BOOK III

G I Hoti men oun hê threpsis alloioumenou te kai 143 homoioumenou gignetai tou trephontos tô trephomenô kai hôs en hekastô tôn tou zôou moriôn esti tis dynamis, hên apo tês energeias alloiôtikên men kata genos, homoiôtikên de kai threptikên kat' eidos onomazomen, en tô prosthen dedêlôtai logô. tên d' euporian tês hylês, hên trophên heautô poieitai to trephomenon, ex heteras tinos echein edeiknyto dynameôs epispasthai pephykuias ton oikeion chymon, einai d' oikeion hekastô tôn moriôn chymon, hos an || epitêdeios eis tên exomoiôsin ê, kai 144 tên helkousan auton dynamin apo tês energeias helktikên te tina kai epispastikên onomazesthai. dedeiktai de kai, hôs pro men tês homoiôseôs hê prosphysis estin, ekeinês d' emprosthen hê prosthesis gignetai, telos, hôs an eipoi tis, ousa tês kata tên epispastikên dynamin energeias. auto men gar to paragesthai tên trophên ek tôn phlebôn eis hekaston tôn moriôn tês helktikês energousês gignetai dynameôs, to d' êdê parêchthai te kai prostithesthai tô moriô to telos estin auto, di' ho kai tês toiautês energeias edeêthêmen; hina gar prostethê, dia touth' helketai. chronou d' enteuthen êdê pleionos eis tên threpsin tou zôou dei; helchthênai men gar kai dia tacheôn ti dynatai, prosphynai de kai alloiôthênai kai teleôs homoiôthênai tô trephomenô kai meros autou genesthai parachrêma men ouch hoion te, chronô d' an pleioni symbainoi kalôs. all' ei mê menoi kata to meros ho prostetheis houtos chymos, eis heteron de ti methistaito kai pararrheoi dia pantos ameibôn te kai hypallattôn ta chôria, kat' ouden autôn || oute 145 prosphysis out' exomoiôsis estai. dei de kantautha tinos tê physei dynameôs heteras eis polychronion monên tou prostethentos tô moriô chymou kai tautês ouk exôthen pothen epirrheousês all' en autô tô threpsomenô katôkismenês, hên apo tês energeias palin hoi pro hêmôn ênankasthêsan onomasai kathektikên. Ho men dê logos êdê saphôs enedeixato tên anankên tês geneseôs tês toiautês dynameôs kai hostis akolouthias synesin echei, pepeistai bebaiôs ex hôn eipomen, hôs hypokeimenou te kai proapodedeigmenou tou technikên einai tên physin kai tou zôou kêdemonikên anankaion hyparchein autê kai tên toiautên dynamin. II Since, however, it is not our habit to employ this kind of demonstration[304] alone, but to add thereto cogent and compelling proofs drawn from obvious facts, we will also proceed to the latter kind in the present instance: we will demonstrate that in certain parts of the body _the retentive faculty_ is so obvious that its operation can be actually recognised by the _senses_, whilst in other parts it is less obvious to the senses, but is capable even here of being detected by the _argument_.[305] Let us begin our exposition, then, by first dealing systematically for a while with certain definite parts of the body, in reference to which we may accurately test and enquire what sort of thing the retentive faculty is. Now, could one begin the enquiry in any better way than with the largest and hollowest organs? Personally I do not think one could. It is to be expected that in these, owing to their size, the activities will show quite clearly, whereas with respect to the small organs, even if they possess a strong faculty of this kind, its activation will not at once be recognisable to sense. Now those parts of the animal which are especially hollow and large are the stomach and the organ which is called the womb or uterus.[306] What prevents us, then, from taking up these first and considering their activities, conducting the enquiry on our own persons in regard to those activities which are obvious without dissection, and, in the case of those which are more obscure, dissecting animals which are near to man;[307] not that even animals unlike him will not show, in a general way, the faculty in question, but because in this manner we may find out at once what is common to all and what is peculiar to ourselves, and so may become more resourceful in the diagnosis and treatment of disease. Now it is impossible to speak of both organs at once, so we shall deal with each in turn, beginning with the one which is capable of demonstrating the retentive faculty most plainly. For the stomach retains the food until it has quite digested it, and the uterus retains the embryo until it brings it to completion, but the time taken for the completion of the embryo is many times more than that for the digestion of food. II All' hêmeis ou toutô monô tô genei tês apodeixeôs eithismenoi chrêsthai, prostithentes d' autô kai tas ek tôn enargôs phainomenôn anankazousas te kai biazomenas pisteis epi tas toiautas kai nyn aphixometha kai deixomen epi men tinôn moriôn tou sômatos houtôs enargê tên kathektikên dynamin, hôs autais tais aisthêsesi || 146 diagignôskesthai tên energeian autês, epi de tinôn hêtton men enargôs tais aisthêsesi, logô de kantautha phôrathênai dynamenên. Arxômeth' oun tês didaskalias ap' autou tou teôs prôton methodô tini procheirisasthai mori' atta tou sômatos, eph' hôn akribôs esti basanisai te kai zêtêsai tên kathektikên dynamin hopoia pot' estin. Ar' oun ameinon an tis heterôthen ê apo tôn megistôn te kai koilotatôn organôn hyparxaito tês zêtêseôs? emoi men oun ouk an dokei beltion. enargeis goun eikos epi toutôn phanênai tas energeias dia to megethos; hôs ta ge smikra tach' an, ei kai sphodran echei tên toiautên dynamin, all' ouk aisthêsei g' hetoimên diagignôskesthai tên energeian autês. All' estin en tois malista koilotata kai megista tôn tou zôou moriôn hê te gastêr kai mêtrai te kai hysterai kaloumenai. ti oun kôlyei tauta prôta procheirisamenous episkepsasthai tas energeias autôn, hosai men kai pro tês anatomês dêlai, tên exetasin eph' hêmôn autôn poioumenous, hosai d' amydroterai, ta paraplêsia diairountas anthrôpô zôa, || ouch hôs ouk an hikanôs to 147 ge katholou peri tês zêtoumenês dynameôs kai tôn anomoiôn endeixomenôn, all' hôs hin' hama tô koinô kai to idion eph' hêmôn autôn egnôkotes eis te tas diagnôseis tôn nosêmatôn kai tas iaseis euporôteroi gignômetha. Peri men oun amphoterôn tôn organôn hama legein adynaton, en merei d' hyper hekaterou poiêsometha ton logon apo tou saphesteron endeixasthai dynamenou tên kathektikên dynamin arxamenoi. katechei men gar kai hê gastêr ta sitia, mechri per an ekpepsê, katechousi de kai hai mêtrai to embryon, est' an teleiôsôsin; alla pollaplasios estin ho tês tôn embryôn teleiôseôs chronos tês tôn sitiôn pepseôs. III We may expect, then, to detect the retentive faculty in the uterus more clearly in proportion to the longer duration of its activity as compared with that of the stomach. For, as we know, it takes nine months in most women for the foetus to attain maturity in the womb, this organ having its neck quite closed, and entirely surrounding the embryo together with the _chorion_. Further, it is the utility of the function which determines the closure of the os and the stay of the foetus in the uterus. For it is not casually nor without reason that Nature has made the uterus capable of contracting upon, and of retaining the embryo, but in order that the latter may arrive at a proper size. When, therefore, the object for which the uterus brought its retentive faculty into play has been fulfilled, it then stops this faculty and brings it back to a state of rest, and employs instead of it another faculty hitherto quiescent--the _propulsive_ faculty. In this case again the quiescent and active states are both determined by utility; when this calls, there is activity; when it does not, there is rest. Here, then, once more, we must observe well the Art [artistic tendency] of Nature--how she has not merely placed in each organ the capabilities of useful activities, but has also fore-ordained the times both of rest and movement. For when everything connected with the pregnancy proceeds properly, the _eliminative_ faculty remains quiescent as though it did not exist, but if anything goes wrong in connection either with the chorion or any of the other membranes or with the foetus itself, and its completion is entirely despaired of, then the uterus no longer awaits the nine-months period, but the retentive faculty forthwith ceases and allows the heretofore inoperative faculty to come into action. Now it is that something is done--in fact, useful work effected--by the _eliminative or propulsive faculty_ (for so it, too, has been called, receiving, like the rest, its names from the corresponding activities). Further, our theory can, I think, demonstrate both together; for seeing that they succeed each other, and that the one keeps giving place to the other according as utility demands, it seems not unreasonable to accept a common demonstration also for both. Thus it is the work of the retentive faculty to make the uterus contract upon the foetus at every point, so that, naturally enough, when the midwives palpate it, the os is found to be closed, whilst the pregnant women themselves, during the first days--and particularly on that on which conception takes place--experience a sensation as if the uterus were moving and contracting upon itself. Now, if both of these things occur--if the os closes apart from inflammation or any other disease, and if this is accompanied by a feeling of movement in the uterus--then the women believe that they have received the semen which comes from the male, and that they are retaining it. Now we are not inventing this for ourselves: one may say the statement is based on prolonged experience of those who occupy themselves with such matters. Thus Herophilus[308] does not hesitate to state in his writings that up to the time of labour the os uteri will not admit so much as the tip of a probe, that it no longer opens to the slightest degree if pregnancy has begun--that, in fact, it dilates more widely at the times of the menstrual flow. With him are in agreement all the others who have applied themselves to this subject; and particularly Hippocrates, who was the first of all physicians and philosophers to declare that the os uteri closes during pregnancy and inflammation, albeit in pregnancy it does not depart from its own nature, whilst in inflammation it becomes hard. In the case of the opposite (the eliminative) faculty, the os opens, whilst the whole fundus approaches as near as possible to the os, expelling the embryo as it does so; and along with the fundus the contiguous parts--which form as it were a girdle round the whole organ--co-operate in the work; they squeeze upon the embryo and propel it bodily outwards. And, in many women who exercise such a faculty immoderately, violent pains cause forcible prolapse of the whole womb; here almost the same thing happens as frequently occurs in wrestling-bouts and struggles, when in our eagerness to overturn and throw others we are ourselves upset along with them; for similarly when the uterus is forcing the embryo forward it sometimes becomes entirely prolapsed, and particularly when the ligaments connecting it with the spine happen to be naturally lax.[309] A wonderful device of Nature's also is this--that, when the foetus is alive, the os uteri is closed with perfect accuracy, but if it dies, the os at once opens up to the extent which is necessary for the foetus to make its exit. The midwife, however, does not make the parturient woman get up at once and sit down on the [obstetric] chair, but she begins by palpating the os as it gradually dilates, and the first thing she says is that it has dilated "enough to admit the little finger," then that "it is bigger now," and as we make enquiries from time to time, she answers that the size of the dilatation is increasing. And when it is sufficient to allow of the transit of the foetus,[310] she then makes the patient get up from her bed and sit on the chair, and bids her make every effort to expel the child. Now, this additional work which the patient does of herself is no longer the work of the uterus but of the epigastric muscles, which also help us in defaecation and micturition. III Eikos oun kai tên dynamin enargesteron en tais mêtrais phôrasein hêmas tên kathektikên, hosô kai polychroniôteran tês gastros tên energeian kektêtai. mêsi gar ennea pou tais pleistais tôn gynaikôn en autais teleioutai ta kyêmata, memykuiais men hapanti tô aucheni, periechousais de pantachothen auta syn tô choriô. || kai peras ge tês tou stomatos myseôs kai tês 148 tou kyoumenou kata tas mêtras monês hê chreia tês energeias estin; ou gar hôs etychen oud' alogôs hikanas peristellesthai kai katechein to embryon hê physis apeirgasato tas hysteras, all' hin' eis to prepon aphikêtai megethos to kyoumenon. hotan oun, hou charin enêrgoun tê kathektikê dynamei, sympeplêrômenon ê, tautên men anepausan te kai eis êremian epanêgagon, ant' autês d' hetera chrôntai tê teôs hêsychazousê, tê proôstikê. ên d' ara kai tês ekeinês hêsychias horos hê chreia kai tês g' energeias hôsautôs hê chreia; kalousês men gar autês energei, mê kalousês d' hêsychazei. Kai chrê palin kantautha katamathein tês physeôs tên technên, hôs ou monon energeiôn chrêsimôn dynameis enethêken hekastô tôn organôn, alla kai tou tôn hêsychiôn te kai kinêseôn kairou prounoêsato. kalôs men gar hapantôn gignomenôn tôn kata tên kyêsin hê apokritikê dynamis hêsychazei teleôs hôsper ouk ousa, kakopragias de tinos genomenês ê peri to chorion ê peri tina tôn allôn || hymenôn ê peri to kyoumenon auto kai 149 tês teleiôseôs autou pantapasin apognôstheisês ouket' anamenousi ton enneamênon hai mêtrai chronon, all' hê men kathektikê dynamis autika dê pepautai kai parachôrei kineisthai tê proteron argousê, prattei d' êdê ti kai pragmateuetai chrêston hê apokritikê te kai proôstikê; kai gar oun kai tautên houtôs ekalesan apo tôn energeiôn autê ta onomata themenoi kathaper kai tais allais. Kai pôs ho logos eoiken hyper amphoterôn apodeixein hama; kai gar toi kai diadechomenas autas allêlas kai parachôrousan aei tên heteran tê loipê, kathoti an hê chreia keleuê, kai tên didaskalian koinên ouk apeikos esti dechesthai. tês men oun kathektikês dynameôs ergon peristeilai tas mêtras tô kyoumenô pantachothen, hôst' eulogôs haptomenais men tais maieutriais to stoma memykos autôn phainetai, tais kyousais d' autais kata tas prôtas hêmeras kai malista kat' autên ekeinên, en hêper an hê tês gonês syllêpsis genêtai, kinoumenôn te kai syntrechousôn eis heautas tôn hysterôn aisthê||sis 150 gignetai kai ên amphô tauta symbê, mysai men to stoma chôris phlegmonês ê tinos allou pathêmatos, aisthêsin de tês kata tas mêtras kinêseôs akolouthêsai, pros hautas êdê to sperma to para tandros eilêphenai te kai katechein hai gynaikes nomizousi. Tauta d' ouch hêmeis nyn anaplattomen hêmin autois, all' ek makras peiras dokimasthenta pasi gegraptai schedon ti tois peri toutôn pragmateusamenois. Hêrophilos men ge kai hôs oude pyrêna mêlês an dechoito tôn mêtrôn to stoma, prin apokyein tên gynaika, kai hôs oude toulachiston eti diestêken, ên hyparxêtai kyein, kai hôs epi pleon anastomountai kata tas tôn epimêniôn phoras, ouk ôknêse graphein; synomologousi d' autô kai hoi alloi pantes hoi peri toutôn pragmateusamenoi kai prôtos g' hapantôn iatrôn te kai philosophôn Hippokratês apephênato myein to stoma tôn hysterôn en te tais kyêsesi kai tais phlegmonais, all' en men tais kyêsesin ouk existamenon tês physeôs, en de tais phlegmonais sklêron gignomenon. Epi de ge tês enantias tês ekkritikês anoignytai men to stoma, proerchetai d' ho pythmên || hapas hoson hoion t' 151 engytatô tou stomatos apôthoumenos exô to embryon, hama d' autô kai ta synechê merê ta hoion pleura tou pantos organou synepilambanomena tou ergou thlibei te kai proôthei pan exô to embryon. kai pollais tôn gynaikôn ôdines biaioi tas mêtras holas ekpesein ênankasan ametrôs chrêsamenais tê toiautê dynamei, paraplêsiou tinos gignomenou tô pollakis en palais tisi kai philoneikiais symbainonti, hotan anatrepsai te kai katabalein heterous speudontes autoi synkatapesômen. houtô gar kai hai mêtrai to embryon ôthousai synexepeson eniote kai malisth', hotan hoi pros tên rhachin autôn syndesmoi chalaroi physei tynchanôsin ontes. Esti de kai touto thaumaston ti tês physeôs sophisma, to zôntos men tou kyêmatos akribôs pany memykenai to stoma tôn mêtrôn, apothanontos de parachrêma dianoigesthai tosouton, hoson eis tên exodon autou diapherei. kai mentoi kai hai maiai tas tiktousas ouk euthys anistasin oud' epi ton diphron kathizousin, all' haptontai proteron anoigomenou tou stomatos || kata brachy kai 152 prôton men, hôste ton mikron daktylon kathienai, diestêkenai phasin, epeit' êdê kai meizon kai kata brachy dê pynthanomenois hêmin apokrinontai to megethos tês diastaseôs epauxanomenon. hotan d' hikanon ê pros tên tou kyoumenou diodon, anistasin autas kai kathizousi kai prothymeisthai keleuousin apôsasthai to paidion. esti d' êdê touto to ergon, ho par' heautôn hai kyousai prostitheasin, ouketi tôn hysterôn, alla tôn kat' epigastrion myôn, hoi pros tên apopatêsin te kai tên ourêsin hêmin synergousin. IV Thus the two faculties are clearly to be seen in the case of the uterus; in the case of the _stomach_ they appear as follows:--Firstly in the condition of _gurgling_, which physicians are persuaded, and with reason, to be a symptom of weakness of the stomach; for sometimes when the very smallest quantity of food has been ingested this does not occur, owing to the fact that the stomach is contracting accurately upon the food and constricting it at every point; sometimes when the stomach is full the gurglings yet make themselves heard as though it were empty. For if it be in a natural condition, employing its contractile faculty in the ordinary way, then, even if its contents be very small, it grasps the whole of them and does not leave any empty space. When it is weak, however, being unable to lay hold of its contents accurately, it produces a certain amount of vacant space, and allows the liquid contents to flow about in different directions in accordance with its changes of shape, and so to produce gurglings. Thus those who are troubled with this symptom expect, with good reason, that they will also be unable to digest adequately; proper digestion cannot take place in a weak stomach. In such people also, the mass of food may be plainly seen to remain an abnormally long time in the stomach, as would be natural if their digestion were slow. Indeed, the chief way in which these people will surprise one is in the length of time that not food alone but even fluids will remain in their stomachs. Now, the actual cause of this is not, as one would imagine, that the lower outlet of the stomach,[311] being fairly narrow, will allow nothing to pass before being reduced to a fine state of division. There are a great many people who frequently swallow large quantities of big fruit-stones; one person, who was holding a gold ring in his mouth, inadvertently swallowed it; another swallowed a coin, and various people have swallowed various hard and indigestible objects; yet all these people easily passed by the bowel what they had swallowed, without there being any subsequent symptoms. Now surely if narrowness of the gastric outlet were the cause of untriturated food remaining for an abnormally long time, none of these articles I have mentioned would ever have escaped. Furthermore, the fact that it is liquids which remain longest in these people's stomachs is sufficient to put the idea of narrowness of the outlet out of court. For, supposing a rapid descent were dependent upon emulsification,[312] then soups, milk, and barley-emulsion[313] would at once pass along in every case. But as a matter of fact this is not so. For in people who are extremely asthenic it is just these fluids which remain undigested, which accumulate and produce gurglings, and which oppress and overload the stomach, whereas in strong persons not merely do none of these things happen, but even a large quantity of bread or meat passes rapidly down. And it is not only because the stomach is distended and loaded and because the fluid runs from one part of it to another accompanied by gurglings--it is not only for these reasons that one would judge that there was an unduly long continuance of the food in it, in those people who are so disposed, but also from the _vomiting_. Thus, there are some who vomit up every particle of what they have eaten, not after three or four hours, but actually in the middle of the night, a lengthy period having elapsed since their meal. Suppose you fill any animal whatsoever with liquid food--an experiment I have often carried out in pigs, to whom I give a sort of mess of wheaten flour and water, thereafter cutting them open after three or four hours; if you will do this yourself, you will find the food still in the stomach. For it is not _chylification_[314] which determines the length of its stay here--since this can also be effected outside the stomach; the determining factor is _digestion_[315] which is a different thing from chylification, as are blood-production and nutrition. For, just as it has been shown[316] that these two processes depend upon a _change of qualities_, similarly also the digestion of food in the stomach involves a transmutation of it into the quality proper to that which is receiving nourishment.