BOOK I

I Since feeling and voluntary motion are peculiar to animals, whilst growth and nutrition are common to plants as well, we may look on the former as effects[6] of the _soul_[7] and the latter as effects of the _nature_.[8] And if there be anyone who allows a share in soul to plants as well, and separates the two kinds of soul, naming the kind in question _vegetative_, and the other _sensory_, this person is not saying anything else, although his language is somewhat unusual. We, however, for our part, are convinced that the chief merit of language is clearness, and we know that nothing detracts so much from this as do unfamiliar terms; accordingly we employ those terms which the bulk of people are accustomed to use, and we say that animals are governed at once by their soul and by their nature, and plants by their nature alone, and that growth and nutrition are the effects of nature, not of soul. GALÊNOU PERI PHYSIKÔN DYNAMEÔN A I Epeidê to men aisthanesthai te kai kineisthai kata 1 proairesin idia tôn zôôn esti, to d' auxanesthai te kai trephesthai koina kai tois phytois, eiê an ta men protera tês psychês, ta de deutera tês physeôs erga. ei de tis kai tois phytois psychês metadidôsi kai diairoumenos autas onomazei phytikên men tautên, aisthêtikên de tên heteran, legei men oud' houtos alla, tê lexei d' ou pany tê synêthei kechrêtai. all' hêmeis ge megistên lexeôs aretên saphêneian einai pepeismenoi kai tautên eidotes || hyp' oudenos houtôs hôs hypo tôn 2 asynêthôn onomatôn diaphtheiromenên, hôs tois pollois ethos, houtôs onomazontes hypo men psychês th' hama kai physeôs ta zôa dioikeisthai phamen, hypo de physeôs monês ta phyta kai to g' auxanesthai te kai trephesthai physeôs erga phamen, ou psychês. II Thus we shall enquire, in the course of this treatise, from what _faculties_ these effects themselves, as well as any other effects of nature which there may be, take their origin. First, however, we must distinguish and explain clearly the various terms which we are going to use in this treatise, and to what things we apply them; and this will prove to be not merely an explanation of terms but at the same time a demonstration of the effects of nature. When, therefore, such and such a body undergoes no change from its existing state, we say that it is _at rest_; but, if it departs from this in any respect we then say that in this respect it _undergoes motion_.[9] Accordingly, when it departs in various ways from its pre-existing state, it will be said to undergo various kinds of motion. Thus, if that which is white becomes black, or what is black becomes white, it undergoes motion in respect to _colour_; or if what was previously sweet now becomes bitter, or, conversely, from being bitter now becomes sweet, it will be said to undergo motion in respect to _flavour_; to both of these instances, as well as to those previously mentioned, we shall apply the term _qualitative motion_. And further, it is not only things which are altered in regard to colour and flavour which, we say, undergo motion; when a warm thing becomes cold, and a cold warm, here, too we speak of its undergoing motion; similarly also when anything moist becomes dry, or dry moist. Now, the common term which we apply to all these cases is _alteration_. This is one kind of motion. But there is another kind which occurs in bodies which change their position, or as we say, pass from one place to another; the name of this is _transference_.[10] These two kinds of motion, then, are simple and primary, while compounded from them we have _growth_ and _decay_,[11] as when a small thing becomes bigger, or a big thing smaller, each retaining at the same time its particular form. And two other kinds of motion are _genesis_ and _destruction_,[12] genesis being a coming into existence,[13] and destruction being the opposite. Now, common to all kinds of motion is _change from the pre-existing state_, while common to all conditions of rest is _retention of the pre-existing state_. The Sophists, however, while allowing that bread in turning into blood becomes changed as regards sight, taste, and touch, will not agree that this change occurs in reality. Thus some of them hold that all such phenomena are tricks and illusions of our senses; the senses, they say, are affected now in one way, now in another, whereas the underlying substance does not admit of any of these changes to which the names are given. Others (such as Anaxagoras)[14] will have it that the qualities do exist in it, but that they are unchangeable and immutable from eternity to eternity, and that these apparent alterations are brought about by _separation_ and _combination_. Now, if I were to go out of my way to confute these people, my subsidiary task would be greater than my main one. Thus, if they do not know all that has