department is the foreman or mechanic, but in large shops men are employed solely for the purpose of diagnosing trouble. Such a man must be highly skilled. His work is to locate trouble and determine and report its nature and extent. Trouble is located by inspection and examination of the car standing still, by testing at the start and at various speeds, and by coasting. The trouble-finder expert makes a list of all worn and broken parts, indicates necessary repairs and adjustments, and then turns the job over to the men who are to do the work. Usually the foreman is in charge of all repair-shop work. He should be a man of clean personal habits, should have a thorough knowledge of automatic construction, and be able to direct work and handle men with courtesy and tact, to compute jobs, estimate cost of time and materials, keep time and stock records, and route work through on repair-order forms specifying work, parts, and costs for each job. A manager or superintendent often is in charge of the business end of the work, in which case the foreman gives his time to seeing that jobs are correctly done. Helpers are usually assigned to heavy lifting and pulling, to cleaning parts, and to general shop sweeping. They run errands, help pull down and assemble motors, transmissions, and rear axles, and do other work requiring little skill. TOOLS, MACHINES, EQUIPMENT, AND MATERIALS USED A variety of hand tools are used in repair work, including adjustable and fixed jaw wrenches, hammers, snips, breast and hand drills, screw drivers, hack saws, center punches, cold and cape chisels, soldering coppers, pliers, files, brushes, blow torches, vises, and other small tools. The machine equipment includes lathes, drill presses, grinders, and forges equipped with motor power and having full sets of tools for use with each. The shop must be further provided with benches, chain hoists, motor and rear-axle stands, creepers, and special tools and devices for special work. An oxy-acetylene welding and cutting outfit of the portable type is one of the greatest conveniences in any repair shop. Most of the parts, supplies, and materials come to the shop prepared and ready for use. For some jobs, however, it may be convenient and more satisfactory to construct the necessary parts, such as shims, gaskets, and small metal pieces, from stock material. It is inadvisable, however, to make anything that can be secured already prepared. Automobile repair-shop work is varied and interesting. Jobs frequently change, with intervals of rest. DISABILITIES Hard and fast rules as to availability for this work of men with certain disabilities can not be laid down. With perseverance, skill, and inventiveness some men will succeed in lines of work which might seem entirely unsuited to their disability. For example, a man who has lost his right arm near the shoulder has been for 30 years doing successfully all of the repair work and making all of the adjustments necessary on a thrashing machine, a traction engine, 12 self-binding and 12 mowing machines on a farm in England. An all-round mechanic must usually be able to move about easily. He needs at least one good eye, and must be able to hear well for trouble testing. A man with abdominal, kidney, or alimentary canal trouble, which prohibits him from stooping, bending, or squatting, can not do the work. Gas vapors, fumes, and dust in a garage may affect men with lung diseases. It is very necessary for the worker to have reasonably good command of neck and head movements. APPLIANCES Many devices and prosthetic appliances are in use in all countries by men with arm amputations, and where previous experience, desire, and conditions place a man in a position requiring the use of an artificial appliance for gripping and holding tools one of strong and simple construction should be selected. PREVIOUS EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EXPERIENCE While general education will help a man in shop repair work, as in anything else, it is more essential that he shall have had some technical training acquired either in a school or in a shop. Previous experience in automobile repair or construction work will, of course, give the best foundation for re-education. A man who has worked as a helper in a garage long enough to become familiar with automobile construction and operation may through a short course of instruction easily qualify as a mechanic. Experience in other mechanical work such as machine-shop work, blacksmithing, and boiler making will be also helpful. Business experience will be a valuable asset for a repair-shop foreman or manager. WHERE RE-EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN Full-time classes may be given in the shop of a high school, vocational or trade school, college or university, where the equipment is sufficient to provide for real instruction of a practical nature. Re-education classes will be trained also in commercial garages under actual shop conditions. Part-time classes providing alternate weeks or months in the school and in the shop may be best in some cases, or the first or last part of the training period may be spent in the shop and the other part in school. For example, in an eight months’ course four months may be spent in a commercial repair shop and the remaining four months in a school shop. Evening classes offer a splendid opportunity for the workman who is employed during the day. These, of course, will be for those men only who are able to return without re-education or for men who have finished their re-education course and desire additional instruction. Correspondence courses may be used in some instances. WHAT CAN BE LEARNED AND IN WHAT TIME Although theory and demonstration work will accompany the shop practice, each man will be required to actually do the work. To say the least, the course of instruction will be such as will enable the disabled man to qualify on the job beside his able-bodied neighbor and to command the prevailing wage after completing his course. His work will include the overhauling, repairing, and adjusting of various makes and models of automobiles and parts. The time required to complete the course of instruction will depend to a certain extent on the man’s previous education, training, and experience, but may occupy from six to nine months. It will not be the policy of the Government to give just enough training to enable the man to secure a job under good but abnormal conditions or by sympathetic favor. Sufficient time will be given to prepare each man adequately for his work. AFTER TRAINING--WHAT? Skilled auto mechanics are in great demand, and since repair work is so diversified and widely distributed over the entire country, it is comparatively easy for a trained man to find permanent employment. Auto mechanics as a rule are poorly trained. The trade therefore presents excellent opportunities for the disabled man with expert training. The field is also wide open for capable foremen and inspectors in every community. Hours of employment for the mechanic depend largely upon location and amount of work to be done. Shops in large cities have an 8 to 10 hour day, the total number of hours per week being 45 to 60. In small towns and communities shops are irregular as to hours, mechanics being required often to work 9 to 12 hours per day. First-class mechanics in large shops are paid a prevailing wage of 60 cents per hour. Small shops pay from 30 to 60 cents. A mechanic who owns his shop may earn more or less. Foremen employed by the hour usually receive a little more than the mechanic, while in a position as shop manager he may