[317] Then, when it is completely digested, the lower outlet opens and the food is quickly ejected through it, even if there should be amongst it abundance of stones, bones, grape-pips, or other things which cannot be reduced to chyle. And you may observe this yourself in an animal, if you will try to hit upon the time at which the descent of food from the stomach takes place. But even if you should fail to discover the time, and nothing was yet passing down, and the food was still undergoing digestion in the stomach, still even then you would find dissection not without its uses. You will observe, as we have just said, that the pylorus is accurately closed, and that the whole stomach is in a state of contraction upon the food very much as the womb contacts upon the foetus. For it is never possible to find a vacant space in the uterus, the stomach, or in either of the two bladders--that is, either in that called bile-receiving[318] or in the other; whether their contents be abundant or scanty, their cavities are seen to be replete and full, owing to the fact that their coats contract constantly upon the contents--so long, at least, as the animal is in a natural condition. Now Erasistratus for some reason declares that it is the contractions[319] of the stomach which are the cause of everything--that is to say, of the softening of the food,[320] the removal of waste matter, and the absorption of the food when chylified [emulsified]. Now I have personally, on countless occasions, divided the peritoneum of a still living animal and have always found all _the intestines_ contracting peristaltically[321] upon their contents. The condition of _the stomach_, however, is found less simple; as regards the substances freshly swallowed, it had grasped these accurately both above and below, in fact at every point, and was as devoid of movement as though it had grown round and become united with the food.[322] At the same time I found the pylorus persistently closed and accurately shut, like the os uteri on the foetus. In the cases, however, where digestion had been completed the pylorus had opened, and the stomach was undergoing peristaltic movements, similar to those of the intestines. IV Houtô men epi tôn mêtrôn enargôs hai dyo phainontai dynameis, epi de tês gastros hôde. prôton men tois klydôsin, hoi dê kai pepisteuntai tois iatrois arrhôstou koilias einai symptômata kai kata logon pepisteuntai; eniote men gar elachista prosenênegmenôn ou gignontai peristellomenês akribôs autois tês gastros kai sphingousês pantachothen, eniote de mestê men hê gastêr estin, hoi kly||dônes d' hôs epi kenês exakouontai. kata 153 physin men gar echousa kai chrômenê kalôs tê peristaltikê dynamei, kan oligon ê to periechomenon, hapan auto perilambanousa chôran oudemian apoleipei kenên, arrhôstousa de, kathoti an adynatêsê perilabein akribôs, entauth' eurychôrian tin' ergazomenê synchôrei tois periechomenois hygrois kata tas tôn schêmatôn metallagas allot' allachose metarrheousi klydônas apotelein. Eulogôs oun, hoti mêde pepsousin hikanôs, hoi en tôde tô symptômati genomenoi prosdokôsin; ou gar endechetai pepsai kalôs arrhôston gastera. tois toioutois de kai mechri pleionos en autê phainetai paramenon to baros, hôs an kai bradyteron pettousi. kai mên thaumaseien an tis ep' autôn toutôn malista to polychronion tês en tê gastri diatribês ou tôn sitiôn monon alla kai tou pomatos; ou gar, hoper an oiêtheiê tis, hôs to tês gastros stoma to katô stenon hikanôs hyparchon ouden pariêsi prin akribôs leiôthênai, tout' aition ontôs esti. polla goun pollakis opôrôn osta megista katapinousi || pampolloi kai tis daktylion chrysoun en 154 tô stomati phylattôn akôn katepie kai allos tis nomisma kai allos allo ti sklêron kai dyskatergaston, all' homôs hapantes houtoi rhadiôs apepatêsan, ha katepion, oudenos autois akolouthêsantos symptômatos. ei de g' hê stenotês tou porou tês gastros aitia tou menein epi pleon ên tois atriptois sitiois, ouden an toutôn pote diechôrêsen. alla kai to ta pomat' autois en tê gastri paramenein epi pleiston hikanon apagein tên hyponoian tou porou tês stenotêtos; holôs gar, eiper ên en tô kechylôsthai to thatton hypienai, ta te rhophêmat' an houtô kai to gala kai ho tês ptisanês chylos autika diexêei pasin. all' ouch hôd' echei; tois men gar asthenesin epi pleiston emplei tauta kai klydônas ergazetai paramenonta kai thlibei kai barynei tên gastera, tois d' ischyrois ou monon toutôn ouden symbainei, alla kai poly plêthos artôn kai kreôn hypochôrei tacheôs. Ou monon d' ek tou peritetasthai tên gastera kai barynesthai || kai metarrhein allot' eis alla merê meta 155 klydônos to paramenein epi pleon en autê pantôs tois houtôs echousi tekmêrait' an tis alla kak tôn emetôn; enioi gar ou meta treis hôras ê tettaras alla nyktôn êdê mesôn pampollou metaxy chronou dielthontos epi tais prosphorais anêmesan akribôs hapanta ta edêdesmena. Kai men dê kai zôon hotioun emplêsas hygras trophês, hôsper hêmeis pollakis epi syôn epeirathêmen ex aleurôn meth' hydatos hoion kykeôna tina dontes autois, epeita meta treis pou kai tettaras hôras anatemontes, ei houtô kai sy praxeias, heurêseis eti kata tên gastera ta edêdesmena; peras gar autois esti tês entautha monês ouch hê chylôsis, hên kai ektos eti ontôn mêchanêsasthai dynaton estin, all' hê pepsis, heteron ti tês chylôseôs ousa, kathaper haimatôsis te kai threpsis. hôs gar kakeina dedeiktai poiotêtôn metabolê gignomena, ton auton tropon kai hê en tê gastri pepsis tôn sitiôn eis tên oikeian esti tô trephomenô poiotêta || metabolê kai 156 hotan ge pephthê teleôs, anoignytai men tênikauta to katô stoma, diekpiptei d' autou ta sitia rhadiôs, ei kai plêthos ti meth' heautôn echonta tychoi lithôn ê ostôn ê gigartôn ê tinos allou chylôthênai mê dynamenou. kai soi tout' enestin epi zôou theasasthai stochasamenô ton kairon tês katô diexodou. kai men ge kai ei sphaleiês pote tou kairou kai mêden mêpô katô parerchoito pettomenôn eti kata tên gastera tôn sitiôn, oud' houtôs akarpos hê anatomê soi genêsetai; theasê gar ep' autôn, hoper oligô prosthen elegomen, akribôs men memykota ton pylôron, hapasan de tên gastera periestalmenên tois sitiois tropon homoiotaton, hoionper kai hai mêtrai tois kyoumenois. ou gar estin oudepote kenên heurein chôran oute kata tas hysteras oute kata tên koilian oute kata tas kysteis amphoteras oute kata tên cholêdochon onomazomenên oute tên heteran; all' eit' oligon eiê to periechomenon en autais eite poly, mestai kai plêreis autôn hai koiliai phainontai peristellomenôn aei tôn chitônôn tois periechomenois, hotan ge kata physin echê to zôon. || 157 Erasistratos d' ouk oid' hopôs tên peristolên tês gastros hapantôn aitian apophainei kai tês leiôseôs tôn sitiôn kai tês tôn perittômatôn hypochôrêseôs kai tês tôn kechylômenôn anadoseôs. Egô men gar myriakis epi zôntos eti tou zôou dielôn to peritonaion heuron aei ta men entera panta peristellomena tois enyparchousi, tên koilian d' ouch haplôs, all' epi men tais edôdais anôthen te kai katôthen auta kai pantachothen akribôs perieilêphuian akinêton, hôs dokein hênôsthai kai peripephykenai tois sitiois; en de toutô kai ton pylôron heuriskon aei memykota kai kekleismenon akribôs hôsper to tôn hysterôn stoma tais enkymosin. Epi mentoi tais pepsesi sympeplêrômenais aneôkto men ho pylôros, hê gastêr de peristaltikôs ekineito paraplêsiôs tois enterois. V Thus all these facts agree that the stomach, uterus, and bladders possess certain inborn faculties which are retentive of their own proper qualities and eliminative of those that are foreign. For it has been already shown[323] that the bladder by the liver draws bile into itself, while it is also quite obvious that it eliminates this daily into the stomach. Now, of course, if the eliminative were to succeed the attractive faculty and there were not a _retentive_ faculty between the two, there would be found, on every occasion that animals were dissected, an equal quantity of bile in the gall-bladder. This however, we do not find. For the bladder is sometimes observed to be very full, sometimes quite empty, while at other times you find in it various intermediate degrees of fulness, just as is the case with the other bladder--that which receives the urine; for even without resorting to anatomy we may observe that the urinary bladder continues to collect urine up to the time that it becomes uncomfortable through the increasing quantity of urine or the irritation caused by its acidity--the presumption thus being that here, too, there is a retentive faculty. Similarly, too, the stomach, when, as often happens, it is irritated by acidity, gets rid of the food, although still undigested, earlier than proper; or again, when oppressed by the quantity of its contents, or disordered from the co-existence of both conditions, it is seized with _diarrhoea_. _Vomiting_ also is an affection of the upper [part of the] stomach analogous to diarrhoea, and it occurs when the stomach is overloaded or is unable to stand the quality of the food or surplus substances which it contains. Thus, when such a condition develops in the lower parts of the stomach, while the parts about the inlet are normal, it ends in diarrhoea, whereas if this condition is in the upper stomach, the lower parts being normal, it ends in vomiting. V Hapant' oun allêlois homologei tauta kai tê gastri kai tais hysterais kai tais kystesin einai tinas emphytous dynameis kathektikas men tôn oikeiôn poiotêtôn, || 158 apokritikas de tôn allotriôn. hoti men gar helkei tên cholên eis heautên hê epi tô hêpati kystis, emprosthen dedeiktai, hoti de kai apokrinei kath' hekastên hêmeran eis tên gastera, kai tout' enargôs phainetai. kai mên ei diedecheto tên helktikên dynamin hê ekkritikê kai mê mesê tis amphoin ên hê kathektikê, dia pantos echrên anatemnomenôn tôn zôôn ison plêthos cholês heuriskesthai kata tên kystin; ou mên heurisketai ge. pote men gar plêrestatê, pote de kenotatê, pote de tas en tô metaxy diaphoras echousa theôreitai, kathaper kai hê hetera kystis hê to ouron hypodechomenê. tautês men ge kai pro tês anatomês aisthanometha, prin aniathênai tô plêthei baryntheisan ê tê drimytêti dêchtheisan, athroizousês eti to ouron, hôs ousês tinos kantautha dynameôs kathektikês. Houtô de kai hê gastêr hypo drimytêtos pollakis dêchtheisa prôiaiteron tou deontos apepton eti tên trophên apotribetai. authis d' an pote tô plêthei baryntheisa ê kai kat' amphô synelthonta kakôs diatetheisa diarrhoiais healô. kai men ge kai hoi emetoi, tô plêthei baryntheisês || autês ê tên poiotêta 159 tôn en autê sitiôn te kai perittômatôn mê pherousês, analogon ti tais diarrhoiais pathêma tês anô gastros estin. hotan men gar en tois katô meresin autês hê toiautê genêtai diathesis, errhômenôn tôn kata ton stomachon, eis diarrhoias eteleutêsen, hotan d' en tois kata to stoma, tôn allôn eurôstountôn, eis emetous. VI This may often be clearly observed in those who are disinclined for food; when obliged to eat, they have not the strength to swallow, and, even if they force themselves to do so, they cannot retain the food, but at once vomit it up. And those especially who have a dislike to some particular kind of food, sometimes take it under compulsion, and then promptly bring it up; or, if they force themselves to keep it down, they are nauseated and feel their stomach turned up, and endeavouring to relieve itself of its discomfort. Thus, as was said at the beginning, all the observed facts testify that there must exist in almost all parts of the animal a certain inclination towards, or, so to speak; an appetite for their own special quality, and an aversion to, or, as it were, a hatred[324] of the foreign quality. And it is natural that when they feel an inclination they should attract, and that when they feel aversion they should expel. From these facts, then, again, both the attractive and the propulsive faculties have been demonstrated to exist in everything.[325] But if there be an inclination or attraction, there will also be some benefit derived; for no existing thing attracts anything else for the mere sake of attracting, but in order to benefit by what is acquired by the attraction. And of course it cannot benefit by it if it cannot retain it. Herein, then, again, the retentive faculty is shown to have its necessary origin: for the stomach obviously inclines towards its own proper qualities and turns away from those that are foreign to it.[326] But if it aims at and attracts its food and benefits by it while retaining and contracting upon it, we may also expect that there will be some _termination_ to the benefit received, and that thereafter will come the time for the exercise of the eliminative faculty. VI Enesti de kai touto pollakis enargôs idein epi tôn apositôn; anankazomenoi gar esthiein oute katapinein eusthenousin out', ei kai biasainto, katechousin, all' euthys anemousi. kai hoi allôs de tôn edesmatôn pros hotioun dyscherainontes biasthentes eniote prosarasthai tacheôs exemousin, ê ei kataschoien biasamenoi, nautiôdeis t' eisi kai tês gastros hyptias aisthanontai kai speudousês apothesthai to lypoun. Houtôs ex hapantôn tôn phainomenôn, hoper ex archês errhethê, martyreitai to dein hyparchein tois tou zôou moriois schedon hapasin ephesin men tina kai hoion orexin tês oikeias poiotêtos, apostrophên de tina || kai 160 hoion misos ti tês allotrias, all' ephiemena men helkein eulogon, apostrephomena d' ekkrinein. Kak toutôn palin hê th' helktikê dynamis apodeiknytai kath' hapan hyparchousa kai hê proôstikê. All' eiper ephesis te tis esti kai helxis, eiê an tis kai apolausis; ouden gar tôn ontôn helkei ti di' auto to helkein, all' hin' apolausê tou dia tês holkês euporêthentos. kai mên apolauein ou dynatai mê kataschon. kan toutô palin hê kathektikê dynamis apodeiknytai tên genesin anankaian echousa; saphôs gar ephietai men tôn oikeiôn poiotêtôn hê gastêr, apostrephetai de tas allotrias. All' eiper ephietai te kai helkei kai apolauei katechousa kai peristellomenê, eiê an ti kai peras autê tês apolauseôs kapi tôd' ho kairos êdê tês ekkritikês dynameôs energousês. VII But if the stomach both retains and benefits by its food, then it employs it for the end for which it [the stomach] naturally exists. And it exists to partake of that which is of a quality befitting and proper to it. Thus it attracts all the most useful parts of the food in a vaporous[327] and finely divided condition, storing this up in its own coats, and applying[328] it to them. And when it is sufficiently full it puts away from it, as one might something troublesome, the rest of the food, this having itself meanwhile obtained some profit from its association with the stomach. For it is impossible for two bodies which are adapted for acting and being acted upon to come together without either both acting or being acted upon, or else one acting and the other being acted upon. For if their forces are equal they will act and be acted upon equally, and if the one be much superior in strength, it will exert its activity upon its passive neighbour; thus, while producing a great and appreciable effect, it will itself be acted upon either little or not at all. But it is herein also that the main difference lies between nourishing food and a deleterious drug; the latter masters the forces of the body, whereas the former is mastered by them.[329] There cannot, then, be food which is suited for the animal which is not also correspondingly subdued by the qualities existing in the animal. And to be subdued means to undergo _alteration_.[330] Now, some parts are stronger in power and others weaker; therefore, while all will subdue the nutriment which is proper to the animal, they will not all do so equally. Thus the stomach will subdue and alter its food, but not to the same extent as will the liver, veins, arteries, and heart. We must therefore observe to what extent it does alter it. The alteration is more than that which occurs in the mouth, but less than that in the liver and veins. For the latter alteration changes the nutriment into the _substance_ of blood, whereas that in the mouth obviously changes it into a new _form_, but certainly does not completely transmute it. This you may discover in the food which is left in the intervals between the teeth, and which remains there all night; the bread is not exactly bread, nor the meat, for they have a smell similar to that of the animal's mouth, and have been disintegrated and dissolved, and have had the qualities of the animal's flesh impressed upon them. And you may observe the extent of the alteration which occurs to food in the mouth if you will chew some corn and then apply it to an unripe [undigested] boil: you will see it rapidly transmuting--in fact entirely digesting--the boil, though it cannot do anything of the kind if you mix it with water. And do not let this surprise you; this phlegm [saliva] in the mouth is also a cure for _lichens_[331]; it even rapidly destroys scorpions; while, as regards the animals which emit venom, some it kills at once, and others after an interval; to all of them in any case it does great damage. Now, the masticated food is all, firstly, soaked in and mixed up with this phlegm; and secondly, it is brought into contact with the actual skin of the mouth; thus it undergoes more change than the food which is wedged into the vacant spaces between the teeth. But just as masticated food is more altered than the latter kind, so is food which has been swallowed more altered than that which has been merely masticated. Indeed, there is no comparison between these two processes; we have only to consider what the stomach contains--phlegm, bile, pneuma, [innate] heat,[332] and, indeed the whole substance of the stomach. And if one considers along with this the adjacent viscera, like a lot of burning hearths around a great cauldron--to the right the liver, to the left the spleen, the heart above, and along with it the diaphragm (suspended and in a state of constant movement), and the omentum sheltering them all--you may believe what an extraordinary alteration it is which occurs in the food taken into the stomach. How could it easily become blood if it were not previously prepared by means of a change of this kind? It has already been shown[333] that nothing is altered all at once from one quality to its opposite. How then could bread, beef, beans, or any other food turn into blood if they had not previously undergone some other alteration? And how could the faeces be generated right away in the small intestine?[334] For what is there in this organ more potent in producing alteration than the factors in the stomach? Is it the number of the coats, or the way it is surrounded by neighbouring viscera, or the time that the food remains in it, or some kind of innate heat which it contains? Most assuredly the intestines have the advantage of the stomach in none of these respects. For what possible reason, then, will objectors have it that bread may often remain a whole night in the stomach and still preserve its original qualities, whereas when once it is projected into the intestines, it straightway becomes ordure? For, if such a long period of time is incapable of altering it, neither will the short period be sufficient, or, if the latter is enough, surely the longer time will be much more so! Well, then, can it be that, while the nutriment does undergo an alteration in the stomach, this is a different kind of alteration and one which is not dependent on the nature of the organ which alters it? Or if it be an alteration of this latter kind, yet one perhaps which is not proper to the body of the animal? This is still more impossible. Digestion was shown to be nothing else than an alteration to the quality proper to that which is receiving nourishment.