been written, "On Complete Alteration of Substance"[15] by Aristotle, and after him by Chrysippus,[16] I must beg of them to make themselves familiar with these men's writings. If, however, they know these, and yet willingly prefer the worse views to the better, they will doubtless consider my arguments foolish also. I have shown elsewhere that these opinions were shared by Hippocrates, who lived much earlier than Aristotle. In fact, of all those known to us who have been both physicians and philosophers Hippocrates was the first who took in hand to demonstrate that there are, in all, four mutually interacting _qualities_, and that to the operation of these is due the genesis and destruction of all things that come into and pass out of being. Nay, more; Hippocrates was also the first to recognise that all these qualities undergo an intimate mingling with one another; and at least the beginnings of the proofs to which Aristotle later set his hand are to be found first in the writings of Hippocrates. As to whether we are to suppose that the _substances_ as well as their _qualities_ undergo this intimate mingling, as Zeno of Citium afterwards declared, I do not think it necessary to go further into this question in the present treatise;[17] for immediate purposes we only need to recognize the _complete alteration of substance_. In this way, nobody will suppose that bread represents a kind of meeting-place[18] for bone, flesh, nerve, and all the other parts, and that each of these subsequently becomes separated in the body and goes to join its own kind;[19] before any separation takes place, the whole of the bread obviously becomes blood; (at any rate, if a man takes no other food for a prolonged period, he will have blood enclosed in his veins all the same).[20] And clearly this disproves the view of those who consider the elements[21] unchangeable, as also, for that matter, does the oil which is entirely used up in the flame of the lamp, or the faggots which, in a somewhat longer time, turn into fire. I said, however, that I was not going to enter into an argument with these people, and it was only because the example was drawn from the subject-matter of medicine, and because I need it for the present treatise, that I have mentioned it. We shall then, as I said, renounce our controversy with them, since those who wish may get a good grasp of the views of the ancients from our own personal investigations into these matters. The discussion which follows we shall devote entirely, as we originally proposed, to an enquiry into the number and character of the _faculties_ of Nature, and what is the effect which each naturally produces. Now, of course, I mean by an effect[22] that which has already come into existence and has been completed by the _activity_[23] of these faculties--for example, blood, flesh, or nerve. And _activity_ is the name I give to the active change or _motion_, and the _cause_ of this I call a _faculty_. Thus, when food turns into blood, the motion of the food is passive, and that of the vein active. Similarly, when the limbs have their position altered, it is the muscle which produces, and the bones which undergo the motion. In these cases I call the motion of the vein and of the muscle an _activity_, and that of the food and the bones a _symptom_ or _affection_,[24] since the first group undergoes _alteration_ and the second group is merely _transported_. One might, therefore, also speak of the _activity_ as an _effect_ of Nature[25]--for example, digestion, absorption,[26] blood-production; one could not, however, in every case call the effect an activity; thus flesh is an effect of Nature, but it is, of course, not an activity. It is, therefore, clear that one of these terms is used in two senses, but not the other. II Kai zêtêsomen kata tonde ton logon, hypo tinôn gignetai dynameôn auta dê tauta kai ei dê ti allo physeôs ergon estin. Alla proteron ge dielesthai te chrê kai mênysai saphôs hekaston tôn onomatôn, hois chrêsometha kata tonde ton logon, kai eph' ho ti pheromen pragma. genêsetai de tout' euthys ergôn physikôn didaskalia syn tais tôn onomatôn exêgêsesin. Hotan oun ti sôma kata mêden exallattêtai tôn proÿparchontôn, hêsychazein auto phamen; ei d' existaito pê, kat' ekeino kineisthai. kai toinyn epei polyeidôs existatai, polyeidôs kai kinêthêsetai. kai gar ei leukon hyparchon melainoito kai ei melan leukainoito, kineitai kata chroan, kai ei glyky teôs hyparchon authis || 3 austêron ê empalin ex austêrou glyky genoito, kai tout' an kineisthai legoito kata ton chymon. amphô de tauta te kai ta proeirêmena kata tên poiotêta kineisthai lechthêsetai kai ou monon ge ta kata tên chroan ê ton chymon exallattomena kineisthai phamen, alla kai to thermoteron ek psychroterou genomenon ê psychroteron ek thermoterou kineisthai kai touto