be paid $125 to $175 per month. Automobile repair shops doing general work are located in all parts of the country and usually in many different parts of a city. Work will therefore probably be available for the trained man near his home or at least in his home town. An automobile mechanic may expect to secure a position as foreman or inspector, which is often more suitable for a disabled man than that of mechanic. Or he may be able to open up a garage and repair shop for himself. Because of the increased use of automobiles and the lack of first-class trained mechanics future prospects in the service are good. QUALIFYING AS A TEACHER Teachers for automobile work are in great demand at the present time in both day and evening vocational schools. A man with a fair general education, considerable experience in the trade, and ability to impart knowledge to others, will have a good foundation for vocational teaching. ELECTRIC STARTING AND LIGHTING SERVICE THE OCCUPATION The principal parts of an electric starting and lighting system are the electric starting motor, the electric generator, and the storage battery. The work of the expert in this division consists of the repair, adjustment, care, operation, and installation of these systems and auxiliary parts, but usually not including the storage battery which requires the individual attention of another specialist. To keep the starting motor in good running condition the expert must be able to remedy grounds, short circuits, and commutator and brush troubles. The generator and all connecting parts must be kept clean in order to insure reliable action. There are many types and varying features in generators, motors, auxiliary devices, and wiring circuits, with which the mechanic must be familiar. Automobile manufacturers in altering the characteristics of their motors from year to year and manufacturers of electrical apparatus in introducing various improvements may entirely change their systems. In addition to being able to locate trouble by tracing and testing systems for grounds, shorts, and breaks in wiring, it is necessary for the mechanic to install systems including all the wiring. He must be able to repair and keep in shape electric horns and gear shifts which are closely related to the starting and lighting systems. The wiring for starting, generating, and lighting systems involves the installation of all necessary wires, many of which must be run in conduit. It also includes the use of proper sized wire and their connection to the lights, starter, horn, fuse boxes, switches, generator, and battery. The repair and adjustment of the lighting system require considerable expert attention, as does also equipment of cars with lamp reflectors, measuring instruments, and other devices. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT All tools used in the maintenance and service of automobile starting and lighting systems are small and light. They will include screw drivers, wrenches, hammers, files, pliers, and various drilling tools. Some machines may be required to make or fit metal parts, but as a rule they will be found in the repair shop. DISABILITIES The work in this occupation is highly skilled but light. In working around the car it is necessary to bend, stoop, reach, and climb, which might be detrimental to a man suffering from abdominal trouble. The work ordinarily requires two good hands, although a man with one hand with the proper training and experience would be able to make repairs and adjustments. Good eyesight is necessary in testing for trouble, but a slight deafness will not be a serious handicap for this work. A man with hernia or lung wounds and diseases would not necessarily be debarred from this occupation. PREVIOUS EDUCATION, TRAINING, AND EXPERIENCE Practical experience and a technical knowledge of electricity will be very helpful in electric starting and lighting work. Some of the best men in the field have had considerable electrical experience in some other field, many of them having been with telephone companies. A man who thoroughly understands electricity will soon adapt himself to this new field of work. A general education is always an aid, and particularly so here where it will be necessary to do considerable reading to keep pace with new improvements and developments in these appliances. WHERE AND WHAT EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN The re-education classes for training starting and lighting specialists will be given in about the same type of schools as for repair-shop men. It may also be advisable to train men in service or manufacturing shops. The content of the course will cover the field of both theory and practice in studying and working on motors, generators, and lighting systems. That a man is fully qualified to go into a permanent position will necessarily be shown by his ability to do the work. The time required to finish the course will depend upon his previous experience and training, but it will probably be from four to six months. AFTER THE TRAINING--WHAT? The demand for skilled specialists is increasing in all parts of the country. This is true of any specialist in automobile maintenance and service. Permanent positions will be available in all large establishments and men employed in the smaller shops will be prepared to handle other automobile work. The hours of employment will vary from 9 hours in large city shops to 10 or 12 hours in a shop owned by the mechanic. The prevailing wage for this work will be about 60 cents per hour. Employment will no doubt be very stable both for the present and the future. There is a lack of skilled specialists now, and with the increased use of trucks and automobiles the demand will grow. The work can be done in a good, light, dry shop, which will not be detrimental to health. Because of the character of the work safety appliances are not necessary, and danger from accidents of any kind is very small. The same opportunity is open to these men for advancement and success as to the repair-shop mechanic. They can become foremen, managers, or owners of service and maintenance shops. PLAN No. 1153. AUTOMOBILE IGNITION SERVICE OCCUPATION The ignition system is usually made up of certain electrical devices which probably give more trouble to the auto man and require more expert attention than all the other parts on the automobile. To be able to diagnose a case and submit a remedy for ignition troubles, it is necessary to be thoroughly familiar with the principles of ignition and to understand how these ignition systems are operated and maintained. Ignition primarily means igniting the gas in the cylinders of an engine by means of an electric spark as the gas mixture is compressed. An ignition expert should first of all have a practical knowledge of electricity, know the meaning of electrical terms and the method of generation and transmission of electric current. Of the two systems of ignition, high and low tension, the high-tension system is now in use in nearly all makes of motor cars. The low-tension system was formerly used to a great extent on boat engines, and is used now to some extent on stationary engines. The ignition mechanic deals with the testing, adjustment, and maintenance of current supply, vibrators, coils, commutators and timers, contact breakers, spark plugs, condensers, distributors, magnetos, and connectors. He must be thoroughly familiar with wiring systems and their connections. Spark plugs will have to be cleaned, adjusted and repaired, as will the vibrators when they are used. Ignition timing to insure ignition at the right time requires special attention. The care, installation, and maintenance of magnetos, which brings in the proper firing order of the engine, care of the distributor, and attention to connections, is one part of the ignition expert’s task. The field of ignition trouble may be covered under three heads: (1) Failure of current supply, (2) short circuits or grounds, (3) failure of ignition devices. To keep the ignition system in good working order it is necessary to locate trouble and make repairs as indicated. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT Because of the many small and complex parts ignition systems require delicate attention. This involves the use of small hand tools only, such as will be used by the electric starting and lighting experts. Although it will be necessary to make certain repairs to broken and worn parts, it is customary to replace with new parts. DISABILITIES The work of the ignition expert is very much like the work of the electric starting and lighting expert. Bench repairs to magnetos and other devices can be made by a man whose disability requires him to sit. The work is not strenuous and consequently could be done by men with lung disease, hernia, and abdominal troubles, except where it is necessary to stoop or bend over the job, as would be necessary in testing for trouble and making connections in the installed system. Because of the delicate work, a mechanic’s eyesight must be good, but poor hearing would not debar a man from this occupation. It is quite necessary for the workman to have good use of his hands and fingers. PREVIOUS TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE The same training and experience helpful to the electric starting and lighting expert would aid the man in training for ignition work. A man who has been employed previous to army service in any electric work, such as telephone and telegraph installation and maintenance, or the making of electric motors and devices, would have acquired electrical experience which would be of great help to him in this work. WHERE AND WHAT EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN The classes for ignition mechanics will be carried on in both schools and shops. The time will probably be divided between theory and shop practice. The proper equipment and practical jobs will be available for teaching the man to do the work. The course will be from four to six months in length for about seven hours per day for five days in the week. Instruction will include all problems requiring attention of the commercial ignition shop. AFTER THE TRAINING--WHAT? The demand for the ignition expert is equally as great as for any other automobile specialist. His services are required in garages and service stations, as well as in assembly plants, and in the driving and operation of motor cars and trucks. The hours of employment are the same as in other auto repair shops, usually eight hours per day for union shops, and longer in small unorganized shops and where the mechanic owns his business. The prevailing wage is 60 cents per hour, although this may vary from 30 cents to 75 cents per hour, depending upon labor conditions and methods of employment. It is probable that ignition experts will be employed only in the larger places, but it is necessary to have expert ignition service in any shop. This is in small shops usually taken care of by the repair-shop mechanic who has a general knowledge of the automobile maintenance and service. Employment for the trained man will be stable. Ordinarily only the better class of mechanics, those with special training are retained during the winter season, when the overhauling of cars is done. The rush season from spring to fall gives employment to a number of “roustabouts” or helpers, but these “floaters” require no special training. Promotion and success will depend largely upon the ability of the mechanic, but it is possible for him to advance to positions of responsibility, carrying increase of wages. The field is large and skilled mechanics are scarce, thus making it possible for the trained man to find suitable employment and to make changes for promotion. PLAN No. 1154. STORAGE BATTERY REPAIRMEN OCCUPATION The sources of electricity for ignition, starting, lighting, warmers, horn, shifting gears, and application of brakes in some instances are the generators and battery. They must furnish the power. The generator produces electricity only while the engine is running, and the demands on it are comparatively light and simple. The battery must furnish power to crank the engine, to light the car, operate the horn and other electrical devices when the generator is not in motion. It is without doubt one of the most essential and necessary parts of the automobile. To be a thorough master of battery problems a knowledge of both electricity and chemistry is necessary. A general knowledge of batteries includes the method of construction and the materials used in the manufacture of batteries. Chemistry deals with the actions producing electricity and aids in determining the reasons and remedy for trouble. The expert must know what happens in a battery standing idle, just what takes place in the charging and discharging, and what determines the capacity of batteries. A knowledge of battery diseases will help a man very materially in the proper diagnosis of battery trouble. The shop work of the battery man includes caring for, charging, lead burning, and rebuilding batteries. Caring for batteries includes keeping the plates covered with distilled water, brushing dirt and dust from the top, keeping cables and connections tight, cleaning battery terminals and connections and carefully inspecting and testing it frequently. Charging consists, figuratively, in feeding it electricity, which when digested gives it energy. It is necessary for the battery man to be thoroughly familiar with the charging apparatus and able to operate it successfully. Lead burning is a process of melting together the plates and straps or posts and top connectors and terminals with a special lead-burning outfit. In rebuilding a battery, it is first charged, then opened and torn down, after which the plates are repaired or replaced, assembled with the proper separators, replaced in the jars, and then carried through the charging process. The covers are next put on and sealed. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT The room for battery work should have a floor such as tile or brick, not easily affected by acid. The equipment ordinarily includes work benches, vises, a lead burning outfit, water supply, charging benches and equipment, shelves, and stoves. Proper tools, including brushes, scrapers, pliers, nippers, files, hydrometers, putty knife, wrenches, brace and bit, stock drills, center punches, hack saws, kettles, ladles, jars, screw drivers, materials and other hand tools are provided. The work is practically all hand work and consequently requires hand tools. DISABILITIES Battery work requires the use of two hands. The loss of three fingers from one hand would not seriously impair efficiency if some grip with the remaining finger and thumb is retained. In the use of pliers, screw drivers, brace and bits, and other tools it is necessary to hold them firmly. Hearing is not particularly essential, but good eyesight is necessary. Stooping, bending, and lifting the weight of a battery would not affect men with slight hernia and abdominal trouble. A man with artificial legs should be able to do the work if he can get around without great difficulty. Danger from lead poisoning and acid burns and fumes is prevalent in battery