[335] Since, then, this is what digestion means and since the nutriment has been shown to take on in the stomach a quality appropriate to the animal which is about to be nourished by it, it has been demonstrated adequately that nutriment does undergo digestion in the stomach. And Asclepiades is absurd when he states that the quality of the digested food never shows itself either in eructations or in the vomited matter, or on dissection.[336] For of course the mere fact that the food smells of the body shows that it has undergone gastric digestion. But this man is so foolish that, when he hears the Ancients saying that the food is converted in the stomach into something "good," he thinks it proper to look out not for what is good in its possible effects, but for what is _good to the taste_: this is like saying that apples (for so one has to argue with him) become more apple-like [in flavour] in the stomach, or honey more honey-like! Erasistratus, however, is still more foolish and absurd, either through not perceiving in what sense the Ancients said that digestion is similar to the process of _boiling_, or because he purposely confused himself with sophistries. It is, he says, inconceivable that digestion, involving as it does such trifling warmth, should be related to the boiling process. This is as if we were to suppose that it was necessary to put the fires of Etna under the stomach before it could manage to alter the food; or else that, while it was capable of altering the food, it did not do this by virtue of its innate heat, which of course was moist, so that the word _boil_ was used instead of _bake_. What he ought to have done, if it was facts that he wished to dispute about, was to have tried to show, first and foremost, that the food is not transmuted or altered in quality by the stomach at all, and secondly, if he could not be confident of this, he ought to have tried to show that this alteration was not of any advantage to the animal.[337] If, again, he were unable even to make this misrepresentation, he ought to have attempted to confute the postulate concerning _the active principles_--to show, in fact, that the functions taking place in the various parts do not depend on the way in which the Warm, Cold, Dry, and Moist are mixed, but on some other factor. And if he had not the audacity to misrepresent facts even so far as this, still he should have tried at least to show that the Warm is not the most active of all the principles which play a part in things governed by Nature. But if he was unable to demonstrate this any more than any of the previous propositions, then he ought not to have made himself ridiculous by quarrelling uselessly with a mere name--as though Aristotle had not clearly stated in the fourth book of his "Meteorology," as well as in many other passages, in what way digestion can be said to be allied to boiling, and also that the latter expression is not used in its primitive or strict sense. But, as has been frequently said already,[338] the one starting-point of all this is a thoroughgoing enquiry into the question of the Warm, Cold, Dry and Moist; this Aristotle carried out in the second of his books "On Genesis and Destruction," where he shows that all the transmutations and alterations throughout the body take place as a result of these principles. Erasistratus, however, advanced nothing against these or anything else that has been said above, but occupied himself merely with the word "boiling." VII All' ei kai katechei kai apolauei, katachrêtai pros ho pephyke. pephyke de tou prosêkontos heautê || kata 161 poiotêta kai oikeiou metalambanein; hôsth' helkei tôn sitiôn hoson chrêstotaton atmôdôs te kai kata brachy kai touto tois heautês chitôsin enapotithetai te kai prostithêsin. hotan d' hikanôs emplêsthê, kathaper achthos ti tên loipên apotithetai trophên eschêkuian ti chrêston êdê kai autên ek tês pros tên gastera koinônias; oude gar endechetai dyo sômata dran kai paschein epitêdeia synelthonta mê ouk êtoi paschein th' hama kai dran ê thateron men dran, thateron de paschein. ean men gar isazê tais dynamesin, ex isou drasei te kai peisetai, an d' hyperechê poly kai kratê thateron, energêsei peri to paschon; hôste drasei mega men ti kai aisthêton, auto d' êtoi smikron ti kai ouk aisthêton ê pantapasin ouden peisetai. all' en toutô dê kai malista diênenke pharmakou dêlêtêriou trophê; to men gar kratei tês en tô sômati dynameôs, hê de krateitai. Oukoun endechetai trophên men einai ti tô zôô prosêkousan, ou mên kai krateisthai g' homoiôs pros tôn || en tô zôô poiotêtôn; to krateisthai d' ên 162 alloiousthai. all' epei ta men ischyrotera tais dynamesin esti moria, ta d' asthenestera, kratêsei men panta tês oikeias tô zôô trophês, ouch homoiôs de panta; kratêsei d' ara kai hê gastêr kai alloiôsei men tên trophên, ou mên homoiôs hêpati kai phlepsi kai artêriais kai kardia. Poson oun estin, ho alloioi, kai dê theasômetha; pleon men ê kata to stoma, meion d' ê kata to hêpar te kai tas phlebas. hautê men gar hê alloiôsis eis haimatos ousian agei tên trophên, hê d' en tô stomati methistêsi men autên enargôs eis heteron eidos, ou mên eis telos ge metakosmei. mathois d' an epi tôn enkataleiphthentôn tais diastasesi tôn odontôn sitiôn kai katameinantôn di' holês nyktos; oute gar artos akribôs ho artos oute kreas esti to kreas, all' ozei men toiouton, hoionper kai tou zôou to stoma, dialelytai de kai diatetêke kai tas en tô zôô tês sarkos apomemaktai poiotêtas. enesti de soi theasasthai to megethos tês en tô stomati || tôn sitiôn 163 alloiôseôs, ei pyrous masêsamenos epitheiês apeptois dothiêsin; opsei gar autous tachista metaballontas te kai sympettontas, ouden toiouton, hotan hydati phyrathôsin, ergasasthai dynamenous. kai mê thaumasês; to gar toi phlegma touti to kata to stoma kai leichênôn estin akos kai skorpious anairei parachrêma kai polla tôn iobolôn thêriôn ta men eutheôs apokteinei, ta d' es hysteron; hapanta goun blaptei megalôs. alla ta memasêmena sitia prôton men toutô tô phlegmati bebrektai te kai pephyratai, deuteron de kai tô chrôti tou stomatos hapanta peplêsiaken, hôste pleiona metabolên eilêphe tôn en tais kenais chôrais tôn odontôn esphênômenôn. All' hoson ta memasêmena toutôn epi pleon êlloiôtai, tosouton ekeinôn ta katapothenta. mê gar oude parablêton ê to tês hyperbolês, ei to kata tên koilian ennoêsaimen phlegma kai cholên kai pneuma kai thermasian kai holên tên ousian tês gastros. ei de kai synepinoêsais autê ta parakeimena || splanchna kathaper tini lebêti megalô 164 pyros hestias pollas, ek dexiôn men to hêpar, ex aristerôn de ton splêna, tên kardian d' ek tôn anô, syn autê de kai tas phrenas aiôroumenas te kai dia pantos kinoumenas, eph' hapasi de toutois skepon to epiploon, exaision tina peisthêsê tên alloiôsin gignesthai tôn eis tên gastera katapothentôn sitiôn. Pôs d' an êdynato rhadiôs haimatousthai mê proparaskeuasthenta tê toiautê metabolê? dedeiktai gar oun kai prosthen, hôs ouden eis tên enantian athroôs methistatai poiotêta. pôs oun ho artos haima gignetai, pôs de to teutlon ê ho kyamos ê ti tôn allôn, ei mê proteron tin' heteran alloiôsin edexato? pôs d' hê kopros en tois leptois enterois athroôs gennêthêsetai? ti gar en toutois sphodroteron eis alloiôsin esti tôn kata tên gastera? potera tôn chitônôn to plêthos ê tôn geitniôntôn splanchnôn hê perithesis ê tês monês ho chronos ê symphytos tis en tois organois thermasia? kai mên kat' ouden toutôn pleonektei ta entera tês gastros. ti pot' oun en men tê gastri nyktos || holês pollakis 165 meinanta ton arton eti phylattesthai boulontai tas archaias diasôzonta poiotêtas, epeidan d' hapax empesê tois enterois, euthys gignesthai kopron? ei men gar ho tosoutos chronos adynatos alloioun, oud' ho brachys hikanos; ei d' houtos autarkês, pôs ou poly mallon ho makros? ar' oun alloioutai men hê trophê kata tên koilian, allên de tin' alloiôsin kai ouch hoian ek tês physeôs ischei tou metaballontos organou? ê tautên men, ou mên tên g' oikeian tô tou zôou sômati? makrô tout' adynatôteron esti. kai mên ouk allo g' ên hê pepsis ê alloiôsis eis tên oikeian tou trephomenou poiotêta. eiper oun hê pepsis tout' esti kai hê trophê kata tên gastera dedeiktai dechomenê poiotêta tô mellonti pros autês threpsesthai zôô prosêkousan, hikanôs apodedeiktai to pettesthai kata tên gastera tên trophên. Kai geloios men Asklêpiadês out' en tais erygais legôn emphainesthai pote tên poiotêta tôn pephthentôn sitiôn out' en tois emetois out' en tais ana||tomais; auto gar 166 dê to tou sômatos exozein auta tês koilias esti to pepephthai. ho d' houtôs estin euêthês, hôst', epeidê tôn palaiôn akouei legontôn epi to chrêston en tê gastri metaballein ta sitia, dokimazei zêtein ou to kata dynamin alla to kata geusin chrêston, hôsper ê tou mêlou mêlôdesterou--chrê gar houtôs autô dialegesthai--gignomenou kata tên koilian ê tou melitos melitôdesterou. Poly d' euêthesteros esti kai geloioteros ho Erasistratos ê mê noôn, hopôs eirêtai pros tôn palaiôn hê pepsis hepsêsei paraplêsios hyparchein, ê hekôn sophizomenos heauton. hepsêsei men oun, phêsin, houtôs elaphran echousan thermasian ouk eikos einai paraplêsian tên pepsin, hôsper ê tên Aitnên deon hypotheinai tê gastri ê allôs autês alloiôsai ta sitia mê dynamenês ê dynamenês men alloioun, ou kata tên emphyton de thermasian, hygran ousan dêlonoti kai dia touth' hepsein ouk optan eirêmenên. Echrên d' auton, eiper peri pragmatôn antilegein ebouleto, peirathênai deixai malista men kai || prôton, 167 hôs oude metaballei tên archên oud' alloioutai kata poiotêta pros tês gastros ta sitia, deuteron d', eiper mê hoios t' ên touto pistôsasthai, to tên alloiôsin autôn achrêston einai tô zôô; ei de mêde tout' eiche diaballein, exelenxai tên peri tas drastikas archas hypolêpsin kai deixai tas energeias en tois moriois ou dia tên ek thermou kai psychrou kai xêrou kai hygrou poian krasin hyparchein alla di' allo ti; ei de mêde tout' etolma diaballein, all' hoti ge mê to thermon estin en tois hypo physeôs dioikoumenois to tôn allôn drastikôtaton. ê ei mête touto mête tôn allôn ti tôn emprosthen eichen apodeiknynai, mê lêrein onomati prospalaionta matên, hôsper ou saphôs Aristotelous en t' allois pollois kan tô tetartô tôn meteôrologikôn hopôs hê pepsis hepsêsei paraplêsios einai legetai, kai hoti mê prôtôs mêde kyriôs onomazontôn, eirêkotos. All', hôs êdê lelektai pollakis, archê toutôn hapantôn esti mia to peri thermou kai psychrou kai xêrou kai hygrou diaskepsasthai, kathaper Aristotelês epoiêsen en tô deuterô peri geneseôs kai phthoras, apo||deixas 168 hapasas tas kata ta sômata metabolas kai alloiôseis hypo toutôn gignesthai. all' Erasistratos oute toutois out' allô tini tôn proeirêmenôn anteipôn epi tounoma monon etrapeto tês hepsêseôs. VIII Thus, as regards _digestion_, even though he neglected everything else, he did at least attempt to prove his point--namely, that digestion in animals differs from boiling carried on outside; in regard to the question of _deglutition_, however, he did not go even so far as this. What are his words? "The stomach does not appear to exercise any traction."[339] Now the fact is that the stomach possesses two coats, which certainly exist for some purpose; they extend as far as the mouth, the internal one remaining throughout similar to what it is in the stomach, and the other one tending to become of a more fleshy nature in the gullet. Now simple observation will testify that these coats have their fibres inserted in contrary directions.[340] And, although Erasistratus did not attempt to say for what reason they are like this, I am going to do so. The inner coat has its fibres straight, since it exists for the purpose of traction. The outer coat has its fibres transverse, for the purpose of peristalsis.[341] In fact, the movements of each of the _mobile_ organs of the body depend on the setting of the fibres. Now please test this assertion first in the muscles themselves; in these the fibres are most distinct, and their movements visible owing to their vigour. And after the muscles, pass to the _physical_ organs,[342] and you will see that they all move in correspondence with their fibres. This is why the fibres throughout the intestines are circular in both coats--they only contract peristaltically, they do not exercise traction. The stomach, again, has some of its fibres longitudinal for the purpose of traction and the others transverse for the purpose of peristalsis.[342] For just as the movements in the muscles[343] take place when each of the fibres becomes tightened and drawn towards its origin, such also is what happens in the stomach; when the transverse fibres tighten, the breadth of the cavity contained by them becomes less; and when the longitudinal fibres contract and draw in upon themselves, the length must necessarily be curtailed. This curtailment of length, indeed, is well seen in the act of swallowing: the larynx is seen to rise upwards to exactly the same degree that the gullet is drawn downwards; while, after the process of swallowing has been completed and the gullet is released from tension, the larynx can be clearly seen to sink down again. This is because the inner coat of the stomach, which has the longitudinal fibres and which also lines the gullet and the mouth, extends to the interior of the larynx, and it is thus impossible for it to be drawn down by the stomach without the larynx being involved in the traction. Further, it will be found acknowledged in Erasistratus's own writings that the circular fibres (by which the stomach as well as other parts performs its contractions) do not curtail its length, but contract and lessen its breadth. For he says that the stomach contracts peristaltically round the food during the whole period of digestion. But if it contracts, without in any way being diminished in length, this is because downward traction of the gullet is not a property of the movement of circular peristalsis. For what alone happens, as Erasistratus himself said, is that when the upper parts contract the lower ones dilate.[344] And everyone knows that this can be plainly seen happening even in a dead man, if water be poured down his throat; this symptom[345] results from the passage of matter through a narrow channel; it would be extraordinary it the channel did not dilate when a mass was passing through it.[346] Obviously then the dilatation of the lower parts along with the contraction of the upper is common both to dead bodies, when anything whatsoever is passing through them, and to living ones, whether they contract peristaltically round their contents or attract them.[347] Curtailment of length, on the other hand, is peculiar to organs which possess longitudinal fibres for the purpose of attraction. But the gullet was shown to be pulled down; for otherwise it would not have drawn upon the larynx. It is therefore clear that the stomach attracts food by the gullet. Further, in _vomiting_, the mere passive conveyance of rejected matter up to the mouth will certainly itself suffice to keep open those parts of the oesophagus which are distended by the returned food; as it occupies each part in front [above], it first dilates this, and of course leaves the part behind [below] contracted. Thus, in this respect at least, the condition of the gullet is precisely similar to what it is in the act of swallowing.[348] But there being no _traction_, the whole length remains equal in such cases. And for this reason it is easier to swallow than to vomit, for deglutition results from _both_ coats of the stomach being brought into action, the inner one exerting a pull and the outer one helping by peristalsis and propulsion, whereas emesis occurs from the outer coat alone functioning, without there being any kind of pull towards the mouth. For, although the swallowing of food is ordinarily preceded by a feeling of desire on the part of the stomach, there is in the case of vomiting no corresponding desire from the mouth-parts for the experience; the two are opposite dispositions of the stomach itself; it yearns after and tends towards what is advantageous and proper to it, it loathes and rids itself of what is foreign. Thus the actual process of swallowing occurs very quickly in those who have a good appetite for such foods as are proper to the stomach; this organ obviously draws them in and down before they are masticated; whereas in the case of those who are forced to take a medicinal draught or who take food as medicine, the swallowing of these articles is accomplished with distress and difficulty. From what has been said, then, it is clear that the inner coat of the stomach (that containing longitudinal fibres) exists for the purpose of exerting a pull from mouth to stomach, and that it is only in deglutition that it is active, whereas the external coat, which contains transverse fibres, has been so constituted in order that it may contract upon its contents and propel them forward; this coat furthermore, functions in vomiting no less than in swallowing. The truth of my statement is also borne out by what happens in the case of the _channae_ and _synodonts_[349]; the stomachs of these animals are sometimes found in their mouths, as also Aristotle writes in his _History of Animals_; he also adds the cause of this: he says that it is owing to their voracity. The facts are as follows. In all animals, when the appetite is very intense, the stomach rises up, so that some people who have a clear perception of this condition say that their stomach "creeps out" of them; in others, who are still masticating their food and have not yet worked it up properly in the mouth, the stomach obviously snatches away the food from them against their will. In those animals, therefore, which are naturally voracious, in whom the mouth cavity is of generous proportions, and the stomach situated close to it (as in the case of the synodont and channa), it is in no way surprising that, when they are sufficiently hungry and are pursuing one of the smaller animals, and are just on the point of catching it, the stomach should, under the impulse of desire, spring into the mouth. And this cannot possibly take place in any other way than by the stomach drawing the food to itself by means of the gullet, as though by a hand. In fact, just as we ourselves, in our eagerness to grasp more quickly something lying before us, sometimes stretch out our whole bodies along with our hands, so also the stomach stretches itself forward along with the gullet, which is, as it were, its hand. And thus, in these animals in whom those three factors co-exist--an excessive propensity for food, a small gullet, and ample mouth proportions--in these, any slight tendency to movement forwards brings the whole stomach into the mouth. Now the constitution of the organs might itself suffice to give a naturalist an indication of their functions. For Nature would never have purposelessly constructed the oesophagus of two coats with contrary dispositions; they must also have each been meant to have a different action. The Erasistratean school, however, are capable of anything rather than of recognizing the effects of Nature. Come, therefore, let us demonstrate to them by animal dissection as well that each of the two coats does exercise the activity which I have stated. Take an animal, then; lay bare the structures surrounding the gullet, without severing any of the nerves,[350] arteries, or veins which are there situated; next divide with vertical incisions, from the lower jaw to the thorax, the outer coat of the oesophagus (that containing transverse fibres); then give the animal food and you will see that it still swallows although the peristaltic function has been abolished. If, again, in another animal, you cut through both coats[351] with transverse incisions, you will observe that this animal also swallows although the inner coat is no longer functioning. From this it is clear that the animal can also swallow by either of the two coats, although not so well as by both. For the following also, in addition to other points, may be distinctly observed in the dissection