legomen, hôsper ge kai ei ti xêron ex hygrou ê hygron ek xêrou gignoito. koinon de kata toutôn hapantôn onoma pheromen tên alloiôsin. Hen ti touto genos kinêseôs. heteron de genos epi tois tas chôras ameibousi sômasi kai topon ek topou metallattein legomenois, onoma de kai toutô phora. Hautai men oun hai dyo kinêseis haplai kai prôtai, synthetoi d' ex autôn auxêsis te kai phthisis, hotan ex elattonos ti meizon ê ek meizonos elatton genêtai phylatton to oikeion eidos. heterai de dyo kinêseis genesis kai phthora, genesis men hê eis ousian agôgê, phthora d' hê enantia. Pasais de tais kinêsesi koinon exallaxis tou || 4 proÿparchontos, hôsper oun kai tais hêsychiais hê phylakê tôn proÿparchontôn. all' hoti men exallattetai kai pros tên opsin kai pros tên geusin kai pros tên haphên haima gignomena ta sitia, synchôrousin; hoti de kai kat' alêtheian, ouketi touth' homologousin hoi sophistai. hoi men gar tines autôn hapanta ta toiauta tôn hêmeterôn aisthêseôn apatas tinas kai paragôgas nomizousin allot' allôs paschousôn, tês hypokeimenês ousias mêden toutôn, hois eponomazetai, dechomenês; hoi de tines einai men en autê boulontai tas poiotêtas, ametablêtous de kai atreptous ex aiônos eis aiôna kai tas phainomenas tautas alloiôseis tê diakrisei te kai synkrisei gignesthai phasin hôs Anaxagoras. Ei dê toutous ektrapomenos exelenchoimi, meizon an moi to parergon tou ergou genoito. ei men gar ouk isasin, hosa peri tês kath' holên tên ousian alloiôseôs Aristotelei te kai met' auton Chrysippô gegraptai, parakalesai chrê tois ekeinôn autous homilêsai grammasin; ei de gignôskontes epeith' hekontes ta cheirô pro tôn beltionôn || hairountai, mataia dêpou kai ta 5 hêmetera nomiousin. hoti de kai Hippokratês houtôs egignôsken Aristotelous eti proteros ôn, en heterois hêmin apodedeiktai. prôtos gar houtos hapantôn hôn ismen iatrôn te kai philosophôn apodeiknyein epecheirêse tettaras einai tas pasas drastikas eis allêlas poiotêtas, hyph' hôn gignetai te kai phtheiretai panth', hosa genesin te kai phthoran epidechetai. kai mentoi kai to kerannysthai di' allêlôn autas holas di' holôn Hippokratês hapantôn prôtos egnô; kai tas archas ge tôn apodeixeôn, hôn hysteron Aristotelês metecheirisato, par' ekeinô prôtô gegrammenas estin heurein. Ei d' hôsper tas poiotêtas houtô kai tas ousias di' holôn kerannysthai chrê nomizein, hôs hysteron apephênato Zênôn ho Kittieus, ouch hêgoumai dein eti peri toutou kata tonde ton logon epexienai. monên gar eis ta paronta deomai gignôskesthai tên di' holês tês ousias alloiôsin, hina mê tis ostou kai sarkos kai neurou kai tôn allôn hekastou moriôn hoionei misgankeian tina tô artô nomisê periechesthai kapeit' en || tô 6 sômati diakrinomenon hôs to homophylon hekaston ienai. kaitoi pro ge tês diakriseôs haima phainetai gignomenos ho pas artos. ei goun pampollô tis chronô mêden all' eiê sition prospheromenos, ouden hêtton en tais phlepsin haima periechomenon hexei. kai phanerôs touto tên tôn ametablêta ta stoicheia tithemenôn exelenchei doxan, hôsper oimai kai toulaion eis tên tou lychnou phloga katanaliskomenon hapan kai ta xyla pyr mikron hysteron gignomena. Kaitoi to g' antilegein autois êrnêsamên, all' epei tês iatrikês hylês ên to paradeigma kai chrêzô pros ton paronta logon autou, dia tout' emnêmoneusa. katalipontes oun, hôs ephên, tên pros toutous antilogian, tois boulomenois ta tôn palaiôn ekmanthanein kax hôn hêmeis idia peri autôn epeskemmetha. Ton ephexês logon hapanta poiêsometha zêtountes hyper hôn ex archês prouthemetha, posai te kai tines eisin hai tês physeôs dynameis kai ti poiein ergon hekastê pephyken. ergon de dêlonoti kalô to gegonos êdê kai sympeplê||rômenon hypo tês energeias autôn, hoion to 7 haima, tên sarka, to neuron; energeian de tên drastikên onomazô kinêsin kai tên tautês aitian dynamin. epei gar en tô to sition haima gignesthai pathêtikê men hê tou sitiou, drastikê d' hê tês phlebos gignetai kinêsis, hôsautôs de kan tô metapherein ta kôla kinei men ho mys, kineitai de ta osta, tên men tês phlebos kai tôn myôn kinêsin energeian einai phêmi, tên de tôn sitiôn te kai tôn ostôn symptôma te kai pathêma; ta men gar alloioutai, ta de pheretai. tên men oun energeian enchôrei kalein kai ergon tês physeôs, hoion tên pepsin, tên anadosin, tên haimatôsin, ou mên to g' ergon ex hapantos energeian; hê gar toi sarx ergon men esti tês physeôs, ou mên energeia ge. dêlon oun, hôs thateron men tôn onomatôn dichôs legetai, thateron d' ou. III It appears to me, then, that the vein, as well as each of the other parts, functions in such and such a way according to the manner in which _the four qualities_[27] are mixed. There are, however, a considerable number of not undistinguished men--philosophers and physicians--who refer action to the Warm and the Cold, and who subordinate to these, as passive, the Dry and the Moist; Aristotle, in fact, was the first who attempted to bring back the causes of the various special activities to these principles, and he was followed later by the Stoic school. These latter, of course, could logically make active principles of the Warm and Cold, since they refer the change of the elements themselves into one another to certain _diffusions_ and _condensations_.