work, but occurs only through carelessness. A man with any skin or lung diseases or wounds probably should not undertake this work. Gloves are worn in handling lead, but they will not protect against skin wounds. The eyes may be injured by lead and acid, but by wearing goggles this can be avoided. A man with any open wounds should not enter battery service work. SPECIAL APPLIANCES No special appliances can be arranged satisfactorily to handle the tools and equipment, although stools can be provided for the man who is required to sit. PREVIOUS EDUCATION AND EXPERIENCE A knowledge of chemistry and work in a chemical laboratory will help a man to become a battery expert. Experience in battery construction and in the care of starting and lighting batteries will also be an excellent start, as would experience as a helper in a battery-service station. WHERE AND WHAT RE-EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN To a large extent the instruction in battery work will be carried on in a service station where equipment is available. A school shop properly equipped will also be made use of. The course will contain the elements and fundamentals of battery maintenance and service. The length of the course will be from 4 to 6 months. AFTER THE TRAINING--WHAT? Permanent positions as battery experts will be open in battery-service stations. The knowledge will also be necessary for the man who proposes to set up a shop of his own. It is a general condition that battery work be done in an independent and separate shop rather than in a general repair shop. The hours of employment will not vary from those already given for other types of maintenance and service work, and the wage will also be about the same. In cities and towns of 5,000 or over there will be found work enough for one or more battery stations employing two or more men. Employment will invariably be stable for the highly skilled battery expert. Opportunity for promotion and success will depend upon the man, but there is great demand for expert service, and there is a good field in many places for the establishment of service stations. Future prospects are exceedingly good due to the large increase in the use of storage batteries. It is also true that the average automobile driver and owner is waking up to the fact that the battery must have special care and repair to keep it in good working shape. PLAN No. 1155. TIRE REPAIRING THE OCCUPATION The repair of automobile tires, including casings and tubes, is almost invariably assigned to a specialist, although many of the minor repairs, such as patching tubes, are done by owners or amateur repairers. Tires are probably the most delicate and the most misunderstood part of the car, as well as being the part receiving the hardest use. To secure the greatest mileage and the least trouble from tires they must receive proper treatment and have the attention of a specialist when trouble develops. The tire repairman should have a knowledge of tire construction and be well versed in tire troubles and their causes in order to make proper diagnoses of the cases. This knowledge is necessary also in making adjustments on tire mileage, which is, in connection with the tire sales agency, a business very often established as an adjunct to the repair business. The shop work of the repair man deals with casing troubles from punctures, blow-outs, rim cuts, blisters, stone bruises, and with the preparation of the tire for repairing, relining, retreading, and vulcanizing. Tubes have to be patched, spliced, and vulcanized. Valves in the tube stem will often cause trouble by leaking, but can be remedied by replacing with new valves. Sand blisters can be cured by opening the blister with a sharp knife, cleaning out the dirt and filling the hole with a self-curing rubber filler. A blow-out caused by a weak place in the casing usually due to a sand blister or stone bruise can be remedied by the inside method or a combination inside and outside method. Both methods consist in removing layers of fabric and applying fabric patches. When the outside has been properly built up with fabric and the chafing strips applied the cushion gum unit can be applied and the whole casing then placed in a sectional mold, where heat applied to both the inside and out will cure the job. Rim cuts are repaired in a similar way. Retreading is done by first cleaning down to the carcase and applying coats of vulcanizing cement upon which the tread can be built up and vulcanized. Reliners are vulcanized to the inside of a casing to take care of inside fabric breaks. The work on the inner tube consists in patching to cover small holes, cuts, pinched tubes, and minor injuries. Vulcanizing, which should be done on large patches, is also the best remedy for any repair. It is done by first cleaning the hole, preparing the patch, and placing and vulcanizing. Inserting new sections or splicing tubes is done by removing the damaged section, inserting a new one, and vulcanizing, one splice being made at a time. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT The equipment of a tire repair shop contains vulcanizers of many sizes which apply the heat through the use of gasoline, steam, or electricity. Vulcanizing moulds which are made to fit the tire are necessary for applying casing patches. Vulcanizing kettles, sidewall and retreading vulcanizers, benches, vises and holding forms are also to be found. The small tools required include flat and concave rollers, awls, stickers, rubber knives, large shears, wire brushes, tread gauges, fabric knives, pliers, scrapers, tread chisels and cement brushes. Splicing mandrels, try squares, tweezers, rules, spreaders and other devices and tools may be found in the equipment. DISABILITIES The work in a repair shop is not very strenuous, although it requires careful attention and speed. It is necessary that the man have the use of both hands and be able to see his work clearly. Deafness will not interfere to any great extent with his success. Lifting, stooping, or bending, while necessary to a small degree, is not common. The weight of a tire is the heaviest weight to handle around the shop. There is little danger from poisoning or injury to skin, except as infection may be brought in with dirt on the tires. A man with leg disabilities will certainly not be debarred from this occupation if he can get around without great difficulty. It is possible to do some of the work while seated. A man having lost the use of certain neck movements would be able to handle tire repair work. PREVIOUS EDUCATION AND EXPERIENCE A general education will be of much help in handling the business end of the shop, while technical knowledge of automobile tires will be a good basis for repairing. Experience in a tire manufacturing plant or rubber industry, and in a repair shop as a helper will be very valuable to a man entering this field. WHERE AND WHAT RE-EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN Classes for tire repairmen will be carried on in schools where equipment is available, but probably to a large extent in the commercial repair shop where actual working conditions exist. Both full-time and part-time schemes may be used. The course will include practical work on all kinds of repair jobs. Tires will be studied to help a man to determine the cause and remedy of tire trouble and to make adjustments. The time necessary to qualify as an expert tire repairman will be from 4 to 6 months. AFTER THE TRAINING--WHAT? Employment in tire repair shops for a skilled man will be easily found. The field is large and shops are required in nearly every