which I have described--that during deglutition the gullet becomes slightly filled with air which is swallowed along with the food, and that, when the outer coat is contracting, this air is easily forced with the food into the stomach, but that, when there only exists an inner coat, the air impedes the conveyance of food, by distending this coat and hindering its action. But Erasistratus said nothing about this, nor did he point out that the oblique situation of the gullet clearly confutes the teaching of those who hold that it is simply by virtue of the impulse from above that food which is swallowed reaches the stomach. The only correct thing he said was that many of the long-necked animals bend down to swallow. Hence, clearly, the observed fact does not show how we swallow but how we do not swallow. For from this observation it is clear that swallowing is not due merely to the impulse from above; it is yet, however, not clear whether it results from the food being attracted by the stomach, or conducted by the gullet. For our part, however, having enumerated all the different considerations--those based on the constitution of the organs, as well as those based on the other symptoms which, as just mentioned, occur both before and after the gullet has been exposed--we have thus sufficiently proved that the inner coat exists for the purpose of attraction and the outer for the purpose of propulsion. Now the original task we set before ourselves was to demonstrate that the _retentive_ faculty exists in every one of the organs, just as in the previous book we proved the existence of the _attractive_, and, over and above this, the _alterative_ faculty. Thus, in the natural course of our argument, we have demonstrated these four faculties existing in the stomach--the attractive faculty in connection with swallowing, the retentive with digestion, the expulsive with vomiting and with the descent of digested food into the small intestine--and digestion itself we have shown to be a process of _alteration_. VIII Epi men oun tês pepseôs, ei kai talla panta parelipe, to goun hoti diapherei tês ektos hepsêseôs hê en tois zôois pepsis, epeirathê deiknynai, peri de tês kataposeôs oud' achri tosoutou. ti gar phêsin? "Holkê men oun tês koilias oudemia phainetai einai." Kai mên dyo chitônas hê gastêr echei pantôs heneka tou gegonotas kai diêkousin houtoi mechri tou stomatos, ho men endon, hoios esti kata tên gastera, toioutos diamenôn, ho d' heteros epi to sarkôdesteron en tô stomachô trepomenos. hoti men oun enantias allêlais tas epibolas tôn inôn echousin hoi chitônes houtoi, to phainomenon auto martyrei. tinos d' heneka toioutoi gegonasin, Erasistratos men oud' epecheirêsen eipein, hêmeis d' eroumen. Ho men endon eutheias echei tas inas, holkês gar heneka ge||gonen; ho d' exôthen enkarsias hyper tou kata kyklon 169 peristellesthai; hekastô gar tôn kinoumenôn organôn en tois sômasi kata tas tôn inôn theseis hai kinêseis eisin. ep' autôn de prôton tôn myôn, ei boulei, basanison ton logon, eph' hôn kai hai ines enargestatai kai hai kinêseis autôn horôntai dia sphodrotêta. meta de tous mys epi ta physika tôn organôn ithi kai pant' opsei kata tas inas kinoumena kai dia touth' hekastô men tôn enterôn strongylai kath' hekateron tôn chitônôn hai ines eisi; peristellontai gar monon, helkousi d' ouden. hê gastêr de tôn inôn tas men eutheias echei charin holkês, tas d' enkarsias heneka peristolês; hôsper gar en tois mysin hekastês tôn inôn teinomenês te kai pros tên archên helkomenês hai kinêseis gignontai, kata ton auton logon kan tê gastri; tôn men oun enkarsiôn inôn teinomenôn elatton anankê gignesthai to euros tês periechomenês hyp' autôn koilotêtos, tôn d' eutheiôn helkomenôn te kai eis heautas synagomenôn ouk endechetai mê ou synaireisthai to mêkos. alla mên || enargôs ge 170 phainetai katapinontôn synairoumenon kai tosouton ho larynx anatrechôn, hoson ho stomachos kataspatai, kai hotan ge symplêrôtheisês tês en tô katapinein energeias aphethê tês taseôs ho stomachos, enargôs palin phainetai katapheromenos ho larynx; ho gar endon chitôn tês gastros ho tas eutheias inas echôn ho kai ton stomachon hypaleiphôn kai to stoma tois entos meresin epekteinetai tou laryngos, hôst' ouk endechetai kataspômenon auton hypo tês koilias mê ou synepispasthai kai ton larynga. Hoti d' hai periphereis ines, hais peristelletai ta t' alla moria kai hê gastêr, ou synairousi to mêkos, alla systellousi kai stenousi tên eurytêta, kai par' autou labein estin homologoumenon Erasistratou; peristellesthai gar phêsi tois sitiois tên gastera kata ton tês pepseôs hapanta chronon. all' ei peristelletai men, ouden de tou mêkous aphaireitai tês koilias, ouk esti tês peristaltikês kinêseôs idion to kataspan katô ton stomachon. hoper gar autos ho Erasistratos eipe, touto monon auto symbêsetai to tôn anô systel||lomenôn 171 diastellesthai ta katô. touto d' hoti, kan eis nekrou ton stomachon hydatos encheês, phainetai gignomenon, oudeis agnoei. tais gar tôn hylôn dia stenou sômatos hodoiporiais akolouthon esti to symptôma; thaumaston gar, ei dierchomenou tinos auton onkou mê diastalêsetai. oukoun to men tôn anô systellomenôn diastellesthai ta katô koinon esti kai tois nekrois sômasi, di' hôn hopôsoun ti diexerchetai, kai tois zôsin, eite peristelloito tois dierchomenois eith' helkoito. To de tês tou mêkous synaireseôs idion tôn tas eutheias inas echontôn organôn, hin' epispasôntai ti. alla mên edeichthê kataspômenos ho stomachos, ou gar an heilke ton larynga; dêlon oun, hôs hê gastêr helkei ta sitia dia tou stomachou. Kai hê kata ton emeton de tôn emoumenôn achri tou stomatos phora pantôs men pou kai autê ta men hypo tôn anapheromenôn diateinomena merê tou stomachou diestôta kektêtai, tôn prosô d' ho ti an hekastot' epilambanêtai, tout' archomenon diastelletai, to d' || opisthen 172 kataleipei dêlonoti systellomenon, hôsth' homoian einai pantê tên diathesin tou stomachou kata ge touto tê tôn katapinontôn; alla tês holkês mê parousês to mêkos holon ison en tois toioutois symptômasi diaphylattetai. Dia touto de kai katapinein rhaon estin ê emein, hoti katapinetai men amphoin tês gastros tôn chitônôn energountôn, tou men entos helkontos, tou d' ektos peristellomenou te kai synepôthountos, emeitai de thaterou monou tou exôthen energountos, oudenos helkontos eis to stoma. ou gar dê hôsper hê tês gastros orexis proêgeito tou katapinein ta sitia, ton auton tropon kan tois emetois epithymei ti tôn kata to stoma moriôn tou gignomenou pathêmatos, all' amphô tês gastros autês eisin enantiai diatheseis, oregomenês men kai prosiemenês ta chrêsima te kai oikeia, dyscherainousês de kai apotribomenês ta allotria. dio kai to katapinein auto tois men hikanôs oregomenois tôn oikeiôn edesmatôn tê gastri tachista gignetai, saphôs helkousês auta kai kataspôsês prin ê masêthênai, tois d' êtoi pharmakon ti kat' anan||kên pinousin ê sition en chôra pharmakou 173 prospheromenois aniara kai mogis hê kataposis autôn epiteleitai. Dêlos oun estin ek tôn eirêmenôn ho men endon chitôn tês gastros ho tas eutheias echôn inas tês ek tou stomatos eis autên holkês heneka gegonôs kai dia tout' en tais kataposesi monais energôn, ho d' exôthen ho tas enkarsias echôn heneka men tou peristellesthai tois enyparchousi kai proôthein auta toioutos apotelestheis, energôn d' ouden hêtton en tois emetois ê tais kataposesin. enargestata de martyrei tô legomenô kai to kata tas channas te kai tous synodontas gignomenon; heurisketai gar eniote toutôn hê gastêr en tô stomati kathaper kai ho Aristotelês en tais peri zôôn egrapsen historiais kai prostithêsi ge tên aitian hypo laimargias autois touto symbainein phaskôn. Echei gar hôde; kata tas sphodroteras orexeis anô prostrechei pasi tois zôois hê gastêr, hôste tines tou pathous aisthêsin enargê schontes exerpein hautois phasi tên koilian, eniôn de masômenôn eti kai mêpô || kalôs en 174 tô stomati ta sitia katergasamenôn exarpazei phanerôs akontôn. eph' hôn oun zôôn physei laimargôn hyparchontôn hê t' eurychôria tou stomatos esti dapsilês hê te tês gastros thesis engys, hôs epi synodontos te kai channês, ouden thaumaston, hotan hikanôs peinasanta diôkê ti tôn mikroterôn zôôn, eit' êdê plêsion ê tou syllabein, anatrechein epeigousês tês epithymias eis to stoma tên gastera. genesthai d' allôs amêchanon touto mê ouch hôsper dia cheiros tou stomachou tês gastros epispômenês eis heautên ta sitia. kathaper gar kai hêmeis hypo prothymias eniote tê cheiri synepekteinomen holous hêmas autous heneka tou thatton epidraxasthai tou prokeimenou sômatos, houtô kai hê gastêr hoion cheiri tô stomachô synepekteinetai. kai dia tout' eph' hôn zôôn hama ta tria tauti synepesen, ephesis te sphodra tês trophês ho te stomachos mikros hê t' eurychôria tou stomatos dapsilês, epi toutôn oligê rhopê tês epektaseôs eis to stoma tên koilian holên anapherei. Êrkei men oun isôs andri physikô par' autês monês tês kataskeuês tôn orga||nôn tên endeixin tês energeias 175 lambanein. ou gar dê matên g' an hê physis ek dyoin chitônôn enantiôs allêlois echontôn apeirgasato ton oisophagon, ei mê kai diaphorôs hekateros autôn energein emellen. all' epei panta mallon ê ta tês physeôs erga diagignôskein hoi peri ton Erasistraton eisin hikanoi, phere kak tês tôn zôôn anatomês epideixômen autois, hôs hekateros tôn chitônôn energei tên eirêmenên energeian. ei dê ti labôn zôon, eita gymnôsas autou ta perikeimena tô stomachô sômata chôris tou diatemein tina tôn neurôn ê tôn artêriôn ê tôn phlebôn tôn autothi tetagmenôn ethelois apo tês genyos heôs tou thôrakos eutheiais tomais dielein ton exô chitôna ton tas enkarsias inas echonta kapeita tô zôô trophên prosenenkois, opsei katapinon auto kaitoi tês peristaltikês energeias apolôluias. ei d' au palin eph' heterou zôou diatemois amphoterous tous chitônas tomais enkarsiais, theasê kai touto katapinon ouket' energountos tou entos. hô dêlon, hoti kai dia thaterou men autôn katapinein hoion t' estin, || alla cheiron ê di' amphoterôn. pros gar au 176 tois allois kai tout' esti theasasthai saphôs epi tês eirêmenês anatomês, hôs en tô katapinein hypopimplatai pneumatos ho stomachos tou synkatapinomenou tois sitiois, ho peristellomenou men tou exôthen chitônos ôtheitai rhadiôs eis tên gastera syn tois edesmasi, monou de tou endon hyparchontos empodôn histatai tê phora tôn sitiôn diateinon t' auton kai tên energeian empodizon. All' oute toutôn ouden Erasistratos eipen outh' hôs hê skolia thesis tou stomachou diaballei saphôs to dogma tôn nomizontôn hypo tês anôthen bolês monês podêgoumena mechri tês gastros ienai ta katapinomena. monon d' hoti polla tôn makrotrachêlôn zôôn epikekyphota katapinei, kalôs eipen. hô dêlon, hoti to phainomenon ou to pôs katapinomen apodeiknysin, alla to pôs ou katapinomen; hoti gar mê dia monês tês anôthen bolês, ek toutou dêlon; ou mên eith' helkousês tês koilias eite paragontos auta tou stomachou, dêlon êdê pô. all' hêmeis ge || pantas tous logismous eipontes tous t' ek tês 177 kataskeuês tôn organôn hormômenous kai tous apo tôn allôn symptômatôn tôn te pro tou gymnôthênai ton stomachon kai gymnôthentos, hôs oligô prosthen elegomen, hikanôs enedeixametha tou men helkein heneka ton entos chitôna, tou d' apôthein ton ektos gegonenai. Prouthemetha men oun apodeixai tên kathektikên dynamin en hekastô tôn organôn ousan, hôsper en tô prosthen logô tên helktikên te kai proseti tên alloiôtikên. hypo de tês akolouthias tou logou tas tettaras apedeixamen hyparchousas tê gastri, tên helktikên men en tô katapinein, tên kathektikên d' en tô pettein, tên apôstikên d' en tois emetois kai tais tôn pepemmenôn sitiôn eis to lepton enteron hypochôrêsesin, autên de tên pepsin alloiôsin hyparchein. IX Concerning the spleen, also, we shall therefore have no further doubts[352] as to whether it attracts what is proper to it, rejects what is foreign, and has a natural power of altering and retaining all that it attracts; nor shall we be in any doubt as to the liver, veins, arteries, heart, or any other organ. For these four faculties have been shown to be necessary for every part which is to be nourished; this is why we have called these faculties the _handmaids of nutrition_. For just as human faeces are most pleasing to dogs, so the residual matters from the liver are, some of them, proper to the spleen,[353] others to the gall-bladder, and others to the kidneys. IX Oukoun et' aporêsomen oude peri tou splênos, ei helkei men to oikeion, apokrinei de to allotrion, alloioun de kai katechein, hoson an epispasêtai, pephyken, oude peri hêpatos ê phlebos ê artêrias ê kardias ê tôn || allôn 178 tinos; anankaiai gar edeichthêsan hai tettares hautai dynameis hapanti moriô tô mellonti threpsesthai kai dia tout' autas hypêretidas einai threpseôs ephamen; hôs gar to tôn anthrôpôn apopatêma tois kysin hêdiston, houtô kai ta tou hêpatos perittômata to men tô splêni, to de tê cholêdochô kystei, to de tois nephrois oikeion. X I should not have cared to say anything further as to the origin of these [surplus substances] after Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle, Diocles, Praxagoras, and Philotimus, nor indeed should I even have said anything about the _faculties_, if any of our predecessors had worked out this subject thoroughly. While, however, the statements which the Ancients made on these points were correct, they yet omitted to defend their arguments with logical proofs; of course they never suspected that there could be sophists so shameless as to try to contradict obvious facts. More recent physicians, again, have been partly conquered by the sophistries of these fellows and have given credence to them; whilst others who attempted to argue with them appear to me to lack to a great extent the power of the Ancients. For this reason I have attempted to put together my arguments in the way in which it seems to me the Ancients, had any of them been still alive, would have done, in opposition to those who would overturn the finest doctrines of our art. I am not, however, unaware that I shall achieve either nothing at all or else very little. For I find that a great many things which have been conclusively demonstrated by the Ancients are unintelligible to the bulk of the Moderns owing to their ignorance--nay, that, by reason of their laziness, they will not even make an attempt to comprehend them; and even if any of them have understood them, they have not given them impartial examination. The fact is that he whose purpose is to know anything better than the multitude do must far surpass all others both as regards his nature and his early training. And when he reaches early adolescence he must become possessed with an ardent love for truth, like one inspired; neither day nor night may he cease to urge and strain himself in order to learn thoroughly all that has been said by the most illustrious of the Ancients. And when he has learnt this, then for a prolonged period he must test and prove it, observing what part of it is in agreement, and what in disagreement with obvious fact; thus he will choose this and turn away from that. To such an one my hope has been that my treatise would prove of the very greatest assistance.... Still, such people may be expected to be quite few in number, while, as for the others, this book will be as superfluous to them as a tale told to an ass. X Kai legein eti peri tês toutôn geneseôs ouk an etheloimi meth' Hippokratên kai Platôna kai Aristotelên kai Dioklea kai Praxagoran kai Philotimon; oude gar oude peri tôn dynameôn eipon an, ei tis tôn emprosthen akribôs exeirgasato ton hyper autôn logon. Epei d' hoi men palaioi kalôs hyper autôn apophênamenoi parelipon agônisasthai tô logô, mêd' hyponoêsantes esesthai tinas eis tosouton anaischyntous sophistas, hôs antilegein epicheirêsai tois enargesin, hoi neôteroi de to men ti nikêthentes hypo tôn sophismatôn epeisthêsan autois, to de ti kai antilegein epicheirêsantes apodein moi poly tês tôn palaiôn edoxan dynameôs, || dia touth', 179 hôs an ekeinôn autôn, eiper et' ên tis, agônisasthai moi dokei pros tous anatrepontas tês technês ta kallista, kai autos houtôs epeirathên syntheinai tous logous. Hoti d' ê ouden ê pantapasin anysô ti smikron, ouk agnoô; pampolla gar heuriskô teleôs men apodedeigmena tois palaiois, oute de syneta tois pollois tôn nyn di' amathian all' oud' epicheiroumena gignôskesthai dia rhathymian, out', ei kai gnôstheiê tini, dikaiôs exetazomena. Chrê gar ton mellonta gnôsesthai ti tôn pollôn ameinon euthys men kai tê physei kai tê prôtê didaskalia poly tôn allôn dienenkein; epeidan de genêtai meirakion, alêtheias tina schein erôtikên manian, hôsper enthousiônta kai mêth' hêmeras mête nyktos dialeipein speudonta te kai syntetamenon ekmathein, hosa tois endoxotatois eirêtai tôn palaiôn; epeidan d' ekmathê, krinein auta kai basanizein chronô pampollô kai skopein, posa men homologei tois enargôs phainomenois, posa de diapheretai, || kai houtô ta men haireisthai, ta d' 180 apostrephesthai. tô men dê toioutô pany sphodra chrêsimous êlpika tous hêmeterous esesthai logous; eien d' an oligoi pantapasin houtoi; tois d' allois houtô genêsetai to gramma peritton, hôs ei kai mython onô tis legoi. XI For the sake, then, of those who are aiming at truth, we must complete this treatise by adding what is still wanting in it. Now, in people who are very hungry, the stomach obviously attracts or draws down the food before it has been thoroughly softened in the mouth, whilst in those who have no appetite or who are being forced to eat, the stomach is displeased and rejects the food.[354] And in a similar way each of the other organs possesses both faculties--that of attracting what is proper to it, and that of rejecting what is foreign. Thus, even if there be any organ which consists of only one coat (such as the two bladders,[355] the uterus, and the veins), it yet possesses both kinds of fibres, the longitudinal and the transverse. But further, there are fibres of a third kind--the _oblique_--which are much fewer in number than the two kinds already spoken of. In the organs consisting of two coats this kind of fibre is found in the one coat only, mixed with the longitudinal fibres; but in the organs composed of one coat it is found along with the other two kinds. Now, these are of the greatest help to the action of the faculty which we have named _retentive_. For during this period the part needs to be tightly contracted and stretched over its contents at every point--the stomach during the whole period of digestion,[356] and the uterus during that of gestation. Thus too, the coat of a vein, being single, consists of various kinds of fibres; whilst the outer coat of an artery consists of circular fibres, and its inner coat mostly of longitudinal fibres, but with a few oblique ones also amongst them. Veins thus resemble the uterus or the bladder as regards the arrangement of their fibres, even though they are deficient in thickness; similarly arteries resemble the stomach. Alone of all organs the intestines consist of two coats of which both have their fibres transverse.