[28] This does not hold of Aristotle, however; seeing that he employed the four qualities to explain the genesis of the elements, he ought properly to have also referred the causes of all the special activities to these. How is it that he uses the four qualities in his book "On Genesis and Destruction," whilst in his "Meteorology," his "Problems," and many other works he uses the two only? Of course, if anyone were to maintain that in the case of animals and plants the Warm and Cold are _more_ active, the Dry and Moist _less_ so, he might perhaps have even Hippocrates on his side; but if he were to say that this happens in all cases, he would, I imagine, lack support, not merely from Hippocrates, but even from Aristotle himself--if, at least, Aristotle chose to remember what he himself taught us in his work "On Genesis and Destruction," not as a matter of simple statement, but with an accompanying demonstration. I have, however, also investigated these questions, in so far as they are of value to a physician, in my work "On Temperaments." III Emoi men oun kai hê phleps kai tôn allôn hapantôn hekaston dia tên ek tôn tettarôn poian krasin hôdi pôs energein dokei. eisi de ge mên ouk oligoi tines andres || oud' adoxoi, philosophoi te kai iatroi, tô men thermô 8 kai tô psychrô to dran anapherontes, hypoballontes d' autois pathêtika to xêron te kai to hygron. kai prôtos g' Aristotelês tas tôn kata meros hapantôn aitias eis tautas anagein peiratai tas archas, êkolouthêse d' hysteron autô kai ho apo tês stoas choros. kaitoi toutois men, hôs an kai autôn tôn stoicheiôn tên eis allêla metabolên chysesi te tisi kai pilêsesin anapherousin, eulogon ên archas drastikas poiêsasthai to thermon kai to psychron, Aristotelei d' ouch houtôs, alla tais tettarsi poiotêsin eis tên tôn stoicheiôn genesin chrômenô beltion ên kai tas tôn kata meros aitias hapasas eis tautas anagein. ti dêpot' oun en men tois peri geneseôs kai phthoras tais tettarsi chrêtai, en de tois meteôrologikois kai tois problêmasi kai allothi pollachothi tais dyo monais? ei men gar hôs en tois zôois te kai tois phytois mallon men dra to thermon kai to psychron, hêtton de to xêron kai to hygron apophainoito tis, isôs an echoi kai ton Hippokratên sympsêphon; ei d' hôsautôs en || hapasin, ouket' oimai 9 synchôrêsein touto mê hoti ton Hippokratên alla mêd' auton ton Aristotelên memnêsthai ge boulomenon hôn en tois peri geneseôs kai phthoras ouch haplôs alla met' apodeixeôs autos hêmas edidaxen. alla peri men toutôn kan tois peri kraseôn, eis hoson iatrô chrêsimon, epeskepsametha. IV The so-called _blood-making_[29] faculty in the veins, then, as well as all the other faculties, fall within the category of relative concepts; primarily because the faculty is the cause of the activity, but also, accidentally, because it is the cause of the effect. But if the cause is relative to something--for it is the cause of what results from it, and of nothing else--it is obvious that the faculty also falls into the category of the relative; and so long as we are ignorant of the true essence of the cause which is operating, we call it a _faculty_. Thus we say that there exists in the veins a blood-making faculty, as also a digestive[30] faculty in the stomach, a pulsatile[31] faculty in the heart, and in each of the other parts a special faculty corresponding to the function or activity of that part. If, therefore, we are to investigate methodically the number and kinds of faculties, we must begin with the effects; for each of these effects comes from a certain activity, and each of these again is preceded by a cause. IV Hê d' oun dynamis hê en tais phlepsin hê haimatopoiêtikê prosagoreuomenê kai pasa d' allê dynamis en tô pros ti nenoêtai; prôtôs men gar tês energeias aitia, êdê de kai tou ergou kata symbebêkos. all' eiper hê aitia pros ti, tou gar hyp' autês genomenou monou, tôn d' allôn oudenos, eudêlon, hoti kai hê dynamis en tô pros ti. kai mechri g' an agnoômen tên ousian tês energousês aitias, dynamin autên onomazomen, einai tina legontes en tais phlepsin haimatopoiêtikên, hôsautôs de kan tê koilia peptikên kan tê kardia sphygmikên kai kath' hekaston tôn allôn idian tina tês || kata to morion energeias. eiper 10 oun methodô melloimen exeurêsein, hoposai te kai hopoiai tines hai dynameis eisin, apo tôn ergôn autôn arkteon; hekaston gar autôn hypo tinos energeias gignetai kai toutôn hekastês proêgeitai tis aitia. V The effects of Nature, then, while the animal is still being formed in the womb, are all the different _parts_ of its body; and after it has been born, an effect in which all parts share is the progress of each to its full size, and thereafter its maintenance of itself as long as possible. The activities corresponding to the three effects mentioned are necessarily three--one to each--namely, Genesis, Growth, and Nutrition. Genesis, however, is not a simple activity of Nature, but is compounded of _alteration_ and of _shaping_.