village, town and city. With the increased use of cars the year round will come increased demand for tire repair service and hence year round employment for the tire specialist. The daily hours of work will be from 8 to 10 depending upon local conditions. The wage of the skilled workman will be about 60 cents per hour, but a man owning his business can make it more profitable. Opportunity for promotion will come through increase of the man’s own business, or through advancement to the position of foreman or manager in a large shop. PLAN No. 1156. AUTOMOBILE AND TRUCK DRIVERS THE OCCUPATION Chauffeurs and motor-truck drivers are employed to drive cars and keep them in good running condition. It is very essential that anyone operating a car shall know its construction and the function that each part performs. He should know how to care for the machine and how to make minor adjustments. Lubrication of all parts properly at regular intervals is an important task of the driver. The location of trouble and the detection of its cause and remedy is even more important than driving upon the highway. The operation of the car includes starting and stopping the engine, starting and stopping the car, and driving. One of the first things to know is how to stop the car. The use of the emergency and service brakes, as well as braking with the engine, requires considerable skill and experience. Cranking and starting apparatus must be understood if it is to be used with ease and without injury. Skill in shifting gears and in controlling the car is attained by experience. A good driver must have a knowledge of road regulations and precautions, and must also be familiar with city ordinances in regard to the driving and parking of automobiles. He must be cautious, able to see danger, and to avoid it. TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT An automobile should always be equipped with a complete set of tools for making repairs and adjustments. A tire repair outfit is a valuable addition to the driver’s equipment. The tools and equipment are of the portable type, easy to manipulate, and convenient to carry around. DISABILITIES A chauffeur or truck driver should have good eyesight and be able to hear distinctly. It is necessary to locate trouble and remedy it by seeing or hearing. Danger is averted by carefully watching the road and things likely to interfere with travel, and also by listening for approaching trains and cars. A man in this employment should have two hands, although he might have lost some of his fingers. It is also well for him to have the free use of his arms and legs. A man with leg amputation below the knee would be able to operate the brakes, clutch, and accelerator without difficulty. Lung diseases and wounds, hernia, and abdominal trouble would not debar a man from work of this kind. It is necessary that he be able to have the full use of his neck and head. A man suffering from shell shock, who is subject to nervousness, loss of memory, or inability to control his actions should not be employed as a chauffeur. APPLIANCES A man so disabled that he must have special devices or appliances to operate an automobile should not enter the occupation. Artificial legs which can be properly controlled would not, however, debar him. PREVIOUS TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE A man who has had experience in operating or repairing automobiles, motor boats, motorcycles, or gas engines will have some knowledge necessary for chauffeurs and motor-truck drivers. A man with ability along mechanical lines and training, also, enabling him to learn the principles of motor-car operation and care readily will have a good foundation for this occupation. WHERE AND WHAT RE-EDUCATION WILL BE GIVEN Classes for motor-car care and operation will be conducted very largely in schools having the necessary space and facilities for work. Instruction will include class-room instruction and study, shop-repair work, and driving. Operation instruction will be conducted on the road. The course will be arranged to prepare a man adequately for successful motor-car care and operation. He will have an opportunity to come in contact with all problems usually confronted by the automobile and truck driver. It will require from two to four months to complete the course, depending upon the man’s previous experience and ability. AFTER THE TRAINING--WHAT? Good automobile and truck drivers are in demand. It has been predicted that many of the truck drivers now in Government service will take positions of that type after the war. This condition would probably cause an excess of men for this work, and it is well to say that the men who have the best training and qualifications will ordinarily secure the positions. The hours of employment will depend upon the man’s position but usually the time is 8 to 12 hours per day. Drivers of pleasure cars are employed for a greater number of hours usually, but much of the time while on duty they are idle. Men in these jobs are paid at the rate of $10 to $35 per week. Work as driver of light or heavy trucks and pleasure cars is available in nearly all towns and cities. Employment is stable, except for the fact that the cars may be out of use during the season of snow. The work is healthful, inasmuch as the men are out in the air most of the time. Severe weather may cause inconvenience and hardship to some people. There is very little opportunity for promotion, except that gained through changing jobs. PLAN No. 1157. CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION AND CEMENT MANUFACTURE ACKNOWLEDGMENT This monograph was prepared by A. J. R. Curtis, of the Portland Cement Association, under direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board for Vocational Education. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings, of the Research Division, for editorial assistance. Development in the field of concrete construction during the past two decades has been little short of marvelous. This increase may be accredited to the wide variety of uses to which concrete may be put and to the demand on the part of the American public for construction that is permanent, reasonable in cost, and fireproof. The concrete industry has brought in to the field of labor a new type of skilled workmen and its varied phases each call for men with distinct, definite training. Indications point to a greatly increased demand for men in this line of industrial activity. If the increase in the production of Portland cement during the last few years is reviewed one can easily see the constantly increasing importance with which concrete construction is being regarded. The shipments of cement leaped from 8,000,000 barrels in 1900 to 92,000,000 in 1917. A vivid imagination will not be needed to picture a still greater and wider field for its use in the future. With the cessation of hostilities new construction work of many kinds is being planned in every section of the country. Millions of dollars will be spent for new buildings, highways, bridges, and various other types of public and private improvements. There will be a demand for trained workmen which will probably tax every effort to supply. A large percentage of the occupations in this line of work can be filled efficiently by men who have suffered some disability in the service of their country. The handicap in the loss of a leg or an arm on the battlefields of France can be overcome with the aid of a “Made in America” leg or arm, fitting the wearer to fill efficiently many occupations in the concrete industry. A careful study has been made of the limitations