[357] Now the proof that it was _for the best_ that all the organs should be naturally such as they are (that, for instance, the intestines should be composed of two coats) belongs to the subject of the _use of parts_[358]; thus we must not now desire to hear about matters of this kind nor why the anatomists are at variance regarding the number of coats in each organ. For these questions have been sufficiently discussed in the treatise "On Disagreement in Anatomy." And the problem as to why each organ has such and such a character will be discussed in the treatise "On the Use of Parts." XI Symperanteon oun hêmin ton logon heneka tôn tês alêtheias ephiemenôn hosa leipei kat' auton eti prostheisin. hôs gar hê gastêr helkei men enargôs kai kataspa ta sitia tois sphodra peinôdesi, prin akribôs en tô stomati leiôthênai, dyscherainei de kai apôtheitai tois apositois te kai pros anankên esthiousin, houtô kai tôn allôn organôn hekaston amphoteras echei tas dynameis, tên te tôn oikeiôn helktikên kai tên tôn allotriôn apokritikên. kai dia touto, kan ex henos ê chitônos organon ti synestôs, hôsper kai hai kysteis amphoterai kai hai mêtrai kai hai phlebes, amphotera tôn inôn echei ta genê, tôn eutheiôn te kai tôn enkarsiôn. Kai men ge kai triton ti || genos inôn esti loxôn, 181 elatton poly tô plêthei tôn proeirêmenôn dyo genôn. heurisketai d' en men tois ek dyoin chitônôn synestêkosin organois en thaterô monô tais eutheiais isin anamemigmenon, en de tois ex henos hama tois allois dyo genesi. synepilambanousi d' hautai megiston tê tês kathektikês onomastheisês dynameôs energeia; deitai gar en toutô tô chronô pantachothen esphinchthai kai peritetasthai tois enyparchousi to morion, hê men gastêr en tô tês pepseôs, hai mêtrai d' en tô tês kyêseôs chronô panti. Taut' ara kai ho tês phlebos chitôn heis ôn ek polyeidôn inôn egeneto kai tôn tês artêrias ho men exôthen ek tôn strongylôn, ho d' esôthen ek men tôn eutheiôn pleistôn, oligôn de tinôn syn autais kai tôn loxôn, hôste tas men phlebas tais mêtrais kai tais kystesin eoikenai kata ge tên tôn inôn synthesin, ei kai tô pachei leipontai, tas d' artêrias tê gastri. mona de pantôn organôn ek dyoin th' hama kai amphoterôn enkarsias echontôn tas inas egeneto ta entera. to d' hoti beltion ên || tôn t' allôn 182 hekastô toioutô tên physin hyparchein, hoionper kai nyn esti, tois t' enterois ek dyoin homoiôn chitônôn synkeisthai, tês peri chreias moriôn pragmateias estin. oukoun nyn chrê pothein akouein peri tôn toioutôn, hôsper oude dia ti peri tou plêthous tôn chitônôn hekastou tôn organôn diapephônêtai tois anatomikois andrasin. hyper men gar toutôn autarkôs en tois peri tês anatomikês diaphônias eirêtai; peri de tou dioti toiouton hekaston egeneto tôn organôn, en tois peri chreias moriôn eirêsetai. XII It is not, however, our business to discuss either of these questions here, but to consider duly the _natural faculties_, which, to the number of four, exist in each organ. Returning then, to this point, let us recall what has already been said, and set a crown to the whole subject by adding what is still wanting. For when every part of the animal has been shewn to draw into itself the juice which is proper to it (this being practically _the first of the natural faculties_), the next point to realise is that the part does not get rid either of this attracted nutriment as a whole, or even of any superfluous portion of it, until either the organ itself, or the major part of its contents also have their condition reversed. Thus, when the stomach is sufficiently filled with the food and has absorbed and stored away the most useful part of it in its own coats, it then rejects the rest like an alien burden. The same happens to the bladders, when the matter attracted into them begins to give trouble either because it distends them through its quantity or irritates them by its quality. And this also happens in the case of the uterus; for it is either because it can no longer bear to be stretched that it strives to relieve itself of its annoyance, or else because it is irritated by the quality of the fluids poured out into it. Now both of these conditions sometimes occur with actual violence, and then _miscarriage_ takes place. But for the most part they happen in a normal way, this being then called not miscarriage but _delivery_ or _parturition_. Now abortifacient drugs or certain other conditions which destroy the embryo or rupture certain of its membranes are followed by abortion, and similarly also when the uterus is in pain from being in a bad state of tension; and, as has been well said by Hippocrates, excessive movement on the part of the embryo itself brings on labour. Now _pain_ is common to all these conditions, and of this there are three possible causes--either excessive bulk, or weight, or irritation; bulk when the uterus can no longer support the stretching, weight when the contents surpass its strength, and irritation when the fluids which had previously been pent up in the membranes, flow out, on the rapture of these, into the uterus itself, or else when the whole foetus perishes, putrefies, and is resolved into pernicious ichors, and so irritates and bites the coat of the uterus. In all organs, then, both their natural effects and their disorders and maladies plainly take place on analogous lines,[359] some so clearly and manifestly as to need no demonstration, and others less plainly, although not entirely unrecognizable to those who are willing to pay attention. Thus, to take the case of the stomach: the irritation is evident here because this organ possesses most sensibility, and among its other affections those producing nausea and the so-called heartburn clearly demonstrate the eliminative faculty which expels foreign matter. So also in the case of the uterus and the urinary bladder; this latter also may be plainly observed to receive and accumulate fluid until it is so stretched by the amount of this as to be incapable of enduring the pain; or it may be the quality of the urine which irritates it; for every superfluous substance which lingers in the body must obviously putrefy, some in a shorter, and some in a longer time, and thus it becomes pungent, acrid, and burdensome to the organ which contains it. This does not apply, however, in the case of the bladder alongside the liver, whence it is clear that it possesses fewer nerves than do the other organs. Here too, however, at least the physiologist[360] must discover an analogy. For since it was shown that the gall-bladder attracts its own special juice, so as to be often found full, and that it discharges it soon after, this desire to discharge must be either due to the fact that it is burdened by the quantity or that the bile has changed in quality to pungent and acrid. For while food does not change its original quality so fast that it is already ordure as soon as it falls into the small intestine, on the other hand the bile even more readily than the urine becomes altered in quality as soon as ever it leaves the veins, and rapidly undergoes change and putrefaction. Now, if there be clear evidence in relation to the uterus, stomach, and intestines, as well as to the urinary bladder, that there is either some distention, irritation, or burden inciting each of these organs to elimination, there is no difficulty in imagining this in the case of the gall-bladder also, as well as in the other organs,--to which obviously the arteries and veins also belong. XII Nyni d' oudeteron toutôn prokeitai legein, alla tas physikas dynameis monas apodeiknyein en hekastô tôn organôn tettaras hyparchousas. epi tout' oun palin epanelthontes anamnêsômen te tôn emprosthen eirêmenôn epithômen te kephalên êdê tô logô panti to leipon eti prosthentes. epeidê gar hekaston tôn en tô zôô moriôn helkein eis heauto ton oikeion chymon apodedeiktai kai prôtê schedon hautê tôn physikôn esti dynameôn, ephexês || ekeinô gnôsteon, hôs ou proteron apotribetai tên 183 helchtheisan êtoi sympasan ê kai ti perittôma autês, prin an eis enantian metapesê diathesin ê auto to organon ê kai tôn periechomenôn en autô ta pleista. hê men oun gastêr, epeidan men hikanôs emplêsthê tôn sitiôn kai to chrêstotaton autôn eis tous heautês chitônas enapothêtai bdallousa, tênikaut' êdê to loipon apotribetai kathaper achthos allotrion; hai kysteis d', epeidan hekaston tôn helchthentôn ê tô plêthei diateinon ê tê poiotêti daknon aniaron genêtai. Tô d' autô tropô kai hai mêtrai; êtoi gar, epeidan mêketi pherôsi diateinomenai, to lypoun apothesthai speudousin ê tê poiotêti daknomenai tôn ekchythentôn eis autas hygrôn. hekateron de tôn eirêmenôn gignetai men kai biaiôs estin hote kai amblôskousi tênikauta, gignetai d' hôs ta polla kai prosêkontôs, hoper ouk amblôskein all' apokyïskein te kai tiktein onomazetai. tois men oun amblôthridiois pharmakois ê tisin allois pathêmasi diaphthei||rousi to embryon ê tinas tôn 184 hymenôn autou rhêgnyousin hai amblôseis hepontai, houtô de kapeidan aniathôsi poth' hai mêtrai kakôs echousai tê diatasei, tais de tôn embryôn autôn kinêsesi tais sphodrotatais hoi tokoi, kathaper kai touth' Hippokratei kalôs eirêtai. koinon d' hapasôn tôn diatheseôn hê ania kai tautês aition tritton ê onkos perittos ê ti baros ê dêxis; onkos men, epeidan mêketi pherôsi diateinomenai, baros d', epeidan hyper tên rhômên autôn ê to periechomenon, dêxis d', epeidan êtoi ta proteron en tois hymesin hygra stegomena rhagentôn autôn eis autas ekchythê tas mêtras ê kai sympan apophtharen to kyêma sêpomenon te kai dialyomenon eis mochthêrous ichôras houtôs erethizê te kai daknê ton chitôna tôn hysterôn. Analogon oun en hapasi tois organois hekasta tôn t' ergôn autôn tôn physikôn kai mentoi tôn pathêmatôn te kai nosêmatôn phainetai gignomena, ta men enargôs kai saphôs houtôs, hôs apodeixeôs deisthai mêden, ta d' hêtton men enargôs, ou mên agnôsta ge pantapasi tois || 185 ethelousi prosechein ton noun. Epi men oun tês gastros hai te dêxeis enargeis, dioti pleistês aisthêseôs metechei, ta t' alla pathêmata ta te nautian empoiounta kai hoi kaloumenoi kardiôgmoi saphôs endeiknyntai tên apokritikên te kai apôstikên tôn allotriôn dynamin, houtô de kapi tôn hysterôn te kai tês kysteôs tês to ouron hypodechomenês; enargôs gar oun kai hautê phainetai mechri tosoutou to hygron hypodechomenê te kai athroizousa, achris an êtoi pros tou plêthous autou diateinomenê mêketi pherê tên anian ê pros tês poiotêtos daknomenê; chronizon gar hekaston tôn perittômatôn en tô sômati sêpetai dêlonoti, to men elattoni, to de pleioni chronô, kai houtô daknôdes te kai drimy kai aniaron tois periechousi gignetai. ou mên epi ge tês epi tô hêpati kysteôs homoiôs echei; hô dêlon, hoti neurôn hêkista metechei. chrê de kantautha ton ge physikon andra to analogon exeuriskein. ei gar helkein te ton oikeion apedeichthê chymon, hôs phainesthai pollakis mestên, apokri||nein te ton auton 186 touton ouk eis makran, anankaion estin autên ê dia to plêthos barynomenên ê tês poiotêtos metaballousês epi to daknôdes te kai drimy tês apokriseôs ephiesthai. ou gar dê ta men sitia tên archaian hypallattei poiotêta tacheôs houtôs, hôst', epeidan empesê tois leptois enterois, euthys einai kopron, hê cholê d' ou poly mallon ê to ouron, epeidan hapax ekpesê tôn phlebôn, exallattei tên poiotêta, tachista metaballonta kai sêpomena. kai mên eiper epi te tôn kata tas hysteras kai tên koilian kai ta entera kai proseti tên to ouron hypodechomenên kystin enargôs phainetai diatasis tis ê dêxis ê achthos epegeiron hekaston tôn organôn eis apokrisin, ouden chalepon kapi tês cholêdochou kysteôs tauto tout' ennoein epi te tôn allôn hapantôn organôn, ex hôn dêlonoti kai hai artêriai kai hai phlebes eisin. XIII Nor is there any further difficulty in ascertaining that it is through the same channel that both attraction and discharge take place at different times. For obviously the inlet to the stomach does not merely conduct food and drink into this organ, but in the condition of nausea it performs the opposite service. Further, the neck of the bladder which is beside the liver, albeit single, both fills and empties the bladder. Similarly the canal of the uterus affords an entrance to the semen and an exit to the foetus. But in this latter case, again, whilst the eliminative faculty is evident, the attractive faculty is not so obvious to most people. It is, however, the cervix which Hippocrates blames for inertia of the uterus when he says:--"Its orifice has no power of attracting semen."[361] Erasistratus, however, and Asclepiades reached such heights of wisdom that they deprived not merely the stomach and the womb of this faculty but also the bladder by the liver, and the kidneys as well. I have, however, pointed out in the first book that it is impossible to assign any other cause for the secretion of urine or bile.[362] Now, when we find that the uterus, the stomach and the bladder by the liver carry out attraction and expulsion through one and the same duct, we need no longer feel surprised that Nature should also frequently discharge waste-substances into the stomach through the veins. Still less need we be astonished if a certain amount of the food should, during long fasts, be drawn back from the liver into the stomach through the same veins[363] by which it was yielded up to the liver during absorption of nutriment.[364] To disbelieve such things would of course be like refusing to believe that purgative drugs draw their appropriate humours from all over the body by the same stomata through which absorption previously takes place, and to look for separate stomata for absorption and purgation respectively. As a matter of fact one and the same stoma subserves two distinct faculties, and these exercise their pull at different times in opposite directions--first it subserves the pull of the liver and, during catharsis, that of the drug. What is there surprising, then, in the fact that the veins situated between the liver and the region of the stomach[365] fulfil a double service or purpose? Thus, when there is abundance of nutriment contained in the food-canal, it is carried up to the liver by the veins mentioned; and when the canal is empty and in need of nutriment, this is again attracted from the liver by the same veins. For everything appears to attract from and to go shares with everything else, and, as the most divine Hippocrates has said, there would seem to be a consensus in the movements of fluids and vapours.[366] Thus the stronger draws and the weaker is evacuated. Now, one part is weaker or stronger than another either absolutely, by nature, and in all cases, or else it becomes so in such and such a particular instance. Thus, by nature and in all men alike, the heart is stronger than the liver at attracting what is serviceable to it and rejecting what is not so; similarly the liver is stronger than the intestines and stomach, and the arteries than the veins. In each of us personally, however, the liver has stronger drawing power at one time, and the stomach at another. For when there is much nutriment contained in the alimentary canal and the appetite and craving of the liver is violent, then the viscus[367] exerts far the strongest traction. Again, when the liver is full and distended and the stomach empty and in need, then the force of the traction shifts to the latter. Suppose we had some food in our hands and were snatching it from one another; if we were equally in want, the stronger would be likely to prevail, but if he had satisfied his appetite, and was holding what was over carelessly, or was anxious to share it with somebody, and if the weaker was excessively desirous of it, there would be nothing to prevent the latter from getting it all. In a similar manner the stomach easily attracts nutriment from the liver when it [the stomach] has a sufficiently strong craving for it, and the appetite of the viscus is satisfied. And sometimes the surplusage of nutriment in the liver is a reason why the animal is not hungry; for when the stomach has better and more available food it requires nothing from extraneous sources, but if ever it is in need and is at a loss how to supply the need, it becomes filled with waste-matters; these are certain biliary, phlegmatic [mucous] and serous fluids, and are the only substances that the liver yields in response to the traction of the stomach, on the occasions when the latter too is in want of nutriment. Now, just as the parts draw food from each other, so also they sometimes deposit their excess substances in each other, and just as the stronger prevailed when the two were exercising traction, so it is also when they are depositing; this is the cause of the so-called fluxions,[368] for every part has a definite inborn tension, by virtue of which it expels its superfluities, and, therefore, when one of these parts,--owing, of course, to some special condition--becomes weaker, there will necessarily be a confluence into it of the superfluities from all the other parts. The strongest part deposits its surplus matter in all the parts near it; these again in other parts which are weaker; these next into yet others; and this goes on for a long time, until the superfluity, being driven from one part into another, comes to rest in one of the weakest of all; it cannot flow from this into another part, because none of the stronger ones will receive it, while the affected part is unable to drive it away. When, however, we come to deal again with the origin and cure of disease, it will be possible to find there also abundant proofs of all that we have correctly indicated in this book. For the present, however, let us resume again the task that lay before us, _i.e._ to show that there is nothing surprising in nutriment coming from the liver to the intestines and stomach by way of the very veins through which it had previously been yielded up from these organs into the liver. And in many people who have suddenly and completely given up active exercise, or who have had a limb cut off, there occurs at certain periods an evacuation of blood by way of the intestines--as Hippocrates has also pointed out somewhere. This causes no further trouble but sharply purges the whole body and evacuates the plethoras; the passage of the superfluities is effected, of course, through the same veins by which absorption took place. Frequently also in disease Nature purges the animal through these same veins--although in this case the discharge is not sanguineous, but corresponds to the humour which is at fault. Thus in _cholera_ the entire body is evacuated by way of the veins leading to the intestines and stomach. To imagine that matter of different kinds is carried in one direction only would characterise a man who was entirely ignorant of all the natural faculties, and particularly of the eliminative faculty, which is the opposite of the attractive. For opposite movements of matter, active and passive, must necessarily follow opposite faculties; that is to say, every part, after it has attracted its special nutrient juice and has retained and taken the benefit of it hastens to get rid of all the surplusage as quickly and effectively as possible, and this it does in accordance with the mechanical tendency of this surplus matter.[369] Hence the stomach clears away by vomiting those superfluities which come to the surface of its contents,[370] whilst the sediment it clears away by diarrhoea. And when the animal becomes sick, this means that the stomach is striving to be evacuated by vomiting. And the expulsive faculty has in it so violent and forcible an element that in cases of _ileus_ [volvulus], when the lower exit is completely closed, vomiting of faeces occurs; yet such surplus matter could not be emitted from the mouth without having first traversed the whole of the small intestine, the jejunum, the pylorus, the stomach, and the oesophagus. What is there to wonder at, then, if something should also be transferred from the extreme skin-surface and so reach the intestines and stomach? This also was pointed out to us by Hippocrates, who maintained that not merely pneuma or excess-matter, but actual nutriment is brought down from the outer surface to the original place from which it was taken up. For the slightest mechanical movements[371] determine this expulsive faculty, which apparently acts through the transverse fibres, and which is very rapidly transmitted from the source of motion to the opposite extremities. It is, therefore, neither unlikely nor impossible that, when the part adjoining the skin becomes suddenly oppressed by an unwonted cold, it should at once be weakened and should find that the liquid previously deposited beside it without discomfort had now become more of a burden than a source of nutrition, and should therefore strive to put it away. Finally, seeing that the passage outwards was shut off by the condensation [of tissue], it would turn to the remaining exit and would thus forcibly expel all the waste-matter at once into the adjacent part; this would do the same to the part following it; and the process would not cease until the transference finally terminated at the inner ends of the veins.[372] Now, movements like these come to an end fairly soon, but those resulting from internal irritants (_e.g._, in the administration of purgative drugs or in cholera) become much stronger and more lasting; they persist as long as the condition of things[373] about the mouths of the veins continues, that is, so long as these continue to attract what is adjacent. For this condition[374] causes evacuation of the contiguous part, and that again of the part next to it, and this never stops until the extreme surface is reached; thus, as each part keeps passing on matter to its neighbour, the original affection[375] very quickly arrives at the extreme termination. Now this is also the case in _ileus_; the inflamed intestine is unable to support either the weight or the acridity of the waste substances and so does its best to excrete them, in fact to drive them as far away as possible. And, being prevented from effecting an expulsion downwards when the severest part of the inflammation is there, it expels the matter into the adjoining part of the intestines situated above. Thus the tendency of the eliminative faculty is step by step upwards, until the superfluities reach the mouth. Now this will be also spoken of at greater length in my treatise on disease. For the present, however, I think I have shewn clearly that there is a universal conveyance or transference from one thing into another, and that, as Hippocrates used to say, there exists in everything a consensus in the movement of air and fluids. And I do not think that anyone, however slow his intellect, will now be at a loss to understand any of these points,--how, for instance, the stomach or intestines get nourished, or in what manner anything makes its way inwards from the outer surface of the body. Seeing that all parts have the faculty of attracting what is suitable or well-disposed and of eliminating what is troublesome or irritating, it is not surprising that opposite movements should occur in them consecutively--as may be clearly seen in the case of the heart, in the various arteries, in the thorax, and lungs. In all these[376] the active movements of the organs and therewith the passive movements of [their contained] matters may be seen taking place almost every second in opposite directions. Now, you are not astonished when the trachea-artery[377] alternately draws air into the lungs and gives it out, and when the nostrils and the whole mouth act similarly; nor do you think it strange or paradoxical that the air is dismissed through the very channel by which it was admitted just before. Do you, then, feel a difficulty in the case of the veins which pass down from the liver into the stomach and intestines, and do you think it strange that nutriment should at once be yielded up to the liver and drawn back from it into the stomach by the same veins? You must define what you mean by this expression "at once." If you mean "at the same time" this is not what we ourselves say; for just as we take in a breath at one moment and give it out again at another, so at one time the liver draws nutriment from the stomach, and at another the stomach from the liver. But if your expression "at once" means that in one and the same animal a single organ subserves the transport of matter in opposite directions, and if it is this which disturbs you, consider inspiration and expiration. For of course these also take place through the same organs, albeit they differ in their manner of movement, and in the way in which the matter is conveyed through them. Now the lungs, the thorax, the arteries rough and smooth, the heart, the mouth, and the nostrils reverse their movements at very short intervals and change the direction of the matters they contain. On the other hand, the veins which pass down from the liver to the intestines and stomach reverse the direction of their movements not at such short intervals, but sometimes once in many days. The whole matter, in fact, is as follows:--Each of the organs draws into itself the nutriment alongside it, and devours all the useful fluid in it, until it is thoroughly satisfied; this nutriment, as I have already shown, it stores up in itself, afterwards making it adhere and then assimilating it--that is, it becomes nourished by it. For it has been demonstrated with sufficient clearness already[378] that there is something which necessarily precedes actual nutrition, namely _adhesion_, and that before this again comes _presentation_. Thus as in the case of the _animals_ themselves the end of eating is that the stomach should be filled, similarly in the case of each of the _parts_, the end of presentation is the filling of this part with its appropriate liquid. Since, therefore, every part has, like the stomach, a _craving_[379] to be nourished, it too envelops its nutriment and clasps it all round as the stomach does. And this [action of the stomach], as has been already said, is necessarily followed by the digestion of the food, although it is not to make it suitable for the other parts that the stomach contracts upon it; if it did so, it would no longer be a physiological organ,[380] but an animal possessing reason and intelligence, with the power of choosing the better [of two alternatives]. But while the stomach contracts for the reason that the whole body possesses a power of attracting and of utilising appropriate qualities, as has already been explained, it also happens that, in this process, the food undergoes alteration; further, when filled and saturated with the fluid pabulum from the food, it thereafter looks on the food as a burden; thus it at once gets rid of the excess--that is to say, drives it downwards--itself turning to another task, namely that of causing adhesion. And during this time, while the nutriment is passing along the whole length of the _intestine_, it is caught up by the vessels which pass into the intestine; as we shall shortly demonstrate,[381] most of it is seized by the veins, but a little also by the arteries; at this stage also it becomes _presented_ to the coats of the intestines. Now imagine the whole economy of nutrition divided into three periods. Suppose that in the first period the nutriment remains in the stomach and is digested and presented to the stomach until satiety is reached, also that some of it is taken up from the stomach to the liver.[382] During the second period it passes along the intestines and becomes presented both to them and to the liver--again until the stage of satiety--while a small part of it is carried all over the body.[382] During this period, also imagine that what was presented to the stomach in the first period becomes now adherent to it. During the third period the stomach has reached the stage of receiving nourishment; it now entirely assimilates everything that had become adherent to it: at the same time in the intestines and liver there takes place adhesion of what had been before presented, while dispersal [anadosis] is taking place to all parts of the body,[383] as also presentation. Now, if the animal takes food immediately after these [three stages] then, during the time that the stomach is again digesting and getting the benefit of this by presenting all the useful part of it to its own coats, the intestines will be engaged in final assimilation of the juices which have adhered to them, and so also will the liver: while in the various parts of the body there will be taking place adhesion of the portions of nutriment presented. And if the stomach is forced to remain without food during this time, it will draw its nutriment from the veins in the mesentery and liver; for it will not do so from the actual body of the liver (by _body of the liver_ I mean first and foremost its flesh proper, and after this all the vessels contained in it), for it is irrational to suppose that one part would draw away from another part the juice already contained in it, especially when adhesion and final assimilation of that juice were already taking place; the juice, however, that is in the cavity of the veins will be abstracted by the part which is stronger and more in need. It is in this way, therefore, that the stomach, when it is in need of nourishment and the animal has nothing to eat, seizes it from the veins in the liver. Also in the case of the spleen we have shown in a former passage[384] how it draws all material from the liver that tends to be thick, and by working it up converts it into more useful matter. There is nothing surprising, therefore, if, in the present instance also, some of this should be drawn from the spleen into such organs as communicate with it by veins, _e.g._ the omentum, mesentery, small intestine, colon, and the stomach itself. Nor is it surprising that the spleen should disgorge its surplus matters into the stomach at one time, while at another time it should draw some of its appropriate nutriment from the stomach. For, as has already been said, speaking generally, everything has the power at different times of attracting from and of adding to everything else. What happens is just as if you might imagine a number of animals helping themselves at will to a plentiful common stock of food; some will naturally be eating when others have stopped, some will be on the point of stopping when others are beginning, some eating together, and others in succession. Yes, by Zeus! and one will often be plundering another, if he be in need while the other has an abundant supply ready to hand. Thus it is in no way surprising that matter should make its way back from the outer surface of the body to the interior, or should be carried from the liver and spleen into the stomach by the same vessels by which it was carried in the reverse direction. In the case of the arteries[385] this is clear enough, as also in the case of heart, thorax, and lungs; for, since all of these dilate and contract alternately, it must needs be that matter is subsequently discharged back into the parts from which it was previously drawn. Now Nature foresaw this necessity,[386] and provided the cardiac openings of the vessels with membranous attachments,[387] to prevent their contents from being carried backwards. How and in what manner this takes place will be stated in my work "On the Use of Parts," where among other things I show that it is impossible for the openings of the vessels to be closed so accurately that nothing at all can run back. Thus it is inevitable that the reflux into the _venous artery_[388] (as will also be made clear in the work mentioned) should be much greater than through the other openings. But what it is important for our present purpose to recognise is that every thing possessing a large and appreciable cavity must, when it dilates, abstract matter from all its neighbours, and, when it contracts, must squeeze matter back into them. This should all be clear from what has already been said in this treatise and from what Erasistratus and I myself have demonstrated elsewhere respecting the tendency of a vacuum to become refilled.[389] XIII Ou mên oude to dia tou autou porou tên th' holkên gignesthai kai tên apokrisin en diapherousi || chronois 187 ouden eti chalepon exeurein, ei ge kai tês gastros ho stomachos ou monon edesmata kai pomata paragôn eis autên, alla kan tais nautiais tên enantian hypêresian hypêretôn enargôs phainetai, kai tês epi tô hêpati kysteôs ho auchên heis ôn hama men plêroi di' hautou tên kystin, hama d' ekkenoi, kai tôn mêtrôn ho stomachos hôsautôs hodos estin eisô men tou spermatos, exô de tou kyêmatos. Alla kantautha palin hê men ekkritikê dynamis enargês, ou mên homoiôs g' autê saphês tois pollois hê helktikê; all' Hippokratês men arrhôstou mêtras aitiômenos auchena phêsi; "Ou gar dynatai auteês ho stomachos eirysai tên gonên." Erasistratos de kai Asklêpiadês eis tosouton hêkousi sophias, hôst' ou monon tên koilian kai tas mêtras aposterousi tês toiautês dynameôs alla kai tên epi tô hêpati kystin hama tois nephrois. kaitoi g' hoti mêd' eipein dynaton heteron aition ê ourôn ê cholês diakriseôs, en tô prôtô dedeiktai logô. Kai mêtran oun kai gastera kai tên epi tô hêpati kystin di' henos kai tautou sto||machou tên th' holkên kai tên 188 apokrisin heuriskontes poioumenas mêketi thaumazômen, ei kai dia tôn phlebôn hê physis ekkrinei pollakis eis tên gastera perittômata. toutou d' eti mallon ou chrê thaumazein, ei, di' hôn eis hêpar anedothê phlebôn ek gastros, authis eis autên ex hêpatos en tais makroterais asitiais helkesthai tis dynatai trophê. to gar tois toioutois apistein homoion esti dêpou tô mêketi pisteuein mêd' hoti ta kathaironta pharmaka dia tôn autôn stomatôn ex holou tou sômatos eis tên gastera tous oikeious epispatai chymous, di' hôn emprosthen hê anadosis egeneto, all' hetera men zêtein anadoseôs, hetera de katharseôs stomata. kai mên eiper hen kai tauto stoma dittais hypêretei dynamesin, en diaphorois chronois eis tanantia tên holkên poioumenais, emprosthen men tê kata to hêpar, en de tô tês katharseôs kairô tê tou pharmakou, ti thaumaston esti dittên hypêresian te kai chreian einai tais phlepsi tais en tô mesô tetagmenais hêpatos te kai tôn kata tên koilian, hôsth', hopote men en toutois aphthonos eiê periechomenê trophê, dia tôn eirêmenôn eis || hêpar anapheresthai phlebôn, 189 hopote d' eiê kena kai deomena trephesthai, dia tôn autôn authis ex hêpatos helkesthai? Pan gar ek pantos helkein phainetai kai panti metadidonai kai mia tis einai syrrhoia kai sympnoia pantôn, kathaper kai touth' ho theiotatos Hippokratês eipen. helkei men oun to ischyroteron, ekkenoutai de to asthenesteron. Ischyroteron de kai asthenesteron heteron heterou morion ê haplôs kai physei kai koinê pasin estin ê idiôs tôde tini gignetai. physei men kai koinê pasin anthrôpois th' hama kai zôois hê men kardia tou hêpatos, to d' hêpar tôn enterôn te kai tês gastros, hai d' artêriai tôn phlebôn helkysai te to chrêsimon heautais apokrinai te to mê toiouton ischyroterai. kath' hekaston d' hêmôn idiôs en men tôde tô kairô to hêpar ischyroteron helkein, hê gastêr d' en tôde. pollês men gar en tê koilia periechomenês trophês kai sphodrôs oregomenou te kai chrêzontos tou hêpatos, pantôs ischyroteron helkei to splanchnon; empalin de tou men hêpatos empeplêsmenou te kai dia||tetamenou, tês gastros d' oregomenês kai 190 kenês hyparchousês hê tês holkês ischys eis ekeinên methistatai. Hôs gar, ei kan tais chersi tina sitia katechontes allêlôn harpazoimen, ei men homoiôs eiêmen deomenoi, perigignesthai ton ischyroteron eikos, ei d' houtos men empeplêsmenos eiê kai dia tout' amelôs katechôn ta peritta ê kai tini metadounai pothôn, ho d' asthenesteros oregoito deinôs, ouden an eiê kôlyma tou mê panta labein auton, houtô kai hê gastêr ek tou hêpatos epispatai rhadiôs, hotan autê men hikanôs oregêtai trophês, empeplêsmenon d' ê to splanchnon. kai tou ge mê peinên eniote to zôon hê periousia tês en hêpati trophês aitia; kreittona gar echousa kai hetoimoteran hê gastêr trophên ouden deitai tês exôthen; ei de ge pote deoito men, aporoiê de, plêroutai perittômatôn. ichôres de tines eisi tauta cholôdeis te kai phlegmatôdeis kai orrhôdeis, hous monous helkousê methiêsin autê to hêpar, hotan pote kai autê deêtai trophês. Hôsper oun ex allêlôn helkei ta moria || trophên, houtô 191 kai apotithetai pot' eis allêla to peritton kai hôsper helkontôn epleonektei to ischyroteron, houtô kai apotithemenôn kai tôn ge kaloumenôn rheumatôn hêde hê prophasis. hekaston gar tôn moriôn echei tina tonon symphyton, hô diôtheitai to peritton. hotan oun hen ex autôn arrhôstoteron genêtai kata dê tina diathesin, ex hapantôn eis ekeino syrrhein anankê ta perittômata. to men gar ischyrotaton enapotithetai tois plêsion hapasin, ekeinôn d' au palin hekaston eis heter' atta tôn asthenesterôn, eit' authis ekeinôn hekaston eis alla kai tout' epi pleiston gignetai, mechri per an ex hapantôn elaunomenon to perittôma kath' hen ti meinê tôn asthenestatôn; enteuthen gar ouket' eis allo dynatai metarrhein, hôs an mête dechomenou tinos auto tôn ischyroterôn mêt' apôsasthai dynamenou tou peponthotos. Alla peri men tôn pathôn tês geneseôs kai tês iaseôs authis hêmôn epideiknyntôn hikana kax ekeinôn estai labein martyria tôn en tôde tô logô panti || dedeigmenôn 192 orthôs. ho d' en tô paronti deixai proukeito, palin analabômen, hôs ouden thaumaston ex hêpatos hêkein tina trophên enterois te kai gastri dia tôn autôn phlebôn, di' hôn emprosthen ex ekeinôn eis hêpar anedidoto. kai pollois athroôs te kai teleôs apostasin ischyrôn gymnasiôn ê ti kôlon apokopeisin haimatos dia tôn enterôn gignetai kenôsis ek tinôn periodôn, hôs pou kai Hippokratês elegen, ouden men allo lypousa, kathairousa d' oxeôs to pan sôma kai tas plêsmonas ekkenousa, dia tôn autôn dêpou phlebôn tês phoras tôn perittôn epiteloumenês, di' hôn emprosthen hê anadosis egigneto. Pollakis d' en nosois hê physis dia men tôn autôn dêpou phlebôn to pan ekkathairei zôon, ou mên haimatôdês g' hê kenôsis autois, alla kata ton lypounta gignetai chymon. houtô de kan tais cholerais ekkenoutai to pan sôma dia tôn eis entera te kai gastera kathêkousôn phlebôn. To d' oiesthai mian einai tais hylais phoran teleôs agnoountos esti tas physikas || dynameis tas t' allas 193 kai tên ekkritikên enantian ousan tê helktiktê; tais gar enantiais dynamesin enantias kinêseis te kai phoras tôn hylôn anankaion akolouthein. hekaston gar tôn moriôn, hotan helkysê ton oikeion chymon, epeita kataschê kai apolausê, to peritton hapan apothesthai speudei, kathoti malista dynatai tachista th' hama kai kallista, kata tên tou perittou rhopên. Hothen hê gastêr ta men epipolazonta tôn perittômatôn emetois ekkathairei, ta d' hyphistamena diarrhoiais. kai to ge nautiôdes gignesthai to zôon tout' estin hormêsai tên gastera kenôthênai di' emetou. houtô de dê ti biaion kai sphodron hê ekkritikê dynamis echei, hôst' en tois eileois, hotan apokleisthê teleôs hê katô diexodos, emeitai kopros. kaitoi prin dielthein to te lepton enteron hapan kai tên nêstin kai ton pylôron kai tên gastera kai ton oisophagon ouch hoion te dia tou stomatos ekpesein oudeni toioutô perittômati. ti dê thaumaston, ei kak tês eschatês epiphaneias tês kata to derma mechri tôn enterôn te kai tês gastros aphiknoito ti || metalambanomenon, hôs kai touth' Hippokratês hêmas 194 edidaxen, ou pneuma monon ê perittôma phaskôn alla kai tên trophên autên ek tês eschatês epiphaneias authis epi tên archên, hothen anênechthê, katapheresthai. elachistai gar rhopai kinêseôn tên ekkritikên tautên oiakizousi dynamin, hôs an dia tôn enkarsiôn men inôn gignomenên, ôkytata de diadidomenên apo tês kinêsasês archês epi ta katantikry perata. oukoun apeikos oud' adynaton aêthei pote psyxei to pros tô dermati morion exaiphnês pilêthen hama men arrhôstoteron auto genomenon, hama d' hoion achthos ti mallon ê paraskeuên threpseôs echon tên emprosthen alypôs autô paresparmenên hygrotêta kai dia tout' apôtheisthai speudon, hama de tês exô phoras apokekleismenês tê pyknôsei, pros tên loipên epistraphênai kai houtô biasamenon eis to parakeimenon autô morion athroôs apôsasthai to peritton, ekeino d' au palin eis to met' auto, || kai touto mê 195 pausasthai gignomenon, achris an hê metalêpsis epi ta entos perata tôn phlebôn teleutêsê. Hai men dê toiautai kinêseis thatton apopauontai, hai d' apo tôn endothen dierethizontôn, hôs en te tois kathairousi pharmakois kai tais cholerais ischyroterai te poly kai monimôterai gignontai kai diamenousin, est' an kai hê peri tois stomasi tôn angeiôn diathesis, hê to plêsion helkousa, paramenê. hautê men gar to syneches ekkenoi morion, ekeino d' au to met' auto kai tout' ou pauetai mechri tês eschatês epiphaneias, hôste diadidontôn tôn ephexês aei moriôn heterôn heterois to prôton pathos ôkytata diikneisthai mechri tôn eschatôn. houtôs oun echei kapi tôn eileôn. auto men gar to phlegmainon enteron oute tou barous oute tês drimytêtos anechetai tôn perittômatôn kai dia tout' ekkrinein auta speudei kai apôtheisthai porrhôtatô. kôlyomenon de katô poieisthai tên diôsin, hotan entauthoi pote to sphodrotaton ê tês phlegmonês, eis ta plêsiazonta tôn hyperkeimenôn enterôn apôtheitai. kai houtôs êdê kata || 196 to syneches tên rhopên tês ekkritikês dynameôs anô poiêsamenês achri tou stomatos epanerchetai ta perittômata. Tauta men oun dê kan tois tôn nosêmatôn logismois epi pleon eirêsetai. to d' ek pantos eis pan pheresthai ti kai metalambanesthai kai mian hapantôn einai sympnoian te kai syrrhoian, hôs Hippokratês elegen, êdê moi dokô dedeichthai saphôs kai mêket' an tina, mêd' ei bradys autô nous eneiê, peri tôn toioutôn aporêsai mêdenos, hoion hopôs hê gastêr ê ta entera trephetai kai tina tropon ek tês eschatês epiphaneias eisô ti diikneitai. pantôn gar tôn moriôn helkein men to prosêkon te kai philion, apokrinein de to barynon ê daknon echontôn dynamin ouden thaumaston enantias synechôs gignesthai kinêseis en autois, hôsper epi te tês kardias horatai saphôs kai tôn artêriôn hapasôn kai tou thôrakos kai tou pneumonos. epi men ge toutôn hapantôn monon ou kath' hekastên kairou rhopên tas enantias kinêseis th' hama tôn organôn kai phoras tôn hylôn || enargôs estin idein 197 gignomenas. eit' epi men tês tracheias artêrias ouk aporeis enallax pote men eisô paragousês eis ton pneumona to pneuma, pote d' exô, kai tôn kata tas rhinas porôn kai holou tou stomatos hôsautôs oud' einai soi dokei thaumaston oude paradoxon, ei, di' hou mikrô prosthen eisô parekomizeto to pneuma, dia toutou nyn ekpempetai, peri de tôn ex hêpatos eis entera te kai gastera kathêkousôn phlebôn aporeis kai soi thaumaston einai phainetai, dia tôn autôn anadidosthai th' hama tên trophên eis hêpar helkesthai t' ex ekeinou palin eis gastera? diorisai dê to hama touto poterôs legeis. ei men gar kata ton auton chronon, oud' hêmeis touto ge phamen. hôsper gar eispneomen en heterô chronô kai authis palin en heterô antekpneomen, houtô kai trophên en heterô men chronô to hêpar ek tês gastros, en heterô d' hê gastêr ek tou hêpatos epispatai. ei d' hoti kath' hen kai tauto zôon hen organon enantiais phorais hylôn hypêretei, touto soi bouletai dêloun to hama kai touto se tarattei, tên t' || eispnoên ide kai tên ekpnoên. 198 pantôs pou kai hautai dia men tôn autôn organôn gignontai, tropô de kinêseôs te kai phoras tôn hylôn diapherousin. Ho pneumôn men oun kai ho thôrax kai artêriai hai tracheiai kai hai leiai kai kardia kai stoma kai rhines en elachistais chronou rhopais eis enantias kinêseis auta te metaballei kai tas hylas methistêsin. hai d' ex hêpatos eis entera kai gastera kathêkousai phlebes ouk en houtô brachesi chronou moriois all' en pollais hêmerais hapax eniote tên enantian kinountai kinêsin. Echei gar hôde to sympan. hekaston tôn organôn eis heauto tên plêsiazousan epispatai trophên ekboskomenon autês hapasan tên chrêstên notida, mechris an hikanôs koresthê, kai tautên, hôs kai prosthen edeiknymen, enapotithetai heautô kai meta tauta prosphyei te kai homoioi, toutesti trephetai. diôristai gar hikanôs emprosthen heteron ti tês threpseôs ex anankês autês proêgoumenon hê prosphysis hyparchein, ekeinês d' eti proteron hê prosthesis. hôsper oun || tois zôois autois 199 horos esti tês edôdês to plêrôsai tên gastera, kata ton auton tropon hekastô tôn moriôn horos esti tês prostheseôs hê plêrôsis tês oikeias hygrotêtos. epei toinyn hapan morion tê gastri homoiôs oregetai trephesthai, kai periptyssetai tê trophê kai houtô sphingei pantachothen autên hôs hê gastêr. hepetai d' ex anankês toutô, kathaper kai prosthen errhethê, to pettesthai tois sitiois, tês gastros ou dia touto peristellomenês autois, hin' epitêdeia tois allois ergasêtai moriois; houtô gar an ouketi physikon organon alla zôon ti gignoito logismon te kai noun echon, hôs haireisthai to beltion. All' hautê men peristelletai tô to pan sôma dynamin helktikên tina kai apolaustikên kektêsthai tôn oikeiôn poiotêtôn, hôs emprosthen edeiknyto; symbainei d' en toutô tois sitiois alloiousthai. kai mentoi kai plêrôtheisa tês ex autôn hygrotêtos kai korestheisa baros hêgeitai to loipon auta. to peritton oun euthys apotribetai te kai ôthei katô pros || heteron ergon autê 200 trepomenê, tên prosphysin. en de toutô tô chronô dierchomenê to enteron hapan hê trophê dia tôn eis auto kathêkontôn angeiôn anarpazetai, pleistê men eis tas phlebas, oligê de tis eis tas artêrias, hôs mikron hysteron apodeixomen. en toutô d' au tô chronô kai tois tôn enterôn chitôsi prostithetai. Kai moi temôn êdê tô logismô tên tês trophês oikonomian hapasan eis treis moiras chronôn, en men tê prôtê noei menousan th' hama kata tên koilian autên kai pettomenên kai prostithemenên eis koron tê gastri kai ti kai tô hêpati par' autês anapheromenon. En de tê deutera, dierchomenên ta t' entera kai prostithemenên eis koron autois te toutois kai tô hêpati kai ti brachy meros autês pantê tou sômatos pheromenon; en de dê toutô tô kairô to prostethen en tô prôtô chronô prosphyesthai noei tê gastri. Kata de tên tritên moiran tou chronou trephesthai men êdê tên koilian homoiôsasan heautê teleôs ta prosphynta, prosphysin de tois enterois kai tô hêpati gignesthai tôn prostethentôn, ana||dosin de pantê tou sômatos kai 201 prosthesin. ei men oun epi toutois eutheôs to zôon lambanoi trophên, en hô palin hê gastêr chronô pettei te tautên kai apolauei prostitheisa pan ex autês to chrêston tois heautês chitôsi, ta men entera teleôs homoiôsei ton prosphynta chymon, hôsautôs de kai to hêpar. en holô de tô sômati prosphysis tôn prostethentôn tês trophês estai moriôn. ei d' asitos anankazoito menein hê gastêr en toutô tô chronô, para tôn en mesenteriô te kai hêpati phlebôn helxei tên trophên; ou gar ex autou ge tou sômatos tou hêpatos. legô de sôma tou hêpatos autên te tên idian autou sarka prôtên kai malista, meta de tênde kai tôn angeiôn hekaston tôn kat' auto. ton men gar en hekastô tôn moriôn êdê periechomenon chymon ouket' eulogon antispan heterô moriô kai malisth' hotan êdê prosphysis ê exomoiôsis autou gignêtai. ton d' en tais eurychôriais tôn phlebôn to mallon ischyon th' hama kai deomenon antispa morion. Houtôs oun kai hê gastêr en || hô chronô deitai men autê 202 trophês, esthiei d' oudepô to zôon, en toutô tôn kata to hêpar exarpazei phlebôn. epei de kai ton splêna dia tôn emprosthen edeiknymen hoson en hêpati pachyteron helkonta katergazesthai te kai metaballein epi to chrêstoteron, ouden oud' entautha thaumaston helkesthai ti kak tou splênos eis hekaston tôn koinônountôn autô kata tas phlebas organôn, hoion eis epiploon kai mesenterion kai lepton enteron kai kôlon kai autên tên gastera; kata de ton auton tropon exereugesthai men eis tên gastera to perittôma kath' heteron chronon, auton d' authis ek tês gastros helkein ti tês oikeias trophês en heterô kairô. Katholou d' eipein, ho kai prosthen êdê lelektai, pan ek pantos helkein te kai pempein enchôrei kata diapherontas chronous, homoiotatou gignomenou tou symbainontos, hôs ei kai zôa noêsais polla trophên aphthonon en koinô katakeimenên, eis hoson bouletai, prospheromena. kath' hon gar êdê pepautai chronon hetera, kata touton eikos esthiein hetera, kai mellein ge ta men || pauesthai, ta 203 d' archesthai, kai tina men synesthionta, ta d' ana meros esthionta kai nai ma Dia ge to heteron harpazein thaterou pollakis, ei to men heteron epideoito, tô d' aphthonôs parakeoito. kai houtôs ouden thaumaston out' ek tês eschatês epiphaneias eisô ti palin hypostrephein oute dia tôn autôn angeiôn ex hêpatos te kai splênos eis koilian anenechthênai ti, di' hôn ek tautês eis ekeina proteron anênechthê. Kata men gar tas artêrias hikanôs enarges to toiouton, hôsper kai kata tên kardian te kai ton thôraka kai ton pneumona. toutôn gar hapantôn diastellomenôn te kai systellomenôn enallax anankaion, ex hôn heilkysthê ti proteron, eis tauth' hysteron ekpempesthai. kai tautên ara tên anankên hê physis progignôskousa tois en tê kardia stomasi tôn angeiôn hymenas epephyse kôlysontas eis toupisô pheresthai tas hylas. all' hopôs men touto gignetai kai kath' hontina tropon, en tois peri chreias moriôn eirêsetai deiknyntôn hêmôn ta t' alla kai hôs adynaton houtôs akribôs kleiesthai ta stomata tôn angeiôn, hôs || mêden palindromein. eis men gar tên 204 artêrian tên phlebôdê, kai gar kai tout' en ekeinois deichthêsetai, poly pleon ê dia tôn allôn stomatôn eis toupisô palin anankaion epanerchesthai. to d' eis ta paronta chrêsimon, hôs ouk endechetai ti tôn aisthêtên kai megalên echontôn eurytêta mê ouk êtoi diastellomenon helkein ex hapantôn tôn plêsion ê ekthlibein authis eis tauta systellomenon ek te tôn êdê proeirêmenôn en tôde tô logô saphes an eiê kax hôn Erasistratos te kai hêmeis heterôthi peri tês pros to kenoumenon akolouthias edeixamen. XIV And further, it has been shown in other treatises that all the arteries possess a power which derives from the heart, and by virtue of which they dilate and contract. Put together, therefore, the two facts--that the arteries have this motion, and that everything, when it dilates, draws neighbouring matter into itself--and you will find nothing strange in the fact that those arteries which reach the skin draw in the outer air when they dilate, while those which anastomose at any point with the veins attract the thinnest and most vaporous part of the blood which these contain, and as for those arteries which are near the heart, it is on the heart itself that they exert their traction. For, by virtue of the tendency by which a vacuum becomes refilled, the lightest and thinnest part obeys the tendency before that which is heavier and thicker. Now the lightest and thinnest of anything in the body is firstly pneuma, secondly vapour, and in the third place that part of the blood which has been accurately elaborated and refined. These, then, are what the arteries draw into themselves on every side; those arteries which reach the skin draw in the outer air[390] (this being near them and one of the lightest of things); as to the other arteries, those which pass up from the heart into the neck, and that which lies along the spine, as also such arteries as are near these--draw mostly from the heart itself; and those which are further from the heart and skin necessarily draw the lightest part of the blood out of the veins. So also the traction exercised by the diastole of the arteries which go to the stomach and intestines takes place at the expense of the heart itself and the numerous veins in its neighbourhood; for these arteries cannot get anything worth speaking of from the thick heavy nutriment contained in the intestines and stomach,[391] since they first become filled with lighter elements. For if you let down a tube into a vessel full of water and sand, and suck the air out of the tube with your mouth, the sand cannot come up to you before the water, for in accordance with the principle of the refilling of a vacuum the lighter matter is always the first to succeed to the evacuation. XIV Alla mên kai hôs en hekastê tôn artêriôn esti tis dynamis ek tês kardias epirrheousa, kath' hên diastellontai te kai systellontai, dedeiktai di' heterôn. Eiper oun syntheiês amphô to te tautên einai tên kinêsin autais to te pan to diastellomenon helkein ek tôn plêsion eis heauto, thaumaston ouden soi phaneitai tas artêrias, hosai men eis to derma perainousin autôn, epispasthai ton exôthen aera diastellomenas, hosai de kata ti pros tas || phlebas anestomôntai, to leptotaton 205 en autais kai atmôdestaton epispasthai tou haimatos, hosai d' engys tês kardias eisin, ex autês ekeinês poieisthai tên holkên. en gar tê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia to kouphotaton te kai leptotaton hepetai prôton tou baryterou te kai pachyterou; kouphotaton d' esti kai leptotaton hapantôn tôn kata to sôma prôton men to pneuma, deuteron d' ho atmos, epi toutô de triton, hoson an akribôs ê kateirgasmenon te kai leleptysmenon haima. Taut' oun eis heautas helkousin hai artêriai pantachothen, hai men eis to derma kathêkousai ton exôthen aera; plêsion te gar autais houtos esti kai kouphotatos en tois malista; tôn d' allôn hê men epi ton trachêlon ek tês kardias aniousa kai hê kata rhachin, êdê de kai hosai toutôn engys ex autês malista tês kardias; hosai de kai tês kardias porrhôterô kai tou dermatos, helkein tautais anankaion ek tôn phlebôn to kouphotaton tou haimatos; hôste kai tôn eis tên gastera te kai ta entera kathêkousôn artêriôn tên holkên en tô diastellesthai gignesthai para te tês || kardias autês 206 kai tôn parakeimenôn autê phlebôn pampollôn ousôn. ou gar dê ek ge tôn enterôn kai tês koilias trophên houtô pacheian te kai bareian en heautois echontôn dynantai ti metalambanein, ho ti kai axion logou, phthanousai plêrousthai tois kouphoterois. oude gar ei katheis auliskon eis angeion hydatos te kai psammou plêres epispasaio tô stomati ton ek tou auliskou aera, dynait' an akolouthêsai soi pro tou hydatos hê psammos; aei gar en tê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia to kouphoteron hepetai proteron. XV It is not to be wondered at, therefore, that only a very little [nutrient matter] such, namely, as has been accurately elaborated--gets from the stomach into the arteries, since these first become filled with lighter matter. We must understand that _there are two kinds of attraction_, that by which a vacuum becomes refilled and that caused by appropriateness of quality;[392] air is drawn into bellows in one way, and iron by the lodestone in another. And we must also understand that the traction which results from evacuation acts primarily on what is light, whilst that from appropriateness of quality acts frequently, it may be, on what is heavier (if this should be naturally more nearly related[393]). Therefore, in the case of the heart and the arteries, it is in so far as they are hollow organs, capable of diastole, that they always attract the lighter matter first, while, in so far as they require nourishment, it is actually into their _coats_ (which are the real _bodies_ of these organs) that the appropriate matter is drawn.[394] Of the blood, then, which is taken into their cavities when they dilate, that part which is most proper to them and most able to afford nourishment is attracted by their actual coats. Now, apart from what has been said,[395] the following is sufficient proof that something is taken over from the veins into the arteries. If you will kill an animal by cutting through a number of its large arteries, you will find the veins becoming empty along with the arteries: now, this could never occur if there were not anastomoses between them. Similarly, also, in the heart itself, the thinnest portion of the blood is drawn from the right ventricle into the left, owing to there being perforations in the septum between them: these can be seen for a great part [of their length]; they are like a kind of fossae [pits] with wide mouths, and they get constantly narrower; it is not possible, however, actually to observe their extreme terminations, owing both to the smallness of these and to the fact that when the animal is dead all the parts are chilled and shrunken.[396] Here, too, however, our argument,[397] starting from the principle that nothing is done by Nature in vain, discovers these anastomoses between the ventricles of the heart; for it could not be at random and by chance that there occurred fossae ending thus in narrow terminations. And secondly [the presence of these anastomoses has been assumed] from the fact that, of the two orifices in the right ventricle, the one conducting blood in and the other out, the former[398] is much the larger. For, the fact that the insertion of the vena cava into the heart[399] is larger than the vein which is inserted into the lungs[400] suggests that not all the blood which the vena cava gives to the heart is driven away again from the heart to the lungs. Nor can it be said that any of the blood is expended in the nourishment of the actual body of the heart, since there is another vein[401] which breaks up in it and which does not take its origin nor get its share of blood from the heart itself. And even if a certain amount is so expended, still the vein leading to the lungs is not to such a slight extent smaller than that inserted into the heart as to make it likely that the blood is used as nutriment for the heart: the disparity is much too great for such an explanation. It is, therefore, clear that something _is_ taken over into the left ventricle.[402] Moreover, of the two vessels connected with it, that which brings pneuma into it from the lungs[403] is much smaller than the great outgrowing artery[404] from which the arteries all over the body originate; this would suggest that it not merely gets pneuma from the lungs, but that it also gets blood from the right ventricle through the anastomoses mentioned. Now it belongs to the treatise "On the Use of Parts" to show that it was best that some parts of the body should be nourished by pure, thin, and vaporous blood, and others by thick, turbid blood, and that in this matter also Nature has overlooked nothing. Thus it is not desirable that these matters should be further discussed. Having mentioned, however, that there are two kinds of attraction, certain bodies exerting attraction along wide channels during diastole (by virtue of the principle by which a vacuum becomes refilled) and others exerting it by virtue of their appropriateness of quality, we must next remark that the former bodies can attract even from a distance, while the latter can only do so from among things which are quite close to them; the very longest tube let down into water can easily draw up the liquid into the mouth, but if you withdraw iron to a distance from the lodestone or corn from the jar (an instance of this kind has in fact been already given[405]) no further attraction can take place. This you can observe most clearly in connection with _garden conduits_. For a certain amount of moisture is distributed from these into every part lying close at hand but it cannot reach those lying further off: therefore one has to arrange the flow of water into all parts of the garden by cutting a number of small channels leading from the large one. The intervening spaces between these small channels are made of such a size as will, presumably, best allow them [the spaces] to satisfy their needs by drawing from the liquid which flows to them from every side. So also is it in the bodies of animals. Numerous conduits distributed through the various limbs bring them pure blood, much like the garden water-supply, and, further, the intervals between these conduits have been wonderfully arranged by Nature from the outset so that the intervening parts should be plentifully provided for when absorbing blood, and that they should never be deluged by a quantity of superfluous fluid running in at unsuitable times. For the way in which they obtain nourishment is somewhat as follows. In the body[406] which is continuous throughout, such as Erasistratus supposes his _simple vessel_ to be, it is the superficial parts which are the first to make use of the nutriment with which they are brought into contact; then the parts coming next draw their share from these by virtue of their contiguity; and again others from these; and this does not stop until the quality of the nutrient substance has been distributed among all parts of the corpuscle in question. And for such parts as need the humour which is destined to nourish them to be altered still further, Nature has provided a kind of storehouse, either in the form of a central cavity or else as separate caverns,[407] or something analogous to caverns. Thus the flesh of the viscera and of the muscles is nourished from the blood directly, this having undergone merely a slight alteration; the bones, however, in order to be nourished, require very great change, and what blood is to flesh marrow is to bone; in the case of the small bones, which do not possess central cavities, this marrow is distributed in their caverns, whereas in the larger bones which do contain central cavities the marrow is all concentrated in these. For, as was pointed out in the first book,[408] things having a similar substance can easily change into one another, whereas it is impossible for those which are very different to be assimilated to one another without intermediate stages. Such a one in respect to cartilage is the myxoid substance which surrounds it, and in respect to ligaments, membranes, and nerves the viscous liquid dispersed inside them; for each of these consists of numerous fibres, which are homogeneous[409]--in fact, actual _sensible elements_; and in the intervals between these fibres is dispersed the humour most suited for nutrition; this they have drawn from the blood in the veins, choosing the most appropriate possible, and now they are assimilating it step by step and changing it into their own substance. All these considerations, then, agree with one another, and bear sufficient witness to the truth of what has been already demonstrated; there is thus no need to prolong the discussion further. For, from what has been said, anyone can readily discover in what way all the particular [vital activities] come about. For instance, we could in this way ascertain why it is that in the case of many people who are partaking freely of wine, the fluid which they have drunk is rapidly absorbed[410] through the body and almost the whole of it is passed by the kidneys within a very short time. For here, too, the rapidity with which the fluid is absorbed depends on appropriateness of quality, on the thinness of the fluid, on the width of the vessels and their mouths, and on the efficiency of the attractive faculty. The parts situated near the alimentary canal, by virtue of their appropriateness of quality, draw in the imbibed food for their own purposes, then the parts next to them in their turn snatch it away, then those next again take it from these, until it reaches the vena cava, whence finally the kidneys attract that part of it which is proper to them. Thus it is in no way surprising that wine is taken up more rapidly than water, owing to its appropriateness of quality, and, further, that the white clear kind of wine is absorbed more rapidly owing to its thinness, while black turbid wine, is checked on the way and retarded because of its thickness. These facts, also, will afford abundant proof of what has already been said about the arteries; everywhere, in fact, such blood as is both specifically appropriate and at the same time thin in consistency answers more readily to their traction than does blood which is not so; this is why the arteries which, in their diastole, absorb vapour, pneuma, and thin blood attract either none at all or very little of the juices contained in the stomach and intestines. XV Oukoun chrê thaumazein, ei pantelôs oligon ek tês koilias, hoson an akribôs ê kateirgasmenon, eis tas artêrias paragignetai phthanousas plêrousthai tôn kouphoterôn, all' ekeino gignôskein, hôs dy' eston holkês eidê, to men tê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia, to d' oikeiotêti poiotêtos gignomenon; heterôs men gar eis tas physas ho aêr, heterôs d' ho sidêros hypo tês hêrakleias epispatai lithou; kai hôs hê men pros to kenoumenon akolouthia || to kouphoteron helkei proteron, 207 hê de kata tên tês poiotêtos oikeiotêta pollakis, ei houtôs etyche, to baryteron, an tê physei syngenesteron hyparchê. kai toinyn kai tais artêriais te kai tê kardia, hôs men koilois te kai diastellesthai dynamenois organois, aei to kouphoteron akolouthei proteron, hôs de trephesthai deomenois, eis autous tous chitônas, hoi dê ta sômata tôn organôn eisin, helketai to oikeion. hoson an oun eis tên koilotêta diastellomenôn autôn haimatos metalêphthê, toutou to oikeiotaton te kai malista trephein dynamenon hoi chitônes autoi tôn angeiôn epispôntai. Tou d' ek tôn phlebôn eis tas artêrias metalambanesthai ti pros tois eirêmenois hikanon kai touto ge tekmêrion. ei pollas kai megalas artêrias diatemôn apokteinai to zôon boulêtheiês, heurêseis autou tas phlebas homoiôs tais artêrias ekkenoumenas, ouk an toutou pote genomenou chôris tôn pros allêlas autais anastomôseôn. hôsautôs de kai kat' autên tên kardian ek tês dexias koilias eis tên aristeran helketai to lepto||taton echontos tina trêmata 208 tou mesou diaphragmatos autôn, ha mechri men pleistou dynaton estin idein, hoion bothynous tinas ex euryterou stomatos aei kai mallon eis stenoteron proïontas. ou mên auta ge ta eschata perata dynaton eti theasasthai dia te smikrotêta kai hoti tethneôtos êdê tou zôou katepsyktai te kai pepyknôtai panta. all' ho logos kantautha prôton men ek tou mêden hypo tês physeôs gignesthai matên hormômenos exeuriskei tas anastomôseis tautas tôn koiliôn tês kardias; ou gar dê eikê ge kai hôs etychen hoi es stenon houtô teleutôntes egenonto bothynoi. Deuteron de kak tou dyoin ontoin stomatoin en tê dexia tês kardias koilia tou men eisagontos to haima, tou d' exagontos poly meizon einai to eisagon. hôs gar ou pantos tou haimatos, hoson hê koilê phleps didôsi tê kardia, palin ex ekeinês ekpempomenou tô pneumoni, meizôn estin hê apo tês koilês eis autên emphysis tês emphyomenês eis ton pneumona phlebos. oude || gar tout' 209 estin eipein, hôs edapanêthê ti tou haimatos eis tên autou tou sômatos tês kardias threpsin. hetera gar esti phleps hê eis ekeino kataschizomenê mête tên genesin ek tês kardias autês mête tên tou haimatos echousa metalêpsin. ei de kai dapanatai ti, all' ou tosouton ge meiôn estin hê eis ton pneumona phleps agousa tês eis tên kardian emphyomenês, hoson eikos eis tên trophên anêlôsthai tês kardias, alla pleon pollô. dêlon oun, hôs eis tên aristeran ti metalambanetai koilian. Kai gar oun kai tôn kat' ekeinên angeiôn dyoin ontôn elatton esti pollô to ek tou pneumonos eis autên eisagon to pneuma tês ekphyomenês artêrias tês megalês, aph' hês hai kata to sôma sympasai pephykasin, hôs an mê monon ek tou pneumonos pneuma metalambanousês autês, alla kak tês dexias koilias haima dia tôn eirêmenôn anastomôseôn. Hoti d' ameinon ên tois tou sômatos moriois tois men hypo katharou kai leptou kai atmôdous haimatos trephesthai, tois d' hypo pacheos kai tholerou kai hôs oud' entautha ti pareôratai tê physei, tês || peri 210 chreias moriôn pragmateias estin, hôst' ou chrê nyn hyper toutôn eti legein, all' hypomnêsantas, hôs dyo eston holkês eidê, tôn men eureiais hodois en tô diastellesthai tê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia tên helxin poioumenôn, tôn d' oikeiotêti poiotêtos, ephexês legein, hôs ta men protera kai porrhôthen helkein ti dynatai, ta de deutera ek tôn engytatô monôn. auliskon men gar hoti mêkiston eis hydôr enesti kathenta rhadiôs anaspan eis to stoma di' autou to hygron; ou mên ei g' epi pleon apagagois tês hêrakleias lithou ton sidêron ê tous pyrous tou keramiou--kai gar kai toiouton ti prosthen elegeto paradeigma--dynait' an eti genesthai tis holkê. Saphestata d' an auto mathois epi tôn en tois kêpois ochetôn; ek toutôn gar eis men ta parakeimena kai plêsion hapanta diadidotai tis ikmas, eis de ta porrhôterô proselthein ouketi dynatai, kai dia tout' anankazontai pollois ochetois mikrois apo tou megalou tetmêmenois eis hekaston meros tou kêpou tên epirrhysin tou hydatos epitechnasthai; kai têlikauta ge ta || 211 metaxy diastêmata toutôn tôn mikrôn ochetôn poiousin, hêlika malista nomizousin arkein eis to hikanôs apolauein helkonta tês hekaterôthen autois epirrheousês hygrotêtos. houtôs oun echei kan tois tôn zôôn sômasin. ochetoi polloi kata panta ta melê diesparmenoi paragousin autois haima kathaper en kêpois hydreian tina. kai toutôn tôn ochetôn ta metaxy diastêmata thaumastôs hypo tês physeôs euthys ex archês diatetaktai pros to mêt' endeôs chorêgeisthai tois metaxy moriois helkousin eis heauta to haima mête kataklyzesthai pot' auta plêthei perittês hygrotêtos akairôs epirrheousês. Ho gar dê tropos tês threpseôs autôn toiosde tis esti. tou synechous heautô sômatos, hoionper to haploun angeion Erasistratos hypotithetai, ta men epipolês merê prôta tês homilousês apolauei trophês; ek de toutôn au metalambanei kata to syneches helkonta ta toutôn hexês, eit' ex ekeinôn authis hetera kai tout' ou pauetai gignomenon, achris an eis hapant' autou diadothê ta moria tês trephousês ousias hê poiotês. hosa de tôn moriôn epi pleon || alloioumenou deitai tou mellontos 212 auta threpsein chymou, toutois hôsper ti tamieion hê physis pareskeuasen êtoi koilias ê sêrangas ê ti tais sêranxin analogon. hai men gar sarkes hai te tôn splanchnôn hapantôn hai te tôn myôn ex haimatos autou trephontai bracheian alloiôsin dexamenou. ta d' osta pampollês en tô metaxy deitai tês metabolês, hina traphê, kai estin hoionper to haima tais sarxi, toioutos ho myelos tois ostois en men tois mikrois te kai akoiliois kata tas sêrangas autôn diesparmenos, en de tois meizosi te kai koilias echousin en ekeinais êthroismenos. Hôs gar kai dia tou prôtou grammatos edeiknyto, tois men homoian echousi tên ousian eis allêla metaballein enchôrei, tois de pampoly diestôsin amêchanon allêlois homoiôthênai chôris tôn en mesô metabolôn. toiouton ti kai tois chondrois esti to perikechymenon myxôdes kai tois syndesmois kai tois hymesi kai tois neurois to paresparmenon en autois hygron glischron; hekaston gar || toutôn ex inôn synkeitai pollôn, haiper homoiomereis 213 t' eisi kai ontôs aisthêta stoicheia. kata de tas metaxy chôras autôn ho oikeiotatos eis threpsin parespartai chymos, hon heilkysan men ek tôn phlebôn tou haimatos, hoson hoion t' ên eklexamenai ton epitêdeiotaton, exomoiousi de kata brachy kai metaballousin eis tên heautôn ousian. Hapant' oun tauta kai allêlois homologei kai tois emprosthen apodedeigmenois hikanôs martyrei kai ou chrê mêkynein eti ton logon; ek gar tôn eirêmenôn enestin hekastô ta kata meros hapanta kath' hontina gignetai tropon exeuriskein hetoimôs, hôsper kai dia ti pollois kôthônizomenois pampoly tachista men anadidotai to pothen, oureitai d' oligou dein hapan entos ou pollou chronou. kai gar kantautha tê te tês poiotêtos oikeiotêti kai tê tês hygrotêtos leptotêti kai tê tôn angeiôn te kai tôn kat' auta stomatôn eurytêti kai tê tês helktikês dynameôs eurôstia to tachos synteleitai tês anadoseôs, tôn men plêsion tês koilias tetagmenôn moriôn oikeiotêti poiotêtos || heautôn heneka helkontôn 214 to poma, tôn d' hexês toutois exarpazontôn kai autôn eis heauta kapeita tôn ephexês palin ek toutôn metalambanontôn, achris an eis tên koilên aphikêtai phleba, tounteuthen d' êdê tôn nephrôn to oikeion epispômenôn. hôst' ouden thaumaston oinon men hydatos analambanesthai thatton oikeiotêti poiotêtos, auton de ton oinon ton men leukon kai katharon hetoimôs anadidosthai dia leptotêta, ton d' au melana kai tholeron ischesthai te kata tên hodon kai bradynein hypo pachous. Eiê d' an tauta kai tôn hyper tôn artêriôn emprosthen eirêmenôn ou smikra martyria. pantachou gar hoson oikeion te kai lepton haima tou mê toioutou rhaon hepetai tois helkousin. atmon oun helkousai kai pneuma kai lepton haima kata tas diastaseis hai artêriai tôn kata tên koilian kai ta entera periechomenôn chymôn ê oud' holôs ê pantapasin epispôntai brachy. [299] "Of food to feeder," _i.e._ of the environment to the organism. _cf._ p. 39, chap. xi. [300] "Drawing"; _cf._ p. 116, note 2 (168). [301] For these terms (_prosthesis_ and _prosphysis_ in Greek) _cf._ p. 39, notes 5 (66) and 6 (67). [302] Lit. "through the _energizing_ (or _functioning_) of the attractive faculty"; the faculty ([Greek: dynamis]) _in operation_ is an activity ([Greek: energeia]). _cf._ p. 3, note 2 (6). [303] This chapter is an excellent example of Galen's method of reasoning _a priori_. The complementary inductive method, however, is employed in the next chapter. _cf._ p. 209, note 1 (288). [304] The deductive. [305] The _logos_ is the argument or "theory" arrived at by the process of [Greek: logikê theôria] or "theorizing"; _cf._ p. 151, note 3 (214); p. 205, note 1 (282). [306] The Greek words for the uterus (_mêtrae_ and _hysterae_) probably owe their plural form to the belief that the organ was bicornuate in the human, as it is in some of the lower species. [307] Note this expression. For Galen's views on the origin of species, _cf._ Introduction, p. xxxi., footnote (3). [308] Herophilus of Chalcedon (_circa_ 300 B.C.) was, like Erasistratus, a representative of the anatomical school of Alexandria. His book on Midwifery was known for centuries. _cf._ Introduction, p. xii. [309] Relaxation of utero-sacral ligaments as an important predisposing cause of prolapsus uteri. [310] That is, at the end of the first stage of labour. [311] The pylorus. [312] "Chylosis," chylification. _cf._ p. 240, note 1 (314). [313] Lit. barley-"chyle," _i.e._ barley-water. [314] _i.e._ not the mere mechanical breaking down of food, but a distinctively vital action of "alteration." [315] _Pepsis._ [316] Book I., chaps. x., xi. [317] _cf._ p. 222, note 1 (299). [318] _Choledochous_. [319] More exactly _peristolé_; _cf._ p. 97, note 1 (146). [320] Neuburger says of Erasistratus that "dissection had taught him to think in terms of anatomy." It was chiefly the gross movements or structure of organs with which he concerned himself. Where an organ had no obvious function, he dubbed it "useless"; _e.g._ the spleen (_cf._ p. 143). [321] _i.e._ contracting and dilating; no longitudinal movements involved; _cf._ p. 263, note 2 (341). [322] _cf._ p. 282, note 1 (356). [323] Book II., chaps. ii. and viii. [324] Note use of psychological terms in biology. _cf._ also p. 133, note 3 (191). [325] "In everything." _cf._ p. 66, note 3 (104). [326] Galen confuses the nutrition of organs with that of the ultimate living elements or cells; the stomach does not, of course, feed itself in the way a cell does. _cf._ Introduction, p. xxxii. [327] _cf._ Asclepiades's theory regarding the urine, p. 51. [328] The process of _application_ or _prosthesis_. _cf._ p. 223, note 3 (301). [329] Mutual influence of organism and environment. [330] Qualitative change. _cf._ Book I., chap. ii. [331] Apparently skin-diseases in which a superficial crust (resembling the lichen on a tree-trunk) forms--_e.g._ psoriasis. [332] Note especially pneuma and innate heat, which practically stand for oxygen and the heat generated in oxidation. _cf._ p. 41, note 3 (70). [333] Book I., chap. x. [334] That is to say, faeces are obviously altered food. This alteration cannot have taken place entirely in the small intestine: therefore alteration of food must take place in the stomach. [335] _cf._ p. 39. [336] Asclepiades held that there was no such thing as real qualitative change; the food was merely broken up into its constituent molecules, and absorbed unaltered. _cf._ p. 49, note 5 (82). [337] _i.e._ denial of forethought in the Physis. [338] _v._ p. 9, _et passim_. [339] _cf._ p. 97. [340] It appears to me, from comparison between this and other passages in Galen's writings (notably _Use of Parts_, iv., 8), that he means by the "two coats" simply the mucous and the muscular coats. In this case the "straight" or "longitudinal" fibres of the inner coat would be the _rugae_; the "circular" fibres of the inner intestinal coat would be the _valvulae conniventes_. [341] The term here rendered _peristalsis_ is _peristolé_ in Greek; it is applied only to the intermittent movements of muscles placed circularly round a lumen or cavity, and comprehends _systolé_ or contraction and _diastolé_ or dilatation. In its modern significance, _peristalsis_, however, also includes the movements of _longitudinal_ fibres. _cf._ p. 97, note 1 (146). [342] _i.e._ those containing non-striped or "involuntary" muscle fibres; organs governed by the "natural" pneuma; _cf._ p. 186, note 3 (265). [343] By this term is meant only what we should call the "voluntary" muscles. [344] _cf._ p. 97. [345] For "symptom," _cf._ p. 13, and p. 12, note 3 (24). "Transitum namque materiae per angustum corpus id accidens consequitur" (Linacre). Less a "result" or "consequence" than an "accompaniment." [346] _i.e._ this is a purely mechanical process. [347] _i.e._. this phenomenon is a proof neither of _peristolé_ nor of attraction. _cf._ p. 97, note 2 (147). [348] Contraction and dilatation of course being reversed. [349] The _channa_ is a kind of sea-perch; "a species of _Serranus_, either _S. scriba_ or _S. cabrilla_" (D'Arcy W. Thompson). _cf._ Aristotle's _Nat. Hist._ (D'Arcy Thompson's edition, Oxford, 1910), IV., xi., 538 A, 20. The _synodont_ "is not to be identified with certainty, but is supposed to be _Dentex vulgaris_," that is, an edible Mediterranean perch. "It is not the stomach," adds Prof. Thompson, "but the air-bladder that gets everted and hangs out of the mouth in fishes, especially when they are hauled in from a considerable depth." _cf._ _H. A._, VIII., ii., 591 B, 5. [350] Under the term "neura," tendons were often included as well as nerves. Similarly in modern Dutch the word _zenuw_ ("sinew") means both a tendon and a nerve; _zenuwachtig_ = "nervous." [351] Rather than the alternative reading, [Greek: ton esôthen chitôna]. Galen apparently supposes that the outer coat will not be damaged, as the cuts will pass _between_ its fibres. These cuts would be, presumably, short ones, at various levels, no single one of them involving the whole circumference of the gullet. [352] _cf._ p. 205. [353] Thus Galen elsewhere calls the spleen a mere _emunctory_ ([Greek: ekmageion]) of the liver. _cf._ p. 214, note 1 (295). [354] _cf._ p. 269. [355] The urinary bladders of pigs (such as Galen dissected) are thin, and appear to have only one coat. [356] _cf._ p. 243. [357] My suggestion is that Galen refers to (1) the _mucous_ coat, with its _valvulae conniventes_, and (2) the _muscular_ coat, of which the chief layer is made up of circular fibres. _cf._ p. 262, note 1 (340). [358] Or _utility_. [359] Relationship between physiology and pathology again emphasized. _cf._ p. 188, note 2 (267). [360] Or physicist--the investigator of the Physis or Nature. _cf._ p. 196, note 2 (274). Note here the use of analogical reasoning. _cf._ p. 113, note 2 (166). [361] _cf._ p. 95. [362] I. xiii.; II. ii. [363] Galen's idea is that if reversal of the direction of flow can occur in the _primae viae_ (in vomiting), it may also be expected to occur in the _secundae viae_ or absorptive channels. [364] For this "delivery," "up-yield," or _anadosis_, _v._ p. 13, note 5 (26). [365] The mesenteric veins. [366] Linacre renders: "Una omnium confluxio ac conspiratio"; and he adds the marginal note "Totum corpus nostrum est conspirabile et confluxile per meatus communes." _cf._ p. 48. [367] The alimentary canal, as not being edible, is not considered a _splanchnon_ or viscus. [368] Lit. _rheums_; hence our term _rheumatism_. [369] Here Galen apparently indicates that vital functions are at least partly explicable in terms of mechanical law. _cf._ Introduction, p. xxviii. [370] _cf._ pp. 211, 247. [371] See p. 298, note 1 (369). [372] The ends of the veins in the alimentary canal from which absorption or _anadosis_ had originally taken place. [373] _Diathesis_. [374] _Diathesis_. [375] _Pathos_. [376] He means, not only under the stress of special circumstances, but also normally. [377] Lit. "rough artery." The air-passages as well as the arteries proper were supposed by the Greeks to carry air (pneuma); diastole of arteries was, like expansion of the chest, a movement for drawing in air. _cf._ p. 317, note 1 (390). [378] _cf._ p. 39, chap. xi. [379] Lit. _orexis_. [380] Lit. a "physical" organ; that is, a mere instrument or organon of the Physis,--not one of the Psyche or conscious personality. _cf._ semen, p. 132, note 1 (189). [381] _cf._ p. 317, note 2 (391); p. 319, chap. xv. [382] Note that absorption takes place from the stomach as well as the intestines. _cf._ p. 118, note 1 (171). [383] That is, among the ultimate tissues or cells. [384] Pp. 205-9. [385] By this term, of course, the air-passages are also meant; _cf._ p. 305. [386] _cf._ p. 34, note 1 (57). [387] _cf._ p. 121, note 4 (177). [388] Pulmonary vein, or rather, left auricle. Galen means a reflux through the mitral orifice; the left auricle was looked on rather as the termination of the pulmonary veins than as a part of the heart. _cf._ p. 323, note 4 (403). He speaks here of a kind of "physiological" mitral incompetence. [389] _Horror vacui._ [390] _cf._ p. 305, note 2 (377). [391] _cf._ p. 308, note 1 (381). [392] The "mechanical" principle of _horror vacui_ contrasted with the "physical" or semi-physiological principle of specific attraction. _Appropriateness_ here might almost be rendered _affinity_ or _kinship_. _cf_. note 2 (393), _infra_. [393] "Related," "akin." _cf._ p. 36, note 2 (61). [394] The coats exercise the _vital_ traction, the cavities the merely _mechanical_. _cf_. p. 165, note 2 (232). [395] Chap. xiv. [396] These fossae were probably the recesses between the _columnae carnae_. [397] On _logos_ _cf._ p. 226, note 2 (305). [398] He means the tricuspid orifice. _cf._ p. 121, note 4 (177). [399] The right auricle was looked on less as a part of the heart than as an expansion or "insertion" of the vena cava. [400] This "vein" (really the pulmonary artery) was supposed to be the channel by which the lungs received nutriment from the right heart. _cf._ p. 121, note 3 (176). [401] The coronary vein. [402] Galen's conclusion, of course, is, so far, correct, but he has substituted an imaginary direct communication between the ventricles for the actual and more roundabout pulmonary circulation, of whose existence he apparently had no idea. His views were eventually corrected by the Renascence anatomists. _cf._