[32] That is to say, in order that bone, nerve, veins, and all other [tissues] may come into existence, the _underlying substance_ from which the animal springs must be _altered_; and in order that the substance so altered may acquire its appropriate shape and position, its cavities, outgrowths, attachments, and so forth, it has to undergo a _shaping_ or _formative_ process.[33] One would be justified in calling this substance which undergoes alteration the _material_ of the animal, just as wood is the material of a ship, and wax of an image. _Growth_ is an increase and expansion in length, breadth, and thickness of the solid parts of the animal (those which have been subjected to the moulding or shaping process). _Nutrition_ is an addition to these, without expansion. V Erga toinyn tês physeôs eti men kyoumenou te kai diaplattomenou tou zôou ta sympant' esti tou sômatos moria, gennêthentos de koinon eph' hapasin ergon hê eis to teleion hekastô megethos agôgê kai meta tauth' hê mechri tou dynatou diamonê. Energeiai d' epi trisi tois eirêmenois ergois treis ex anankês, eph' hekastô mia, genesis te kai auxêsis kai threpsis. all' hê men genesis ouch haplê tis energeia tês physeôs, all' ex alloiôseôs te kai diaplaseôs esti synthetos. hina men gar ostoun genêtai kai neuron kai phleps kai tôn allôn hekaston, alloiousthai chrê tên hypobeblêmenên ousian, ex hês gignetai to zôon; hina de kai schêma to deon kai thesin kai koilotêtas tinas kai apophyseis kai symphyseis kai talla || ta toiauta 11 ktêsêtai, diaplattesthai chrê tên alloioumenên ousian, hên dê kai hylên tou zôou kalôn, hôs tês neôs ta xyla kai tês eikonos ton kêron, ouk an hamartois. Hê d' auxêsis epidosis esti kai diastasis kata mêkos kai platos kai bathos tôn stereôn tou zôou moriôn, hônper kai hê diaplasis ên, hê de threpsis prosthesis tois autois aneu diastaseôs. VI Let us speak then, in the first place, of Genesis, which, as we have said, results from _alteration_ together with _shaping_. The seed having been cast into the womb or into the earth (for there is no difference),[34] then, after a certain definite period, a great number of parts become constituted in the substance which is being generated; these differ as regards moisture, dryness, coldness and warmth,[35] and in all the other qualities which naturally derive therefrom.[36] These derivative qualities, you are acquainted with, if you have given any sort of scientific consideration to the question of genesis and destruction. For, first and foremost after the qualities mentioned come the other so-called _tangible_ distinctions, and after them those which appeal to taste, smell, and sight. Now, tangible distinctions are hardness and softness, viscosity, friability, lightness, heaviness, density, rarity, smoothness, roughness, thickness and thinness; all of these have been duly mentioned by Aristotle.[37] And of course you know those which appeal to taste, smell, and sight. Therefore, if you wish to know which alterative faculties are primary and elementary, they are moisture, dryness, coldness, and warmth, and if you wish to know which ones arise from the combination of these, they will be found to be in each animal of a number corresponding to its _sensible elements_. The name _sensible elements_ is given to all the _homogeneous_[38] parts of the body, and these are to be detected not by any system, but by personal observation of dissections.[39] Now Nature constructs bone, cartilage, nerve, membrane, ligament, vein, and so forth, at the first stage of the animal's genesis,[40] employing at this task a faculty which is, in general terms, generative and alterative, and, in more detail, warming, chilling, drying, or moistening; or such as spring from the blending of these, for example, the bone-producing, nerve-producing, and cartilage-producing faculties[41] (since for the sake of clearness these names must be used as well). Now the peculiar[42] flesh of the liver is of this kind as well, also that of the spleen, that of the kidneys, that of the lungs, and that of the heart; so also the proper substance of the brain, stomach, gullet, intestines, and uterus is _a sensible element_, of similar parts all through, simple, and uncompounded. That is to say, if you remove from each of the organs mentioned its arteries, veins, and nerves,[43] the substance remaining