imposed by various injuries. There are many cases on record where injured men have overcome all handicaps and have made good in positions which from the survey of the re-educationist appeared quite impossible. Many instances have come to light which show that the statement, “A handicap is merely a state of mind,” holds true for a great variety of cases. The wage question is no doubt one of the first which arises in your mind. It is natural that one should ask, “What wages or salary does this job pay?” and, “What are the chances for advancement?” In a review of the wages of men engaged in concrete construction as compared with the men engaged in other lines of construction work this fact was noted, that although in 1913 the average wage for the concrete worker was somewhat lower, during the year 1916 wages for concrete workers advanced 60 per cent while for workers in the other line the advance was only 20 per cent. For the man with training in this work the salary will average near $150 per month. As regards opportunities for advancement, few other lines of activity seem to hold forth comparable opportunities, when it is considered that a large proportion of competent workers eventually become partners or managing owners in contracting concerns, while the demand for construction superintendents is usually greater than the supply. For convenience, concrete-work employments may be classified in three distinct groups, namely: (1) Structural group, including the building of reinforced concrete structures, ships, bridges, dams, retaining walls, and a multitude of small structures; (2) roads and highway group, including the construction of concrete roads and highways, pavements, and alleys; (3) products plant group, including the making of blocks, brick, tile, sewer and pressure pipe, and ornamental trim work. PLAN No. 1158. STRUCTURAL GROUP ENGINEER OR ARCHITECT In large structural work the man in charge is usually a civil engineer or an architect, who has specialized during his course of training in structural or reinforced concrete engineering. He is the designer or the creator of the proposed structure. Before any work is done he must picture in his mind the finished product in every detail of its construction; he must be able to design and lay out the plans for the work in its entirety; he must be familiar with the cost of labor and materials, in order that he may know when the contractor is placing a fair price upon the construction. He must know the building laws and codes in any part of the country in which he may be working. He should have business training and experience, as practically all his associations will be with business men, and he must be able to talk intelligently and in business terms to them. A large percentage of his time will be spent in the office or designing room. His training is received in one of two ways, namely: By full-time course of training in the civil engineering department of a university or college, or by part-time study in a technical school. Many schools of this last-named type are now giving evening work, which enables young men to attain the degree of a civil engineer or architectural engineer while working. Thus, a man who is working during the day, may increase his efficiency and attain the same end as his brother, who has been more fortunate in that he has received a full four years’ training. To reach the position of engineer architect, the training described above is an absolute necessity. As a usual thing a civil engineer who has just completed his course starts work in the capacity of draftsman, foreman, inspector, or assistant superintendent, and as he gains in experience is given more responsible positions. His wages range from approximately $100 at the start to $400 or $500 per month as he gains in efficiency and experience. Often, after gaining experience an engineer will establish a clientage, and gradually work up a business of his own. This is a goal toward which to strive, as it means greater independence and a larger income. His services are in demand in every part of the country the year round. PLAN No. 1159. INSPECTOR After designing a structure the engineer lets the job of constructing to a contracting firm. He places as his representative on the job an inspector whose duty it is to see that the engineer’s plans and specifications are properly carried out. The duties of an inspector are not difficult, but it takes a man with diplomacy and consideration, yet one who is sufficiently firm to safeguard his employer’s interests and make sure that every part of the work is performed in a thoroughly acceptable manner. It goes without saying that he must be acquainted with every feature of the construction work as planned by the engineer. His training is practically the same as that of the engineer or architect. However, it is possible for a man who can not complete his entire training at one time to accept a position as inspector, and gain some very valuable experience in this way. There are also men who work up from the ranks to this position. The demand for his services is greatest in connection with large industrial and public projects and in the general construction work in cities. His wages range from $100 to $200 per month. PLAN No. 1160. CONTRACTOR The contractor or firm of contractors are equipped to handle the construction work. At such a time as the engineer or architect has his plans completed he advertises among the contractors for bids on the construction according to his plans. As a rule the responsible firm making the lowest bid gets the job. PLAN No. 1161. SUPERINTENDENT The first thing the contractor does after accepting the job is to select a superintendent of construction. Superintendents are usually engineers who have grown up in the service of the firm. The successful superintendent must have resourcefulness, technical knowledge, tact, energy, honesty, and judgment. He must have a personality which drives to activity several hundred originally unorganized men who are without special interest in the company they work for or in the results accomplished, and with tact and judgment he must weld them into a unified working organization, cheerful and self-respecting, with a high morale and finally with enthusiasm for the work at hand. He must be able to build in full size, with permanent materials, a structure the design of which troubled the engineer or architect to show clearly on paper; he must be honest, since his company must leave their reputation in his hands and trust him with funds; he must, through attention and experience, be so trained that dangerous operations are carried on as a matter of routine without worry either to himself or his company; he must have ability to foresee and provide for the problems which are perhaps to come up months later; he should have his temper continually under control, even under the most provoking circumstances; he should have as much pride in the structure he is erecting as the engineer who designed it; he must be able to handle labor and cope with the various labor problems that may arise. His training is practically the same as that of the engineer or inspector, but he has been fitted by experience for the position of superintendent. He may have served in various capacities with the same contracting firm or with other firms. In some cases men with extraordinary ability have worked up from the ranks by hard work and home study or night-school training. The salary of the superintendent varies in different localities and upon different jobs. It usually ranges from $150 per month upward. PLAN No. 1162. ASSISTANT SUPERINTENDENT On the larger jobs the superintendent has an assistant. His duties are dependent largely upon the man under whose direction he may be working. From a study of the duties and qualifications of the superintendent an idea may be gained of the nature of the assistant’s work. The educational requirements are the same as those for the superintendent, but his responsibility is less and therefore as great and varied experience is not required. The opportunity for his services depends upon the number of large jobs under construction. His salary usually ranges from $100 to $200 per month. PLAN No. 1163. TIMEKEEPER On all large jobs a timekeeper has a position of responsibility. His duties are clerical in nature; in fact he might be called the superintendent’s clerical assistant. As his name implies he is keeper of the time of the men, and each day checks up the men on the job in order that no mistakes may be made in figuring their time. He handles a large amount of clerical work in connection with the pay roll, and may also be called upon to do other work in connection with construction. He must be a man who is absolutely honest and trustworthy. He has a wonderful opportunity for observation and study of construction operations, and can by application and study advance to a position of greater responsibility and trust. His wage varies somewhat, and is dependent on the amount of responsibility placed upon him and of work required of him. Experience is of secondary importance. PLAN No. 1164. FOREMAN On a large job there will be several foremen, usually a general foreman, a concrete foreman, foreman of reinforcing placing, and a carpenter-foreman. First and most important a foreman must be able to _handle men_. His duties are more than just to hire and fire. He must be acquainted with the problems of his men and spend some time studying their viewpoint of all questions in which they may be interested. As he is ofttimes a man who has advanced from the ranks by hard work, study, and superior ability, he will be acquainted with the men’s side of the various labor questions. However, he must be fair minded and not see the viewpoint of the men alone, but must regard that also of his employer. He must be able to weigh carefully any situation, and to make a fair and just decision. He must be able to read designs and put them into operation. He may not be called upon to perform actual mechanical operations, but he must be able to tell and to show his men how the work is done. He is, in fact, the superintendent’s right-hand man on the particular portion of the work which has been assigned to him. All of his time will be spent out in the open upon the job. Wherever there are concreting operations in progress, there you will find him. The general foreman has active charge of all operations. The other foremen, as a rule, come directly under his jurisdiction. The concrete foreman has charge of all concreting operations; the reinforcing foreman has charge of the placing all reinforcing; and the carpenter foreman has charge of the building of the forms and erecting of all staging and hoist towers necessary for carrying on the concreting operations. Generally speaking, the foremen gain their training from experience and study; night schools have been started in some of the cities of the country, which are giving courses in concrete work, particularly for the man who is anxious to better his position. PLAN No. 1165. FINISHERS The repairing of imperfections in the concrete surfaces and the finishing or floating of flat surfaces requires the work of the finisher. He must possess manual dexterity so that he can handle a float skillfully and must know when a surface has been worked sufficiently. Skill is also required in pointing up or repairing imperfections in surface from which forms have been removed. His wages range from 50 to 60 cents per hour. His training is received on the job. PLAN No. 1166. MIXER OPERATOR Several things are required of a mixer operator. First he must have some mechanical skill and be able to handle and to take care of a steam or gas engine or an electric motor. He should be able to repair the mixer in case of a breakdown. He must also know something of proportioning and of consistencies required for different mixtures and under different conditions. Wherever any considerable amount of concreting is done the services of a mixer operator are required. The wages are practically the same as for finishers. His training is gained through experience on the job. PLAN No. 1167. FORM BUILDERS Form builders are carpenters and must have the experience and training required in that trade. PLAN No. 1168. REINFORCING PLACERS Reinforcing placers are very often laborers under the direction of a skilled foreman. Their duties are to place the reinforcing steel according to the specifications prepared by the engineer. In some of the larger cities the Structural Steel Workers’ Union requires that all placing of reinforcing be done by men from their union. The wages vary according to locality. Very little training or experience is necessary. PLAN No. 1169. RURAL CONTRACTORS Rural contractors comprise a very numerous group, handling concrete jobs in the smaller cities and towns throughout the country. Endowed with an ordinary amount of business judgment, the rural contractor usually becomes a well-to-do business man. He usually acts as his own superintendent directing his jobs personally. The average rural contractor is independent and commands the respect of the business men of his community. His income is variable but always affords a good living if his business is well managed. His income is often comparable with that of the larger merchants in the community. ROAD AND HIGHWAY GROUP A large number of the occupations in this division are analogous to the positions in the structural division. PLAN No. 1170. ENGINEER On practically all public highways the outlining of the plans and specifications are left to the county or state highway engineer. His course of technical training should include specialized work in highway engineering. He must be thoroughly reliable and of unquestionable integrity, as his judgment in matters pertaining to the construction of highways and roads must be faultless. Only recently the states of Illinois and Pennsylvania voted enormous bond issues to be used in the construction of permanent hard-surfaced roads. Many other states are planning to appropriate huge sums for the same purpose. Never before has the opportunity for the highway engineer been so great. The training required and the salary paid are very similar to those of the structural engineer. PLAN No. 1171. INSPECTOR As in structural work the building of highways is usually let to a contractor and the engineer places an inspector as his representative on the job. The duties of the inspector are practically the same as upon structural work. PLAN No. 1172. SUPERINTENDENT In a general way all that has been said regarding a superintendent of structural work applies to the superintendent of highway work. He should understand how the grading in preparation for the building of roads should be done and be able to carry on the construction of the road efficiently, with as little delay and as economically as possible. PLAN No. 1173. FOREMAN The foreman on road work has usually been trained in the school of experience and has learned the various requirements of good concrete road building. He has shown by hard work and superior ability that he is able to handle the position of foreman of the highway building gang. In a general way his requirements are the same as