in each organ is, from the point of view of the senses, simple and elementary. As regards those organs consisting of two dissimilar _coats_,[44] of which each is simple, of these organs the coats are the elements--for example, the coats of the stomach, oesophagus, intestines, and arteries; each of these two coats has an alterative faculty peculiar to it, which has engendered it from the menstrual blood of the mother. Thus the _special_ alterative faculties in each animal are of the same number as the elementary parts[45]; and further, the _activities_ must necessarily correspond each to one of the special parts, just as each part has its special _use_--for example, those ducts which extend from the kidneys into the bladder, and which are called _ureters_; for these are not arteries, since they do not pulsate nor do they consist of two coats; and they are not veins, since they neither contain blood, nor do their coats in any way resemble those of veins; from nerves they differ still more than from the structures mentioned. "What, then, are they?" someone asks--as though every part must necessarily be either an artery, a vein, a nerve, or a complex of these,[46] and as though the truth were not what I am now stating, namely, that every one of the various organs has its own particular substance. For in fact the two bladders--that which receives the urine, and that which receives the yellow bile--not only differ from all other organs, but also from one another. Further, the ducts which spring out like kinds of conduits from the gall-bladder and which pass into the liver have no resemblance either to arteries, veins or nerves. But these parts have been treated at a greater length in my work "On the Anatomy of Hippocrates," as well as elsewhere. As for the actual substance of the coats of the stomach, intestine, and uterus, each of these has been rendered what it is by a special alterative faculty of Nature; while the bringing of these together,[47] the combination therewith of the structures which are inserted into them, the outgrowth into the intestine,[48] the shape of the inner cavities, and the like, have all been determined by a faculty which we call the shaping or formative faculty[49]; this faculty we also state to be _artistic_--nay, the best and highest art--doing everything for some purpose, so that there is nothing ineffective or superfluous, or capable of being better disposed. This, however, I shall demonstrate in my work "On the Use of Parts." VI Peri prôtês oun tês geneseôs eipômen, hên ex alloiôseôs th' hama kai diaplaseôs elegomen gignesthai. Katablêthentos dê tou spermatos eis tên mêtran ê eis tên gên, ouden gar diapherei, chronois tisin hôrismenois pampolla synistatai moria tês gennômenês ousias hygrotêti kai xêrotêti kai psychrotêti kai thermotêti kai tois allois hapasin, hosa toutois hepetai, diapheronta. ta d' hepomena gignôskeis, eiper holôs ephilosophêsas ti peri geneseôs kai phthoras; hai loipai gar tôn haptôn onomazomenôn diaphorôn tais eirêmenais hepontai prôtai kai malista, meta de tau||tas hai 12 geustai te kai osphrêtai kai horatai. sklêrotês men oun kai malakotês kai glischrotês kai kraurotês kai kouphotês kai barytês kai pyknotês kai araiotês kai leiotês kai trachytês kai pachytês kai leptotês haptai diaphorai kai eirêtai peri pasôn Aristotelei kalôs. oistha de dêpou kai tas geustas te kai osphrêtas kai horatas diaphoras. hôst', ei men tas prôtas te kai stoicheiôdeis alloiôtikas dynameis zêtoiês, hygrotês esti kai xêrotês kai psychrotês kai thermotês; ei de tas ek tês toutôn kraseôs genomenas, tosautai kath' hekaston esontai zôon, hosaper an autou ta aisthêta stoicheia hyparchê; kaleitai d' aisthêta stoicheia ta homoiomerê panta tou sômatos moria; kai taut' ouk ek methodou tinos all' autoptên genomenon ekmathein chrê dia tôn anatomôn. Ostoun dê kai chondron kai neuron kai hymena kai syndesmon kai phleba kai panth' hosa toiauta kata tên prôtên tou zôou genesin hê physis apergazetai dynamei chrômenê katholou men eipein tê gennêtikê te kai alloiô||tikê, kata meros de thermantikê te kai psyktikê 13 kai xêrantikê kai hygrantikê kai tais ek tês toutôn kraseôs genomenais, hoion ostopoiêtikê te kai neuropoiêtikê kai chondropoiêtikê; saphêneias gar heneka kai toutois tois onomasi chrêsteon. Esti goun kai hê idia sarx tou hêpatos ek toutou tou genous kai hê tou splênos kai hê tôn nephrôn kai hê tou pneumonos kai hê tês kardias houtô de kai tou enkephalou to idion sôma kai tês gastros kai tou stomachou kai tôn enterôn kai tôn hysterôn aisthêton stoicheion estin homoiomeres te kai haploun kai asyntheton; ean gar exelês hekastou tôn eirêmenôn tas artêrias te kai tas phlebas kai ta neura, to hypoloipon sôma to kath' hekaston organon haploun esti kai stoicheiôdes hôs pros aisthêsin. hosa de tôn toioutôn organôn ek dyoin synkeitai chitônôn ouch homoiôn men allêlois, haplou d' hekaterou, toutôn hoi chitônes eisi ta stoicheia kathaper tês te gastros kai tou stomachou kai tôn enterôn kai tôn artêriôn, kai kath' hekateron ge tôn chitônôn idios hê alloiôtikê dynamis hê ek tou para tês || mêtros epimêniou gennêsasa to morion, hôste tas kata 14 meros alloiôtikas dynameis tosautas einai kath' hekaston zôon, hosaper an echê ta stoicheiôdê moria. kai men ge kai tas energeias idias hekastô tôn kata meros anankaion hyparchein hôsper kai tas chreias, hoion kai tôn apo tôn nephrôn eis tên kystin diêkontôn porôn, hoi dê kai ourêtêres kalountai. houtoi gar out' artêriai eisin, hoti mête sphyzousi mêt' ek dyoin chitônôn synestêkasin, oute phlebes, hoti mêth' haima periechousi mêt' eoiken autôn ho chitôn kata ti tô tês phlebos; alla kai neurôn epi pleon aphestêkasin ê tôn eirêmenôn. Ti pot' oun eisin? erôta tis, hôsper anankaion on hapan morion ê artêrian ê phleba ê neuron hyparchein ê ek toutôn peplechthai kai mê tout' auto to nyn legomenon, hôs idios hekastô tôn kata meros organôn estin hê ousia. kai gar kai hai kysteis hekaterai hê te to ouron hypodechomenê kai hê tên xanthên cholên ou monon tôn allôn hapantôn alla kai allêlôn diapherousi kai hoi eis to hêpar apophyomenoi || poroi, kathaper stomachoi tines 15 apo tês cholêdochou kysteôs, ouden out' artêriais oute phlepsin oute neurois eoikasin. alla peri men toutôn epi pleon en allois te tisi kan tois peri tês Hippokratous anatomês eirêtai. Hai de kata meros hapasai dynameis tês physeôs hai alloiôtikai autên men tên ousian tôn chitônôn tês koilias kai tôn enterôn kai tôn hysterôn apetelesan, hoiaper esti; tên de synthesin autôn kai tên tôn emphyomenôn plokên kai tên eis to enteron ekphysin kai tên tês endon koilotêtos idean kai tall' hosa toiauta dynamis tis hetera dieplasen, hên diaplastikên onomazomen, hên dê kai technikên einai legomen, mallon d' aristên kai akran technên kai panta tinos heneka poiousan, hôs mêden argon einai mêde peritton mêd' holôs houtôs echon, hôs dynasthai beltion heterôs echein. alla touto men en tois peri chreias moriôn apodeixomen. || 16 VII Passing now to the faculty of Growth[50] let us first mention that this, too, is present in the foetus _in utero_ as is also the nutritive faculty, but that at that stage these two faculties are, as it were, _handmaids_ to those already mentioned,[51] and do not possess in themselves supreme authority. When, however, the animal[52] has attained its complete size, then, during the whole period following its birth and until the acme is reached, the faculty of growth is predominant, while the alterative and nutritive faculties are accessory--in fact, act as its handmaids. What, then, is the property of this faculty of growth? To extend in every direction that which has already come into existence--that is to say, the solid parts of the body, the arteries, veins, nerves, bones, cartilages, membranes, ligaments, and the various _coats_ which we have just called elementary, homogeneous, and simple. And I shall state in what way they gain this extension in every direction, first giving an illustration for the sake of clearness. Children take the bladders of pigs, fill them with air, and then rub them on ashes near the fire, so as to warm, but not to injure them. This is a common game in the district of Ionia, and among not a few other nations. As they rub, they sing songs, to a certain measure, time, and rhythm, and all their words are an exhortation to the bladder to increase in size. When it appears to them fairly well distended, they again blow air into it and expand it further; then they rub it again. This they do several times, until the bladder seems to them to have become large enough. Now, clearly, in these doings of the children, the more the interior cavity of the bladder increases in size, the thinner, necessarily, does its substance become. But, if the children were able to bring nourishment to this thin part, then they would make the bladder big in the same way that Nature does. As it is, however, they cannot do what Nature does, for to imitate this is beyond the power not only of children, but of any one soever; it is a property of Nature alone. It will now, therefore, be clear to you that _nutrition_ is a necessity for growing things. For if such bodies were distended, but not at the same time nourished, they would take on a false appearance of growth, not a true growth. And further, to be distended _in all directions_ belongs only to bodies whose growth is directed by Nature; for those which are distended by us undergo this distension in one direction but grow less in the others; it is impossible to find a body which will remain entire and not be torn through whilst we stretch it in the three dimensions. Thus Nature alone has the power to expand a body in all directions so that it remains unruptured and preserves completely its previous form. Such then is _growth_, and it cannot occur without the nutriment which flows to the part and is worked up into it. VII Epi de tên auxêtikên êdê metabantes dynamin auto touth' hypomnêsômen prôton, hôs hyparchei men kai autê tois kyoumenois hôsper kai hê threptikê; all' hoion hypêretides tines eisi tênikauta tôn proeirêmenôn dynameôn, ouk en hautais echousai to pan kyros. epeidan de to teleion apolabê megethos to zôon, en tô meta tên apokyêsin chronô panti mechri tês akmês hê men auxêtikê tênikauta kratei; boêthoi d' autês kai hoion hypêretides hê t' alloiôtikê dynamis esti kai hê threptikê. ti oun to idion esti tês auxêtikês dynameôs? eis pan meros ekteinai ta pephykota. kaleitai d' houtô ta sterea moria tou sômatos, artêriai kai phlebes kai neura kai osta kai chondroi kai hymenes kai syndesmoi kai hoi chitônes hapantes, hous stoicheiôdeis te kai homoiomereis kai haplous oligon emprosthen ekaloumen. hotô de tropô tên eis pan meros ektasin ischousin, egô phrasô paradeigma ti proteron eipôn heneka tou saphous. || 17 Tas kysteis tôn hyôn labontes hoi paides plêrousi te pneumatos kai tribousin epi tês tephras plêsion tou pyros, hôs aleainesthai men, blaptesthai de mêden; kai pollê g' hautê hê paidia peri te tên Iônian kai en allois ethnesin ouk oligois estin. epilegousi de dê kai tin' epê tribontes en metrô te tini kai melei kai rhythmô kai esti panta ta rhêmata tauta parakeleusis tê kystei pros tên auxêsin. epeidan d' hikanôs autois diatetasthai dokê, palin emphysôsi te kai epidiateinousi kai authis tribousi kai touto pleonakis poiousin, achris an autois hê kystis hikanôs echein dokê tês auxêseôs. all' en toutois ge tois ergois tôn paidôn enargôs, hoson eis megethos epididôsin hê entos eurychôria tês kysteôs, tosouton anankaion eis leptotêta kathaireisthai to sôma kai ei ge tên leptotêta tautên anatrephein hoioi t' êsan hoi paides, homoiôs an tê physei tên kystin ek mikras megalên apeirgazonto. nyni de tout' autois endei to ergon oude kath' hena tropon eis mimêsin endechomenon achthênai mê hoti tois || paisin all' oud' allô tini; 18 monês gar tês physeôs idion estin. Hôst' êdê soi dêlon, hôs anankaia tois auxanomenois hê threpsis. ei gar diateinoito men, anatrephoito de mê, phantasian pseudê mallon, ouk auxêsin alêthê ta toiauta sômata ktêsetai. kaitoi kai to diateinesthai pantê monois tois hypo physeôs auxanomenois hyparchei. ta gar hyph' hêmôn diateinomena sômata kata mian tina diastasin touto paschonta meioutai tais loipais, oud' estin heurein ouden, ho syneches eti menon kai adiaspaston eis tas treis diastaseis epekteinai dynametha. monês oun tês physeôs to pantê diistanai syneches heautô menon eti kai tên archaian hapasan idean phylatton to sôma. Kai tout' estin hê auxêsis aneu tês epirrheousês te kai prosplattomenês trophês mê dynamenê genesthai. VIII We have, then, it seems, arrived at the subject of Nutrition, which is the third and remaining consideration which we proposed at the outset. For, when the matter which flows to each part of the body in the form of nutriment is being worked up into it, this activity is _nutrition_, and its cause is the _nutritive faculty_. Of course, the kind of activity here involved is also an _alteration_, but not an alteration like that occurring at the stage of _genesis_.[53] For in the latter case something comes into existence which did not exist previously, while in nutrition the inflowing material becomes assimilated to that which has already come into existence. Therefore, the former kind of alteration has with reason been termed _genesis_, and the latter, _assimilation_. VIII Kai toinyn ho logos hêkein eoiken ho peri tês threpseôs, hos dê loipos esti kai tritos hôn ex archês prouthemetha. tou gar epirrheontos en eidei trophês panti || moriô tou trephomenou sômatos prosplattomenou 19 threpsis men hê energeia, threptikê de dynamis hê aitia. alloiôsis men dê kantautha to genos tês energeias, all' ouch hoiaper hê en tê genesei. ekei men gar ouk on proteron hysteron egeneto, kata de tên threpsin tô êdê gegonoti synexomoioutai to epirrheon kai dia tout' eulogôs ekeinên men tên alloiôsin genesin, tautên d' exomoiôsin ônomasan. IX Now, since the three faculties of Nature have been exhaustively dealt with, and the animal would appear not to need any others (being possessed of the means for growing, for attaining completion, and for maintaining itself as long a time as possible), this treatise might seem to be already complete, and to constitute an exposition of all the faculties of Nature. If, however, one considers that it has not yet touched upon any of _the parts_ of the animal (I mean the stomach, intestines, liver, and the like), and that it has not dealt with the faculties resident in these, it will seem as though merely a kind of