heretofore mentioned. PLAN No. 1174. MIXER OPERATOR, FINISHER, REINFORCING PLACER The requirements are the same as in structural work. PLAN No. 1175. FORM SETTER Before it is possible to place any concrete it is necessary to build side rails to contain the concrete. This work is done by form setters. No special training is required. PRODUCTS GROUP The making of various concrete products is a field which is increasing in importance. The construction of block, brick, tile, sewer, and pressure pipe, silo staves, ornamental trim, structural units, lamp posts, fence posts, telephone and telegraph poles, burial vaults, kitchen sinks, bath and laundry tubs, garden furniture, roofing and floor tile, cribbing fences, columns and grindstones are included in this group. The concrete products industry is coming into a position of dignity and importance. The day of the incompetent man is passing, and his product--the pasty looking, porous cement block--is giving way to the real concrete unit, structurally sound and architecturally beautiful. The factory-made concrete block of quality has made its way against the prejudice created by inferior products and against a conservatism which requires a new material to prove beyond any possibility of doubt its superiority to materials with which builders are acquainted. Concrete units have suffered through the ignorance which has placed them upon the market as substitutes and imitations rather than as products of a material having its own distinctive qualities and characteristic charm. The development of concrete stone manufacture depends upon the possibility of the market, skillful workmanship, economical operation and competent management; upon the utilization of the best available materials and equipment in preference to makeshifts and clumsy manual labor. It depends on artistic perception, and also upon the appreciation of public demands. This line of work presents a wonderful opportunity for the man who desires to eventually go into business for himself. The amount of capital required for the start is comparatively small. However, before entering this line of business a very careful study should be made of the management, manufacture, and marketing of concrete products. PLAN No. 1176. MANAGER In large plants a manager is employed by the operating company, but in smaller plants the proprietor usually acts as manager. The man who undertakes the management of an enterprise of this kind should understand business principles and have training and experience in business life; he must be familiar with the requirements of the product which he is manufacturing; he should not attempt to manufacture too large a line of products, but should specialize according to the demands of the locality in which he is situated. PLAN No. 1177. FOREMAN The foreman is in active charge of the manufacturing of the products and has direct charge of the labor employed. The requirements for his position are the same as have already been mentioned for a foreman. PLAN No. 1178. MACHINE OPERATORS A large percentage of concrete products are manufactured in specially designed machines which require some skill in operating. The operator must know the machine thoroughly. His training is gained by experience. PLAN No. 1179. MODELER If ornamental work is undertaken the services of a modeler are absolutely necessary. To produce products artistic in design requires the services of a man trained in an art school. From a clay model, molds of plaster or glue are made in which the concrete is poured. Most of the modeler’s work is done indoors, usually in a well lighted studio. His salary is variable and dependent upon his ability. Demand for his services is not very general at the present, but the occupation holds many very promising allurements for the man who has ability. PLAN No. 1180. PATTERN MAKER In some cases it is necessary to make wooden forms for ornamental trim work. The making of these forms requires the services of a pattern maker. The requirements and qualifications for this position have been discussed in other monographs. PLAN No. 1181. PLASTER AND GLUE MOLD MAKER It is the work of a plaster and glue mold maker to take the model which has been designed and make a plaster or glue mold in which the concrete will be placed. His experience and training is gained by actual work with the material, either in the shop or in the school. This occupation requires considerable mechanical ability. In smaller plants the modeling and mold making are frequently done by one man. MISCELLANEOUS Each one of the various groups which have been mentioned requires an office force, and commonly in the case of the concrete products group salesmen are employed. RE-EDUCATION To the man who has been disabled, some place in the field of concrete construction activities may present a life work which has a future both big and bright. The work is vitally interesting and alive. If you have the determination and ability the way is clear to assume almost any of the responsible positions reviewed in this monograph. Do not expect to step from the hospital or from the vocational institution into the highest position; the minor jobs are stepping stones to the bigger ones. Make up your mind that you will attain the highest possible position in that phase of the construction industry in which you are engaged, and by diligent application you will ultimately reach this goal. The industry is large and there are opportunities for everyone to whom the doing of big things appeals. Talk with the re-educational expert with whom you should in any case get acquainted, and learn of schools near your home that are giving instruction in the various phases of concrete construction. PLAN No. 1182. CEMENT MANUFACTURE With the increase in construction activities the demand upon the manufacturers of Portland Cement becomes greater. However, the manufacture of this product does not present as large an opportunity to you as does the field of concrete construction. In the actual manufacture of this product there are few positions which make a direct appeal. However, in the laboratories, which are maintained by all manufacturing companies there is an opportunity for you if you are interested in chemistry or physics. Elaborate tests, both chemical and physical, are made of this product. If you have had training in chemical engineering, here is an opportunity for you to get into work which is interesting, of which the future is assured. If you have not had the training, the chemical engineering departments of our colleges present the opportunity for study and research work. If your mind is made up to enter the cement testing laboratory, specialize on this subject while taking your course of training. PLAN No. 1183. THE LAW AS A VOCATION ACKNOWLEDGMENT For the material of this monograph the Federal Board for Vocational Education is indebted to the Vocation Bureau, Boston, through its publication The Law as a Vocation, of which this pamphlet is largely an abstract. The monograph was prepared by Dr. H. L. Smith, under the direction of Charles H. Winslow, Chief of the Research Division of the Federal Board. Acknowledgment is due to Dr. John Cummings of the Research Division for editorial assistance. ARE YOU THINKING OF BECOMING A LAWYER? If you are and have not yet made up your mind, you will want to read this pamphlet, because it tells what the leading men in the profession of law say about law as a vocation. It tells you the answers that these men give to questions that are in your mind. If you are thinking of entering the profession of law, you want to know the answers to these questions: