BOOK II

B I Hoti men oun anankaion estin ouk Erasistratô monon alla 74 kai tois allois hapasin, hosoi mellousi peri diakriseôs ourôn erein ti chrêston, homologêsai dynamin tin' hyparchein tois nephrois helkousan eis heautous poiotêta toiautên, hoia en tois ourois esti, dia tou prosthen epidedeiktai grammatos, anamimnêskontôn ham' autô kai touth' hêmôn, hôs ouk allôs men eis tên kystin pheretai ta oura dia tôn nephrôn, allôs d' eis hapanta tou zôou ta moria to haima, kat' allon de tina tropon hê xanthê cholê diakrinetai. deichtheisês gar enargôs eph' henos || houtinosoun organou tês helktikês te kai epispastikês 75 onomazomenês dynameôs ouden eti chalepon epi ta loipa metapherein autên; ou gar dê tois men nephrois hê physis edôke tina toiautên dynamin, ouchi de ge kai tois to cholôdes hygron helkousin angeiois oude toutois men, ouketi de kai tôn allôn moriôn hekastô. kai mên ei tout' alêthes esti, thaumazein chrê tou Erasistratou pseudeis houtô logous hyper anadoseôs trophês eipontos, hôs mêd' Asklêpiadên lathein. kaitoi g' oietai pantos mallon alêthes hyparchein, hôs, eiper ek tôn phlebôn aporrheoi ti, dyoin thateron ê kenos estai topos athroôs ê to syneches epirrhyêsetai tên basin anaplêroun tou kenoumenou. all' ho g' Asklêpiadês ou dyoin thateron phêsin, alla triôn hen ti chrênai legein epi tois kenoumenois angeiois hepesthai ê kenon athroôs topon ê to syneches akolouthêsein ê systalêsesthai to angeion. epi men gar tôn kalamôn kai tôn auliskôn tôn eis to hydôr kathiemenôn alêthes eipein, hoti kenoumenou tou periechomenou kata tên || eurychôrian autôn aeros ê 76 kenos athroôs estai topos ê akolouthêsei to syneches; epi de tôn phlebôn ouket' enchôrei, dynamenou dê tou chitônos autôn eis heauton synizanein kai dia touto katapiptein eis tên entos eurychôrian. houtô men dê pseudês hê peri tês pros to kenoumenon akolouthias ouk apodeixis ma Di' eipoim' an all' hypothesis Erasistrateios. Kath' heteron d' au tropon, ei kai alêthês eiê, perittê, tês men koilias enthlibein tais phlepsi dynamenês, hôs autos hypetheto, tôn phlebôn d' au peristellesthai tô enyparchonti kai proôthein auto. ta te gar alla kai plêthos ouk an en tô sômati genoito, tê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia monê tês anadoseôs epiteloumenês. ei men oun hê tês gastros enthlipsis eklyetai proïousa kai mechri pantos adynatos estin exikneisthai kai dia tout' allês tinos dei mêchanês eis tên pantê phoran tou haimatos, anankaia men hê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia prosexeurêtai; plêthos d' en oudeni tôn meth' hêpar estai || moriôn, ê, eiper ara, peri tên kardian te kai 77 ton pneumona. monê gar hautê tôn meth' hêpar eis tên dexian hautês koilian helkei tên trophên, eita dia tês phlebos tês artêriôdous ekpempei tô pneumoni; tôn gar allôn ouden oud' autos ho Erasistratos ek kardias bouletai trephesthai dia tên tôn hymenôn epiphysin. ei de g', hina plêthos genêtai, phylaxomen achri pantos tên rhômên tês kata tên koilian enthlipseôs, ouden eti deometha tês pros to kenoumenon akolouthias, malist' ei kai tên tôn phlebôn synypothoimetha peristolên, hôs au kai tout' autô palin areskei tô Erasistratô. II Let me draw his attention, then, once again, even if he does not wish it, to the kidneys, and let me state that these confute in the very clearest manner such people as object to the principle of _attraction_. Nobody has ever said anything plausible, nor, as we previously showed, has anyone been able to discover, by any means, any other cause for the secretion of urine; we necessarily appear mad if we maintain that the urine passes into the kidneys in the form of vapour, and we certainly cut a poor figure when we talk about the tendency of a vacuum to become refilled;[178] this idea is foolish in the case of blood, and impossible, nay, perfectly nonsensical, in the case of the urine.[179] This, then, is one blunder made by those who dissociate themselves from the principle of attraction. Another is that which they make about the _secretion of yellow bile_. For in this case, too, it is not a fact that when the blood runs past the mouths [stomata] of the bile-ducts there will be a thorough separation out [secretion] of biliary waste-matter. "Well," say they, "let us suppose that it is not secreted but carried with the blood all over the body." But, you sapient folk, Erasistratus himself supposed that Nature took thought for the animals' future, and was workmanlike in her method; and at the same time he maintained that the biliary fluid was useless in every way for the animals. Now these two things are incompatible. For how could Nature be still looked on as exercising forethought for the animal when she allowed a noxious humour such as this to be carried off and distributed with the blood?... This, however, is a small matter. I shall again point out here the greatest and most obvious error. For if the yellow bile adjusts itself to the narrower vessels and stomata, and the blood to the wider ones, for no other reason than that blood is thicker and bile thinner, and that the stomata of the veins are wider and those of the bile-ducts narrower,[180] then it is clear that this watery and serous superfluity,[181] too, will run out into the bile-ducts quicker than does the bile, exactly in proportion as it is thinner than the bile! How is it, then, that it does not run out? "Because," it may be said, "urine is thicker than bile!" This was what one of our Erasistrateans ventured to say, herein clearly disregarding the evidence of his senses, although he had trusted these in the case of the bile and blood. For, if it be that we are to look on bile as thinner than blood because it runs more, then, since the serous residue[181] passes through fine linen or lint or a sieve more easily even than does bile, by these tokens bile must also be thicker than the watery fluid. For here, again, there is no argument which will demonstrate that bile is thinner than the serous superfluities. But when a man shamelessly goes on using circumlocutions, and never acknowledges when he has had a fall, he is like the amateur wrestlers, who, when they have been overthrown by the experts and are lying on their backs on the ground, so far from recognizing their fall, actually seize their victorious adversaries by the necks and prevent them from getting away, thus supposing themselves to be the winners! II Anamnêsteon oun authis auton, kan mê boulêtai, tôn nephrôn kai lekteon, hôs elenchos houtoi phanerôtatos hapantôn tôn apochôrountôn tês holkês; oudeis gar ouden out' eipe pithanon, all' oud' exeurein eiche kat' oudena tropon, hôs emprosthen edeiknymen, heteron aition ourôn diakriseôs, all' anankaion ê mainesthai dokein, ei phêsaimen atmoei||dôs eis tên kystin ienai to ouron ê 78 aschêmonein tês pros to kenoumenon akolouthias mnêmoneuontas, lêrôdous men ousês kapi tou haimatos, adynatou de kai êlithiou pantapasin epi tôn ourôn. Hen men dê touto sphalma tôn apostantôn tês holkês; heteron de to peri tês kata tên xanthên cholên diakriseôs. oude gar oud' ekei pararrheontos tou haimatos ta stomata tôn cholêdochôn angeiôn akribôs diakrithêsetai to cholôdes perittôma. kai mê diakrinesthô, phasin, alla synanapheresthô tô haimati pantê tou sômatos. all', ô sophôtatoi, pronoêtikên tou zôou kai technikên autos ho Erasistratos hypetheto tên physin. alla kai to cholôdes hygron achrêston einai pantapasi tois zôois ephasken. ou symbainei d' allêlois amphô tauta. pôs gar an eti pronoeisthai tou zôou doxeien epitrepousa synanapheresthai tô haimati mochthêron houtô chymon? Alla tauta men smikra; to de megiston kai saphestaton palin entauth' hamartêma kai dê phrasô. eiper gar di' ouden all' ê hoti pachyteron men esti to haima, leptotera d' hê || xanthê cholê kai ta men tôn phlebôn 79 eurytera stomata, ta de tôn cholêdochôn angeiôn stenotera, dia touth' hê men cholê tois stenoterois angeiois te kai stomasin enarmottei, to d' haima tois euryterois, dêlon, hôs kai to hydatôdes touto kai orrhôdes perittôma tosoutô proteron eisryêsetai tois cholêdochois angeiois, hosô leptoteron esti tês cholês. pôs oun ouk eisrei? hoti pachyteron esti nê Dia to ouron tês cholês; touto gar etolmêse tis eipein tôn kath' hêmas Erasistrateiôn apostas dêlonoti tôn aisthêseôn, hais episteusen epi te tês cholês kai tou haimatos. eite gar hoti mallon hê cholê tou haimatos rhei, dia touto leptoteran autên hêmin esti nomisteon, eith' hoti di' othonês ê rhakous ê tinos êthmou rhaon diexerchetai kai tautês to orrhôdes perittôma, kata tauta ta gnôrismata pachytera tês hydatôdous hygrotêtos kai hautê genêsetai. palin gar oud' entautha logos oudeis estin, hos apodeixei leptoteran tên cholên tôn orrhôdôn perittômatôn. All' hotan tis anaischyntê periplekôn te kai mêpô katapeptôkenai synchôrôn, || homoios estai tois idiôtais 80 tôn palaistôn, hoi katablêthentes hypo tôn palaistrikôn kai kata tês gês hyptioi keimenoi tosoutou deousi to ptôma gnôrizein, hôste kai kratousi tôn auchenôn autous tous katabalontas ouk eôntes apallattesthai, kan toutô nikan hypolambanousi. III Thus, every hypothesis of _channels_[182] as an explanation of natural functioning is perfect nonsense. For, if there were not _an inborn faculty_ given by Nature to each one of the organs at the very beginning, then animals could not continue to live even for a few days, far less for the number of years which they actually do. For let us suppose they were under no guardianship, lacking in creative ingenuity[183] and forethought; let us suppose they were steered only by material forces,[184] and not by any special _faculties_ (the one attracting what is proper to it, another rejecting what is foreign, and yet another causing alteration and adhesion of the matter destined to nourish it); if we suppose this, I am sure it would be ridiculous for us to discuss natural, or, still more, psychical, activities--or, in fact, life as a whole.[185] For there is not a single animal which could live or endure for the shortest time if, possessing within itself so many different parts, it did not employ faculties which were attractive of what is appropriate, eliminative of what is foreign, and alterative of what is destined for nutrition. On the other hand, if we have these faculties, we no longer need _channels_, little or big, resting on an unproven hypothesis, for explaining the secretion of urine and bile, and the conception of some _favourable situation_ (in which point alone Erasistratus shows some common sense, since he does regard all the parts of the body as having been well and truly placed and shaped by Nature). But let us suppose he remained true to his own statement that Nature is "artistic"--this Nature which, at the beginning, well and truly shaped and disposed all the parts of the animal,[186] and, after carrying out this function (for she left nothing undone), brought it forward to the light of day, endowed with certain faculties necessary for its very existence, and, thereafter, gradually increased it until it reached its due size. If he argued consistently on this principle, I fail to see how he can continue to refer natural functions to the smallness or largeness of canals, or to any other similarly absurd hypothesis. For this Nature which shapes and gradually adds to the parts is most certainly extended throughout their whole substance. Yes indeed, she shapes and nourishes and increases them through and through, not on the outside only. For Praxiteles and Phidias and all the other statuaries used merely to decorate their material on the outside, in so far as they were able to touch it; but its inner parts they left unembellished, unwrought, unaffected by art or forethought, since they were unable to penetrate therein and to reach and handle all portions of the material. It is not so, however, with Nature. Every part of a bone she makes bone, every part of the flesh she makes flesh, and so with fat and all the rest; there is no part which she has not touched, elaborated, and embellished. Phidias, on the other hand, could not turn wax into ivory and gold, nor yet gold into wax: for each of these remains as it was at the commencement, and becomes a perfect statue simply by being clothed externally in a form and artificial shape. But Nature does not preserve the original character of any kind of matter; if she did so then all parts of the animal would be blood--that blood, namely, which flows to the semen from the impregnated female and which is, so to speak, like the statuary's wax, a single uniform matter, subjected to the artificer. From this blood there arises no part of the animal which is as red and moist [as blood is], for bone, artery, vein, nerve, cartilage, fat, gland, membrane, and marrow are not blood, though they arise from it. I would then ask Erasistratus himself to inform me what the altering, coagulating, and shaping agent is. He would doubtless say, "Either Nature or the semen," meaning the same thing in both cases, but explaining it by different devices. For that which was previously semen, when it begins to procreate and to shape the animal, becomes, so to say, a special _nature_.[187] For in the same way that Phidias possessed the faculties of his art even before touching his material, and then activated these in connection with this material (for every faculty remains inoperative in the absence of its proper material), so it is with the semen: its faculties it possessed from the beginning,[188] while its activities it does not receive from its material, but it manifests them in connection therewith. And, of course, if it were to be overwhelmed with a great quantity of blood, it would perish, while if it were to be entirely deprived of blood it would remain inoperative and would not turn into a _nature_. Therefore, in order that it may not perish, but may become a _nature_ in place of semen, there must be an afflux to it of a little blood--or, rather, one should not say a little, but a quantity commensurate with that of the semen. What is it then that measures the quantity of this afflux? What prevents more from coming? What ensures against a deficiency? What is this third overseer of animal generation that we are to look for, which will furnish the semen with a due amount of blood? What would Erasistratus have said if he had been alive, and had been asked this question? Obviously, the semen itself. This, in fact, is the artificer analogous with Phidias, whilst the blood corresponds to the statuary's wax. Now, it is not for the wax to discover for itself how much of it is required; that is the business of Phidias. Accordingly the artificer will draw to itself as much blood as it needs. Here, however, we must pay attention and take care not unwittingly to credit the semen with reason and intelligence; if we were to do this, we would be making neither semen nor a nature, but an actual living animal.[189] And if we retain these two principles--that of proportionate attraction[190] and that of the non-participation of intelligence--we shall ascribe to the semen a faculty for attracting blood similar to that possessed by the lodestone for iron.[191] Here, then, again, in the case of the semen, as in so many previous instances, we have been compelled to acknowledge some kind of attractive faculty. And what is the semen? Clearly the active principle of the animal, the material principle being the menstrual blood.[192] Next, seeing that the active principle employs this faculty primarily, therefore, in order that any one of the things fashioned by it may come into existence, it [the principle] must necessarily be possessed of its own faculty. How, then, was Erasistratus unaware of it, if the primary function of the semen be to draw to itself a due proportion of blood? Now, this fluid would be in due proportion if it were so thin and vaporous, that, as soon as it was drawn like dew into every part of the semen, it would everywhere cease to display its own particular character; for so the semen will easily dominate and quickly assimilate it--in fact, will use it as food. It will then, I imagine, draw to itself a second and a third quantum, and thus by feeding it acquires for itself considerable bulk and quantity.[193] In fact, _the alterative faculty_ has now been discovered as well, although about this also Erasistratus has not written a word. And, thirdly the _shaping_[194] faculty will become evident, by virtue of which the semen firstly surrounds itself with a thin membrane like a kind of superficial condensation; this is what was described by Hippocrates in the sixth-day birth, which, according to his statement, fell from the singing-girl and resembled the pellicle of an egg. And following this all the other stages will occur, such as are described by him in his work "On the Child's Nature." But if each of the parts formed were to remain as small as when it first came into existence, of what use would that be? They have, then, to grow. Now, how will they grow? By becoming extended in all directions and at the same time receiving nourishment. And if you will recall what I previously said about the bladder which the children blew up and rubbed,[195] you will also understand my meaning better as expressed in what I am now about to say. Imagine the heart to be, at the beginning, so small as to differ in no respect from a millet-seed, or, if you will, a bean; and consider how otherwise it is to become large than by being extended in all directions and acquiring nourishment throughout its whole substance, in the way that, as I showed a short while ago, the semen is nourished. But even this was unknown to Erasistratus--the man who sings the artistic skill of Nature! He imagines that animals grow like webs, ropes, sacks, or baskets, each of which has, woven on to its end or margin, other material similar to that of which it was originally composed. But this, most sapient sir, is not growth, but genesis! For a bag, sack, garment, house, ship, or the like is said to be still coming into existence [undergoing genesis] so long as the appropriate form for the sake of which it is being constructed by the artificer is still incomplete. Then, when does it grow? Only when the basket, being complete, with a bottom, a mouth, and a belly, as it were, as well as the intermediate parts, now becomes larger in all these respects. "And how can this happen?" someone will ask. Only by our basket suddenly becoming an animal or a plant; for growth belongs to living things alone. Possibly you imagine that a house _grows_ when it is being built, or a basket when being plaited, or a garment when being woven? It is not so however. Growth belongs to that which has already been completed in respect to its form, whereas the process by which that which is still _becoming_ attains its form is termed not growth but genesis. That which _is_, grows, while that which _is not_, becomes. III Lêros oun makros hapasa porôn hypothesis eis physikên energeian. ei mê gar dynamis tis symphytos hekastô tôn organôn hypo tês physeôs euthys ex archês dotheiê, diarkein ou dynêsetai ta zôa, mê hoti tosouton arithmon etôn all' oud' hêmerôn oligistôn; anepitropeuta gar easantes auta kai technês kai pronoias erêma monais tais tôn hylôn oiakizomena rhopais, oudamou dynameôs oudemias tês men helkousês to prosêkon heautê, tês d' apôthousês to allotrion, tês d' alloiousês te kai prosphyousês to threpson, ouk oid' hopôs ouk an eiêmen katagelastoi peri te tôn physikôn energeiôn dialegomenoi kai poly mallon eti peri tôn psychikôn kai || sympasês ge tês zôês. 81 Oude gar zên oude diamenein oudeni tôn zôôn oud' eis elachiston chronon estai dynaton, ei tosauta kektêmenon en heautô moria kai houtô diapheronta mêth' helktikê tôn oikeiôn chrêsetai dynamei mêt' apokritikê tôn allotriôn mêt' alloiôtikê tôn threpsontôn. kai mên ei tautas echoimen, ouden eti porôn mikrôn ê megalôn ex hypotheseôs anapodeiktou lambanomenôn eis ourou kai cholês diakrisin deometha kai tinos epikairou theseôs, en hô monô sôphronein eoiken ho Erasistratos hapanta kalôs tethênai te kai diaplasthênai ta moria tou sômatos hypo tês physeôs oiomenos. All' ei parakolouthêseien heautô physin onomazonti technikên, euthys men ex archês hapanta kalôs diaplasasan te kai diatheisan tou zôou ta moria, meta de tên toiautên energeian, hôs ouden eleipen, eti proagagousan eis phôs auto syn tisi dynamesin, hôn aneu zên ouk êdynato, kai meta tauta kata brachy prosauxêsasan achri tou prepontos megethous, ouk oida pôs hypomenei porôn smikrotêsin || ê megethesin ê tisin 82 allais houtô lêrôdesin hypothesesi physikas energeias epitrepein. hê gar diaplattousa ta moria physis ekeinê kai kata brachy prosauxousa pantôs dêpou di' holôn autôn ektetatai; kai gar hola di' holôn ouk exôthen monon auta diaplattei te kai trephei kai prosauxei. Praxitelês men gar ê Pheidias ê tis allos agalmatopoios exôthen monon ekosmoun tas hylas, katha kai psauein autôn êdynanto, to bathos d' akosmêton kai argon kai atechnon kai apronoêton apelipon, hôs an mê dynamenoi katelthein eis auto kai katadynai kai thigein hapantôn tês hylês tôn merôn. hê physis d' ouch houtôs, alla to men ostou meros hapan ostoun apotelei, to de sarkos sarka, to de pimelês pimelên kai tôn allôn hekaston; ouden gar estin apsauston autê meros oud' anexergaston oud' akosmêton. alla ton men kêron ho Pheidias ouk êdynato poiein elephanta kai chryson, all' oude ton chryson kêron; hekaston gar autôn menon, hoion ên ex archês, exôthen monon êmphiesmenon eidos ti kai schêma technikon, agalma teleion || gegonen. hê physis d' oudemias eti phylattei 83 tôn hylôn tên archaian idean; haima gar an ên houtôs hapanta tou zôou ta moria, to para tês kyousês epirrheon tô spermati, dikên kêrou tinos hylê mia kai monoeidês hypobeblêmenê tô technitê. gignetai d' ex autês ouden tôn tou zôou moriôn out' erythron houtôs outh' hygron. ostoun gar kai artêria kai phleps kai neuron kai chondros kai pimelê kai adên kai hymên kai myelos anaima men, ex haimatos de gegone. Tinos alloiôsantos kai tinos pêxantos kai tinos diaplasantos edeomên an moi ton Erasistraton auton apokrinasthai. pantôs gar an eipen êtoi tên physin ê to sperma, tauton men legôn kath' hekateron, diaphorois d' epinoiais hermêneuôn; ho gar ên proteron sperma, touth', hotan arxêtai phyein te kai diaplattein to zôon, physis tis gignetai. kathaper gar ho Pheidias eiche men tas dynameis tês technês kai prin psauein tês hylês, enêrgei d' autais peri tên hylên--hapasa gar dynamis argei aporousa tês oikeias hylês--, houtô kai to sperma tas men || dynameis oikothen ekektêto, tas d' energeias ouk 84 ek tês hylês elaben, alla peri tên hylên epedeixato. Kai mên ei pollô men epiklyzoito tô haimati to sperma, diaphtheiroit' an; ei d' holôs aporoiê pantapasin argoun, ouk an genoito physis. hin' oun mête phtheirêtai kai gignêtai physis anti spermatos, oligon epirrhein anankaion autô tou haimatos, mallon d' ouk oligon legein chrê, alla symmetron tô plêthei tou spermatos. tis oun ho metrôn autou to poson tês epirrhoês? tis ho kôlyôn ienai pleon? tis ho protrepôn, hin' endeesteron mê iê? tina zêtêsomen entautha triton epistatên tou zôou tês geneseôs, hos chorêgêsei tô spermati to symmetron haima? ti an eipen Erasistratos, ei zôn taut' êrôtêthê? to sperma auto dêlonoti; touto gar estin ho technitês ho analogôn tô Pheidia, to d' haima tô kêrô proseoiken. Oukoun prepei ton kêron auton heautô to metron exeuriskein, alla ton Pheidian. helxei dê tosouton haimatos ho technitês eis heauton, hoposou deitai. all' en||tautha chrê prosechein êdê ton noun kai skopein, mê 85 pôs lathômen tô spermati logismon tina kai noun charisamenoi; houtô gar an oute sperma poiêsaimen oute physin all' êdê zôon auto. kai mên ei phylaxomen amphotera, tên th' holkên tou symmetrou kai to chôris logismou, dynamin tina, kathaper hê lithos helktikên eiche tou sidêrou, kai tô spermati phêsomen hyparchein haimatos epispastikên. ênankasthêmen oun palin kantautha, kathaper êdê pollakis emprosthen, helktikên tina dynamin homologêsai kata to sperma. Ti d' ên to sperma? hê archê tou zôou dêlonoti hê drastikê; hê gar hylikê to katamênion estin. eit' autês tês archês prôtê tautê tê dynamei chrômenês, hina genêtai tôn hyp' autês ti dedêmiourgêmenôn, amoiron einai tês oikeias dynameôs ouk endechetai. pôs oun Erasistratos autên ouk oiden, ei dê prôtê men hautê tou spermatos energeia to symmetron haimatos epispasthai pros heauto? symmetron d' an eiê to lepton houtô kai atmôdes, hôst' euthys eis pan morion helkomenon tou spermatos drosoeidôs mêdamou tên || heautou 86 paremphainein idean. houtô gar autou kai kratêsei rhadiôs to sperma kai tacheôs exomoiôsei kai trophên heautô poiêsetai kapeit' oimai deuteron epispasetai kai triton, hôs onkon heautô kai plêthos axiologon ergasasthai traphenti. kai mên êdê kai hê alloiôtikê dynamis exeurêtai mêd' autê pros Erasistratou gegrammenê. tritê d' an hê diaplastikê phaneiê, kath' hên prôton men hoion epipagon tina lepton hymena peritithêsin heautô to sperma, ton hyph' Hippokratous epi tês hektaias gonês, hên ekpesein elege tês mousourgou, tô tôn ôôn eikasthenta chitôni; meta de touton êdê kai tall', hosa pros ekeinou legetai dia tou peri physios paidiou syngrammatos. All' ei tôn diaplasthentôn hekaston houtô meineie smikron, hôs ex archês egeneto, ti an eiê pleon? auxanesthai toinyn auta chrê. pôs oun auxêthêsetai? pantê diateinomena th' hama kai trephomena. kai moi tôn emprosthen eirêmenôn epi tês kysteôs, hên hoi paides emphysôntes etribon, anamnêstheis mathêsê mallon || kak 87 tôn nyn rhêthêsomenôn. Ennoêson gar dê tên kardian houtô men mikran einai kat' archas, hôs kenchrou mêden diapherein ê, ei boulei, kyamou, kai zêtêson, hopôs an allôs hautê genoito megalê chôris tou pantê diateinomenên trephesthai di' holês heautês, hôs oligô prosthen edeiknyto to sperma trephomenon. all' oude tout' Erasistratos oiden ho tên technên tês physeôs hymnôn, all' houtôs auxanesthai ta zôa nomizei kathaper tina krêseran ê seiran ê sakkon ê talaron, hôn hekastô kata to peras epiplekomenôn homoiôn heterôn tois ex archês auta syntitheisin hê prosthesis gignetai. Alla touto g' ouk auxêsis estin alla genesis, ô sophôtate; gignetai gar ho thylakos eti kai ho sakkos kai thoimation kai hê oikia kai to ploion kai tôn allôn hekaston, hotan mêdepô to prosêkon eidos, hou charin hypo tou technitou dêmiourgeitai, sympeplêrômenon ê. pot' oun auxanetai? hotan êdê teleios ôn ho talaros, hôs echein pythmena te tina kai stoma kai hoion gastera kai ta toutôn metaxy, meizôn hapasi toutois genêtai. kai pôs || estai touto? phêsei tis. pôs d' allôs ê ei zôon 88 exaiphnês ê phyton ho talaros hêmin genoito? monôn gar tôn zôntôn hê auxêsis. sy d' isôs oiei tên oikian oikodomoumenên auxanesthai kai ton talaron plekomenon kai thoimation hyphainomenon. all' ouch hôd' echei; tou men gar êdê sympeplêrômenou kata to eidos hê auxêsis, tou d' eti gignomenou hê eis to eidos hodos ouk auxêsis alla genesis onomazetai; auxanetai men gar to on, gignetai de to ouk on. IV This also was unknown to Erasistratus, whom nothing escaped, if his followers speak in any way truly in maintaining that he was familiar with the Peripatetic philosophers. Now, in so far as he acclaims Nature as being an artist in construction, even I recognize the Peripatetic teachings, but in other respects he does not come near them. For if anyone will make himself acquainted with the writings of Aristotle and Theophrastus, these will appear to him to consist of commentaries on the Nature-lore [physiology][196] of Hippocrates--according to which the principles of heat, cold, dryness and moisture act upon and are acted upon by one another, the hot principle being the most active, and the cold coming next to it in power; all this was stated in the first place by Hippocrates and secondly by Aristotle.[197] Further, it is at once the Hippocratic and the Aristotelian teaching that the parts which are being nourished receive that nourishment throughout their whole substance, and that, similarly, processes of _mingling_ and _alteration_ involve the entire substance.[198] Moreover, that digestion is a species of alteration--a transmutation of the nutriment into the proper quality of the thing receiving it; that blood-production also is an alteration, and nutrition as well; that growth results from extension in all directions, combined with nutrition; that alteration is effected mainly by the warm principle, and that therefore digestion, nutrition, and the generation of the various humours, as well as the qualities of the surplus substances, result from the _innate heat_;[199] all these and many other points besides in regard to the aforesaid faculties, the origin of diseases, and the discovery of remedies, were correctly stated first by Hippocrates of all writers whom we know, and were in the second place correctly expounded by Aristotle. Now, if all these views meet with the approval of the Peripatetics, as they undoubtedly do, and if none of them satisfy Erasistratus, what can the Erasistrateans possibly mean by claiming that their leader was associated with these philosophers? The fact is, they revere him as a god, and think that everything he says is true. If this be so, then we must suppose the Peripatetics to have strayed very far from truth, since they approve of none of the ideas of Erasistratus. And, indeed, the disciples of the latter produce his connection with the Peripatetics in order to furnish his Nature-lore with a respectable pedigree. Now, let us reverse our argument and put it in a different way from that which we have just employed. For if the Peripatetics were correct in their teaching about Nature, there could be nothing more absurd than the contentions of Erasistratus. And, I will leave it to the Erasistrateans themselves to decide; they must either advance the one proposition or the other. According to the former one the Peripatetics had no accurate acquaintance with Nature, and according to the second, Erasistratus. It is my task, then, to point out the opposition between the two doctrines, and theirs to make the choice.... But they certainly will not abandon their reverence for Erasistratus. Very well, then; let them stop talking about the Peripatetic philosophers. For among the numerous physiological teachings regarding the genesis and destruction of animals, their health, their diseases, and the methods of treating these, there will be found one only which is common to Erasistratus and the Peripatetics--namely, the view that Nature does everything for some purpose, and nothing in vain. But even as regards this doctrine their agreement is only verbal; in practice Erasistratus makes havoc of it a thousand times over. For, according to him, the spleen was made for no purpose, as also the omentum; similarly, too, the arteries which are inserted into kidneys[200]--although these are practically the largest of all those that spring from the great artery [aorta]! And to judge by the Erasistratean argument, there must be countless other useless structures; for, if he knows nothing at all about these structures, he has little more anatomical knowledge than a butcher, while, if he is acquainted with them and yet does not state their use, he clearly imagines that they were made for no purpose, like the spleen. Why, however, should I discuss these structures fully, belonging as they do to the treatise "On the Use of Parts," which I am personally about to complete? Let us, then, sum up again this same argument, and, having said a few words more in answer to the Erasistrateans, proceed to our next topic. The fact is, these people seem to me to have read none of Aristotle's writings, but to have heard from others how great an authority he was on "Nature," and that those of the Porch[201] follow in the steps of his Nature-lore; apparently they then discovered a single one of the current ideas which is common to Aristotle and Erasistratus, and made up some story of a connection between Erasistratus and these people.[202] That Erasistratus, however, has no share in the Nature-lore of Aristotle is shown by an enumeration of the aforesaid doctrines, which emanated first from Hippocrates, secondly from Aristotle, thirdly from the Stoics (with a single modification, namely, that for them the _qualities_ are _bodies_).[203] Perhaps, however, they will maintain that it was in the matter of _logic_ that Erasistratus associated himself with the Peripatetic philosophers? Here they show ignorance of the fact that these philosophers never brought forward false or inconclusive arguments, while the Erasistratean books are full of them. So perhaps somebody may already be asking, in some surprise, what possessed Erasistratus that he turned so completely from the doctrines of Hippocrates, and why it is that he takes away the attractive faculty from the biliary[204] passages in the liver--for we have sufficiently discussed the kidneys--alleging [as the cause of bile-secretion] a favourable situation, the narrowness of vessels, and _a common space_ into which the veins from the gateway [of the liver][205] conduct the unpurified blood, and from which, in the first place, the [biliary] passages take over the bile, and secondly, the [branches] of the vena cava take over the purified blood. For it would not only have done him no harm to have mentioned the idea of _attraction_, but he would thereby have been able to get rid of countless other disputed questions. IV Kai taut' Erasistratos ouk oiden, hon ouden lanthanei, eiper holôs alêtheuousin hoi ap' autou phaskontes hômilêkenai tois ek tou peripatou philosophois auton. achri men oun tou tên physin hymnein hôs technikên kagô gnôrizô ta tou peripatou dogmata, tôn d' allôn ouden oud' engys. ei gar tis homilêseie tois Aristotelous kai Theophrastou grammasi, tês Hippokratous an auta doxeie physiologias hypomnêmata synkeisthai, to thermon kai to psychron || kai to xêron kai to hygron eis allêla drônta 89 kai paschonta kai toutôn autôn drastikôtaton men to thermon, deuteron de tê dynamei to psychron Hippokratous tauta sympanta prôtou, deuterou d' Aristotelous eipontos. trephesthai de di' holôn hautôn ta trephomena kai kerannysthai di' holôn ta kerannymena kai alloiousthai di' holôn ta alloioumena, kai tauth' Hippokrateia th' hama kai Aristoteleia. kai tên pepsin alloiôsin tin' hyparchein kai metabolên tou trephontos eis tên oikeian tou trephomenou poiotêta, tên d' exaimatôsin alloiôsin einai kai tên threpsin hôsautôs kai tên auxêsin ek tês pantê diataseôs kai threpseôs gignesthai, tên d' alloiôsin hypo tou thermou malista synteleisthai kai dia touto kai tên pepsin kai tên threpsin kai tên tôn chymôn hapantôn genesin, êdê de kai tois perittômasi tas poiotêtas hypo tês emphytou thermasias engignesthai, tauta sympanta kai pros toutois hetera polla ta te tôn proeirêmenôn dynameôn kai ta || 90 tôn nosêmatôn tês geneseôs kai ta tôn iamatôn tês heureseôs Hippokratês men prôtos hapantôn hôn ismen orthôs eipen, Aristotelês de deuteros orthôs exêgêsato. kai mên ei tauta sympanta tois ek tou peripatou dokei, kathaper oun dokei, mêden d' autôn areskei tô Erasistratô, ti pote bouletai tois Erasistrateiois hê pros tous philosophous ekeinous tou tês haireseôs autôn hêgemonos homilia? thaumazousi men gar auton hôs theon kai pant' alêtheuein nomizousin. ei d' houtôs echei tauta, pampoly dêpou tês alêtheias esphalthai chrê nomizein tous ek tou peripatou philosophous, hois mêden hôn Erasistratos hypelambanen areskei. kai mên hôsper tin' eugeneian autô tês physiologias tên pros tous andras ekeinous synousian ekporizousi. Palin oun anastrepsômen ton logon heterôs ê hôs oligô prosthen etychomen eipontes. eiper gar hoi ek tou peripatou kalôs ephysiologêsan, ouden an eiê lêrôdesteron Erasistratou kai didômi tois Erasistrateiois autois tên hairesin; ê gar ton proteron logon ê touton || prosêsontai. legei d' ho men proteros 91 ouden orthôs egnôkenai peri physeôs tous peripatêtikous, ho de deuteros Erasistraton. emon men oun hypomnêsai tôn dogmatôn tên machên, ekeinôn d' hê hairesis. All' ouk an apostaien tou thaumazein Erasistraton; oukoun siôpatôsan peri tôn ek tou peripatou philosophôn. pampollôn gar ontôn dogmatôn physikôn peri te genesin kai phthoran tôn zôôn kai hygieian kai nosous kai tas therapeias autôn hen monon heurethêsetai tauton Erasistratô kakeinois tois andrasi, to tinos heneka panta poiein tên physin kai matên mêden. Alla kai auto touto mechri logou koinon, ergô de myriakis Erasistratos auto diaphtheirei; matên men gar ho splên egeneto, matên de to epiploon, matên d' hai eis tous nephrous artêriai kataphyomenai, schedon hapasôn tôn apo tês megalês artêrias apoblastanousôn ousai megistai, matên d' alla myria kata ge ton Erasistrateion logon; haper ei men oud' holôs gignôskei, brachei mageirou sophôteros estin en tais anatomais, ei d' eidôs ou legei tên chreian autôn, oietai || dêlonoti 92 paraplêsiôs tô splêni matên auta gegonenai. kaitoi ti taut' epexerchomai tês peri chreias moriôn pragmateias onta mellousês hêmin idia perainesthai? Palin oun analabômen ton auton logon eipontes te ti brachy pros tous Erasistrateious eti tôn ephexês echômetha. dokousi gar moi mêden anegnôkenai tôn Aristotelous houtoi syngrammatôn, all' allôn akouontes, hôs deinos ên peri physin ho anthrôpos kai hôs hoi apo tês stoas kat' ichnê tês ekeinou physiologias badizousin, eith' heurontes hen ti tôn peripheromenôn dogmatôn koinon autô pros Erasistraton anaplasai tina synousian autou pros ekeinous tous andras. all' hoti men tês Aristotelous physiologias ouden Erasistratô metestin, ho katalogos tôn proeirêmenôn endeiknytai dogmatôn, ha prôtou men Hippokratous ên, deuterou d' Aristotelous, tritôn de tôn Stôïkôn, henos monou metatithemenou tou tas poiotêtas einai sômata. Tacha d' an tês logikês heneka theôrias hômilêkenai phaien ton Erasistraton tois ek tou peripatou philosophois, ouk eidotes, hôs ekeinoi men pseu||deis 93 kai aperantous ouk egrapsan logous, ta d' Erasistrateia biblia pampollous echei tous toioutous. Tach' an oun êdê tis thaumazoi kai diaporoiê, ti pathôn ho Erasistratos eis tosouton tôn Hippokratous dogmatôn apetrapeto kai dia ti tôn en hêpati porôn tôn cholêdochôn, halis gar êdê nephrôn, aphelomenos tên helktikên dynamin epikairon aitiatai thesin kai stomatôn stenotêta kai chôran tina koinên, eis hên paragousi men hai apo tôn pylôn to akatharton haima, metalambanousi de proteroi men hoi poroi tên cholên, deuterai d' hai apo tês koilês phlebos to katharon haima. pros gar tô mêden an blabênai tên holkên eipôn allôn myriôn emellen amphisbêtoumenôn apallaxesthai logôn. V At the actual moment, however, the Erasistrateans are engaged in a considerable battle, not only with others but also amongst themselves, and so they cannot explain the passage from the first book of the "General Principles," in which Erasistratus says, "Since there are two kinds of vessels opening[206] at the same place, the one kind extending to the gall-bladder and the other to the vena cava, the result is that, of the nutriment carried up from the alimentary canal, that part which fits both kinds of stomata is received into both kinds of vessels, some being carried into the gall-bladder, and the rest passing over into the vena cava." For it is difficult to say what we are to understand by the words "opening at the same place" which are written at the beginning of this passage. Either they mean there is a _junction_[207] between the termination of the vein which is on the concave surface of the liver[208] and two other vascular terminations (that of the vessel on the convex surface of the liver[209] and that of the bile-duct), or, if not, then we must suppose that there is, as it were, a common space for all three vessels, which becomes filled from the lower vein,[210] and empties itself both into the bile-duct and into the branches of the vena cava. Now, there are many difficulties in both of these explanations, but if I were to state them all, I should find myself inadvertently writing an exposition of the teaching of Erasistratus, instead of carrying out my original undertaking. There is, however, one difficulty common to both these explanations, namely, that the whole of the blood does not become purified. For it ought to fall into the bile-duct as into a kind of sieve, instead of going (running, in fact, rapidly) past it, into the larger stoma, by virtue of the impulse of _anadosis_. Are these, then, the only inevitable difficulties in which the argument of Erasistratus becomes involved through his disinclination to make any use of the attractive faculty, or is it that the difficulty is greatest here, and also so obvious that even a child could not avoid seeing it? V Hôs nyn ge polemos ou smikros esti tois Erasistrateiois ou pros tous allous monon alla kai pros allêlous, ouk echousin, hopôs exêgêsôntai tên ek tou prôtou tôn katholou logôn lexin, en hê phêsin; "Eis to || auto d' 94 anestomômenôn heterôn anestomômenôn heterôn dyo angeiôn tôn t' epi tên cholêdochon teinontôn kai tôn epi tên koilên phleba symbainei tês anapheromenês ek tês koilias trophês ta enarmozonta hekaterois tôn stomatôn eis hekatera tôn angeiôn metalambanesthai kai ta men epi tên cholêdochon pheresthai, ta d' epi tên koilên phleba peraiousthai." to gar "eis to auto anestomômenôn," ho kat' archas tês lexeôs gegraptai, ti pote chrê noêsai, chalepon eipein. êtoi gar houtôs eis tauton, hôste tô tês en tois simois phlebos perati synaptein dyo hetera perata, to t' en tois kyrtois kai to tou cholêdochou porou, ê, ei mê houtô, chôran tina koinên epinoêsai chrê tôn triôn angeiôn hoion dexamenên tina, plêroumenên men hypo tês katô phlebos, ekkenoumenên d' eis te tous cholêdochous porous kai tas tês koilês aposchidas; kath' hekateran de tôn exêgêseôn atopa polla, peri hôn ei pantôn legoimi, lathoim' an emauton exêgêseis Erasistratou graphôn, ouch, hoper ex archês prouthemên, perainôn. koinon d' amphoterais tais exêgêsesin atopon to mê || kathairesthai pan to haima. chrê gar hôs eis 95 êthmon tina to cholêdochon angeion empiptein auto, ou parerchesthai kai pararrhein ôkeôs eis to meizon stoma tê rhymê tês anadoseôs pheromenon. Ar' oun en toutois monon aporiais aphyktois ho Erasistratou logos enechetai mê boulêthentos chrêsasthai tais helktikais dynamesin eis mêden, ê sphodrotata men en toutois kai saphôs houtôs, hôs an mêde paida lathein? VI And if one looks carefully into the matter one will find that even Erasistratus's reasoning on the subject of _nutrition_, which he takes up in the second book of his "General Principles," fails to escape this same difficulty. For, having conceded one premise to the principle that matter tends to fill a vacuum, as we previously showed, he was only able to draw a conclusion in the case of the veins and their contained blood.[211] That is to say, when blood is running away through the stomata of the veins, and is being dispersed, then, since an absolutely empty space cannot result, and the veins cannot collapse (for this was what he overlooked), it was therefore shown to be necessary that the adjoining quantum of fluid should flow in and fill the place of the fluid evacuated. It is in this way that we may suppose the veins to be nourished; they get the benefit of the blood which they contain. But how about the nerves?[212] For they do not also contain blood. One might obviously say that they draw their supply from the veins.[213] But Erasistratus will not have it so. What further contrivance, then, does he suppose? He says that a nerve has within itself veins and arteries, like a rope woven by Nature out of three different strands. By means of this hypothesis he imagined that his theory would escape from the idea of _attraction_. For if the nerve contain within itself a blood-vessel it will no longer need the adventitious flow of other blood from the real vein lying adjacent; this fictitious vessel, perceptible only in theory,[214] will suffice it for nourishment. But this, again, is succeeded by another similar difficulty. For this small vessel will nourish itself, but it will not be able to nourish this adjacent simple nerve or artery, unless these possess some innate proclivity for attracting nutriment. For how could the _nerve_, being simple, attract its nourishment, as do the composite veins, by virtue of the tendency of a vacuum to become refilled? For, although according to Erasistratus, it contains within itself a cavity of sorts, this is not occupied with blood, but with _psychic pneuma_,[215] and we are required to imagine the nutriment introduced, not into this cavity, but into the vessel containing it, whether it needs merely to be nourished, or to grow as well. How, then, are we to imagine it introduced? For this simple vessel [_i.e._ nerve] is so small--as are also the other two--that if you prick it at any part with the finest needle you will tear the whole three of them at once. Thus there could never be in it a perceptible space entirely empty. And an emptied space which merely existed in theory could not compel the adjacent fluid to come and fill it. At this point, again, I should like Erasistratus himself to answer regarding this small elementary nerve, whether it is actually one and definitely continuous, or whether it consists of many small bodies, such as those assumed by Epicurus, Leucippus, and Democritus.[216] For I see that the Erasistrateans are at variance on this subject. Some of them consider it one and continuous, for otherwise, as they say, he would not have called it _simple_; and some venture to resolve it into yet other elementary bodies. But if it be one and continuous, then what is evacuated from it in the so-called _insensible transpiration_ of the physicians will leave no empty space in it; otherwise it would not be one body but many, separated by empty spaces. But if it consists of many bodies, then we have "escaped by the back door," as the saying is, to Asclepiades, seeing that we have postulated certain _inharmonious elements_. Once again, then, we must call Nature "inartistic"; for this necessarily follows the assumption of such elements. For this reason some of the Erasistrateans seem to me to have done very foolishly in reducing the simple vessels to elements such as these. Yet it makes no difference to me, since the theory of both parties regarding nutrition will be shown to be absurd. For in these minute simple vessels constituting the large perceptible nerves, it is impossible, according to the theory of those who would keep the former continuous, that any "refilling of a vacuum" should take place, since no vacuum can occur in a continuum even if anything does run away; for the parts left come together (as is seen in the case of water) and again become one, taking up the whole space of that which previously separated them. Nor will any "refilling" occur if we accept the argument of the other Erasistrateans, since none of their _elements_ need it. For this principle only holds of things which are perceptible, and not of those which exist merely in theory; this Erasistratus expressly acknowledges, for he states that it is not a vacuum such as this, interspersed in small portions among the corpuscles, that his various treatises deal with, but a vacuum which is clear, perceptible, complete in itself, large in size, evident, or however else one cares to term it (for, what Erasistratus himself says is, that "there cannot be a perceptible space which is entirely empty"; while I, for my part, being abundantly equipped with terms which are equally elucidatory, at least in relation to the present topic of discussion, have added them as well). Thus it seems to me better that we also should help the Erasistrateans with some contribution, since we are on the subject, and should advise those who reduce the vessel called _primary_ and _simple_ by Erasistratus into other elementary bodies to give up their opinion; for not only do they gain nothing by it, but they are also at variance with Erasistratus in this matter. That they gain nothing by it has been clearly demonstrated; for this hypothesis could not escape the difficulty regarding _nutrition_. And it also seems perfectly evident to me that this hypothesis is not in consonance with the view of Erasistratus, when it declares that what he calls simple and primary is composite, and when it destroys the principle of Nature's artistic skill.[217] For, if we do not grant a certain _unity of substance_[218] to these simple structures as well, and if we arrive eventually at inharmonious and indivisible elements,[219] we shall most assuredly deprive Nature of her artistic skill, as do all the physicians and philosophers who start from this hypothesis. For, according to such a hypothesis, Nature does not precede, but is secondary to the _parts_ of the animal.[220] Now, it is not the province of what comes secondarily, but of what pre-exists, to shape and to construct. Thus we must necessarily suppose that the faculties of Nature, by which she shapes the animal, and makes it grow and receive nourishment, are present from the seed onwards; whereas none of these inharmonious and non-partite corpuscles contains within itself any formative, incremental,[221] nutritive, or, in a word, any artistic power; it is, by hypothesis, unimpressionable and untransformable,[222] whereas, as we have previously shown,[223] none of the processes mentioned takes place without transformation, alteration, and complete intermixture. And, owing to this necessity, those who belong to these sects are unable to follow out the consequences of their supposed elements, and they are all therefore forced to declare Nature devoid of art. It is not from us, however, that the Erasistrateans should have learnt this, but from those very philosophers who lay most stress on a preliminary investigation into the elements of all existing things. Now, one can hardly be right in supposing that Erasistratus could reach such a pitch of foolishness as to be incapable of recognizing the logical consequences of this theory, and that, while assuming Nature to be artistically creative, he would at the same time break up substance into insensible, inharmonious, and untransformable elements. If, however, he will grant that there occurs in the elements a process of alteration and transformation, and that there exists in them unity and continuity, then that _simple vessel_ of his (as he himself names it) will turn out to be single and uncompounded. And the simple vein will receive nourishment from itself, and the nerve and artery from the vein. How, and in what way? For, when we were at this point before, we drew attention to the disagreement among the Erasistrateans,[224] and we showed that the nutrition of these simple vessels was impracticable according to the teachings of both parties, although we did not hesitate to adjudicate in their quarrel and to do Erasistratus the honour of placing him in the better sect.[225] Let our argument, then, be transferred again to the doctrine which assumes this _elementary nerve_[226] to be a single, simple, and entirely unified structure, and let us consider how it is to be nourished; for what is discovered here will at once be found to be common also to the school of Hippocrates. It seems to me that our enquiry can be most rigorously pursued in subjects who are suffering from illness and have become very emaciated, since in these people all parts of the body are obviously atrophied and thin, and in need of additional substance and feeding-up; for the same reason the ordinary _perceptible_ nerve, regarding which we originally began this discussion, has become thin, and requires nourishment. Now, this contains within itself various parts, namely, a great many of these primary, invisible, minute nerves, a few simple arteries, and similarly also veins. Thus, all its elementary nerves have themselves also obviously become emaciated; for, if they had not, neither would the nerve as a whole; and of course, in such a case, the whole nerve cannot require nourishment without each of these requiring it too. Now, if on the one hand they stand in need of feeding-up, and if on the other the principle of the refilling of a vacuum[227] can give them no help--both by reason of the difficulties previously mentioned and the actual thinness, as I shall show--we must then seek another cause for nutrition. How is it, then, that the tendency of a vacuum to become refilled is unable to afford nourishment to one in such a condition? Because its rule is that only so much of the contiguous matter should succeed as has flowed away. Now this is sufficient for nourishment in the case of those who are in good condition, for, in them, what is _presented_[228] must be equal to what has flowed away. But in the case of those who are very emaciated and who need a great restoration of nutrition, unless what was presented were many times greater than what has been emptied out, they would never be able to regain their original habit. It is clear, therefore, that these parts will have to exert a greater amount of _attraction_, in so far as their requirements are greater. And I fail to understand how Erasistratus does not perceive that here again he is putting the cart before the horse. Because, in the case of the sick, there must be a large amount of _presentation_[228] in order to feed them up, he argues that the factor of "refilling"[227] must play an equally large part. And how could much _presentation_ take place if it were not preceded by an abundant _delivery_[229] of nutriment? And if he calls the conveyance of food through the veins delivery, and its assumption by each of these simple and visible nerves and arteries not delivery but _distribution_,[230] as some people have thought fit to name it, and then ascribes conveyance through the veins to the principle of vacuum-refilling alone, let him explain to us the assumption of food by the hypothetical elements.[231] For it has been shown that at least in relation to these there is no question of the refilling of a vacuum being in operation, and especially where the parts are very attenuated. It is worth while listening to what Erasistratus says about these cases in the second book of his "General Principles": "In the ultimate simple [vessels], which are thin and narrow, presentation takes place from the adjacent vessels, the nutriment being attracted through the sides of the vessels and deposited in the empty spaces left by the matter which has been carried away." Now, in this statement firstly I admit and accept the words "through the sides." For, if the simple nerve were actually to take in the food through its mouth, it could not distribute it through its whole substance; for the mouth is dedicated to the psychic pneuma.[232] It can, however, take it in through its sides from the adjacent simple vein. Secondly, I also accept in Erasistratus's statement the expression which precedes "through the sides." What does this say? "The nutriment being attracted through the sides of the vessels." Now I, too, agree that it is attracted, but it has been previously shown that this is not through the tendency of evacuated matter to be replaced. VI Ei d' episkopoito tis epimelôs, oud' ho peri threpseôs autou logos, hon en tô deuterô tôn katholou logôn diexerchetai, tas autas aporias ekpheugei. tê gar pros to kenoumenon akolouthia synchôrêthentos henos lêmmatos, hôs prosthen edeiknymen, eperaine ti peri phlebôn monôn kai tou kat' autas haimatos. ekreontos gar tinos kata ta stomat' autôn kai diaphoroumenou kai mêt' athroôs topou kenou dynamenou genesthai mête tôn phlebôn sympesein, touto gar ên to paraleipomenon, anankaion ên hepesthai to syneches anaplêroun tou kenou||menou tên basin. hai 96 men dê phlebes hêmin houtô threpsontai tou periechomenou kat' autas haimatos apolauousai; ta de neura pôs? ou gar dê kan toutois estin haima. procheiron men gar ên eipein, helkonta para tôn phlebôn; all' ou bouletai. ti pot' oun kantautha epitechnatai? phlebas echein en heautô kai artêrias to neuron hôsper tina seiran ek triôn himantôn diapherontôn tê physei peplegmenên. ôêthê gar ek tautês tês hypotheseôs ekpheuxesthai tô logô tên holkên; ou gar an eti deêsesthai to neuron en heautô periechon haimatos angeion epirrhytou tinos exôthen ek tês parakeimenês phlebos tês alêthinês haimatos heterou, all' hikanon autô pros tên threpsin esesthai to katepseusmenon angeion ekeino to logô theôrêton. Alla kantautha palin auton homoia tis aporia diedexato. touti gar to smikron angeion heauto men threpsei, to parakeimenon mentoi neuron ekeino to haploun ê tên artêrian ouch hoion t' estai trephein aneu tou symphyton tin' hyparchein autois holkên tês trophês. || tê men gar 97 pros to kenoumenon akolouthia pôs an eti dynaito tên trophên epispasthai to haploun neuron, hôsper hai phlebes hai synthetoi? koilotês men gar tis estin en autô kat' auton, all' ouch haimatos hautê g' alla pneumatos psychikou mestê. deometha d' hêmeis ouk eis tên koilotêta tautên eisagein tô logô tên trophên all' eis to periechon autên angeion, eit' oun trephesthai monon eite kai auxesthai deoito. pôs oun eisaxomen? houtô gar esti smikron ekeino to haploun angeion kai mentoi kai tôn allôn hekateron, hôst', ei tê leptotatê belonê nyxeias ti meros, hama diairêseis ta tria. topos oun aisthêtos athroôs kenos ouk an pot' en autô genoito; logô de theôrêtos topos kenoumenos ouk ên anankastikos tês tou synechous akolouthias. Êboulomên d' au palin moi kantautha ton Erasistraton auton apokrinasthai peri tou stoicheiôdous ekeinou neurou tou smikrou, poteron hen ti kai syneches akribôs estin ê ek pollôn kai smikrôn sômatôn, hôn Epikouros kai Leukippos kai Dêmokritos hypethento, syn||keitai. kai 98 gar kai peri toutou tous Erasistrateious horô diapheromenous. hoi men gar hen ti kai syneches auto nomizousin ê ouk an haploun eirêsthai pros autou phasi; tines de kai touto dialyein eis hetera stoicheiôdê tolmôsin. all' ei men hen ti kai syneches esti, to kenoumenon ex autou kata tên adêlon hypo tôn iatrôn onomazomenên diapnoên oudemian en heautô kataleipsei chôran kenên. houtô gar ouch hen alla polla genêsetai, dieirgomena dêpou tais kenais chôrais. ei d' ek pollôn synkeitai, tê kêpaia kata tên paroimian pros Asklêpiadên apechôrêsamen anarma tina stoicheia tithemenoi. palin oun atechnos hêmin hê physis legesthô; tois gar toioutois stoicheiois ex anankês touth' hepetai. Dio dê moi kai dokousin amathôs pany tên eis ta toiauta stoicheia tôn haplôn angeiôn eisagein dialysin enioi tôn Erasistrateiôn. emoi goun ouden diapherei. kath' hekaterous gar atopos ho tês threpseôs estai logos, ekeinois tois haplois angeiois tois smikrois tois syntitheisi ta megala || te kai aisthêta neura kata men 99 tous synechê phylattontas auta mê dynamenês genesthai tês pros to kenoumenon akolouthias, hoti mêden en tô synechei gignetai kenon, kan aporrheê ti; synerchetai gar pros allêla ta kataleipomena moria, kathaper epi tou hydatos horatai, kai palin hen gignetai panta tên chôran tou diaphorêthentos auta katalambanonta; kata de tous heterous, hoti tôn stoicheiôn ekeinôn ouden deitai tês pros to kenoumenon akolouthias. epi gar tôn aisthêtôn monôn, ouk epi tôn logô theôrêtôn echei dynamin, hôs autos ho Erasistratos homologei diarrhêdên, ou peri tou toioutou kenou phaskôn hekastote poieisthai ton logon, ho kata brachy parespartai tois sômasin, alla peri tou saphous kai aisthêtou kai athroou kai megalou kai enargous kai hopôs an allôs onomazein ethelês. Erasistratos men gar autos aisthêton athroôs ou phêsi dynasthai genesthai kenon; egô d' ek periousias euporêsas onomatôn tauton dêloun en ge tô nyn prokeimenô logô dynamenôn kai talla prosethêka. Kallion oun moi dokei kai || hêmas ti syneisenenkasthai 100 tois Erasistrateiois, epeidê kata touto gegonamen, kai symbouleusai tois to prôton ekeino kai haploun hyp' Erasistratou kaloumenon angeion eis heter' atta sômata stoicheiôdê dialyousin apostênai tês hypolêpseôs, hôs pros tô mêden echein pleon eti kai diapheromenois Erasistratô. hoti men oun ouden echei pleon, epidedeiktai saphôs; oude gar êdynêthê diaphygein tên peri tês threpseôs aporian hê hypothesis; hoti d' oud' Erasistratô symphônos estin, ho ekeinos haploun kai prôton onomazei, syntheton apophainousa, kai tên tês physeôs technên anairousa, prodêlon kai tout' einai moi dokei. ei mê gar kan tois haplois toutois henôsin tina tês ousias apoleipsomen, all' eis anarma kai amerista katabêsometha stoicheia, pantapasin anairêsomen tês physeôs tên technên, hôsper kai pantes hoi ek tautês hormômenoi tês hypotheseôs iatroi kai philosophoi. deutera gar tôn tou zôou moriôn kata tên toiautên hypothesin hê physis, ou prôtê gignetai. diaplattein de || kai dêmiourgein ou tou deuterou gegonotos, alla tou 101 proÿparchontos estin; hôst' anankaion estin euthys ek spermatôn hypothesthai tas dynameis tês physeôs, hais diaplattei te kai auxanei kai trephei to zôon; all' ekeinôn tôn sômatôn tôn anarmôn kai amerôn ouden en heautô diaplastikên echei dynamin ê auxêtikên ê threptikên ê holôs technikên; apathes gar kai ametablêton hypokeitai. tôn d' eirêmenôn ouden aneu metabolês kai alloiôseôs kai tês di' holôn kraseôs gignetai, kathaper kai dia tôn emprosthen enedeixametha. kai dia tautên tên anankên ouk echontes, hopôs ta akoloutha tois stoicheiois, hois hypethento, phylattoien, hoi apo tôn toioutôn haireseôn hapantes atechnon ênankasthêsan apophênasthai tên physin. kaitoi tauta g' ou par' hêmôn echrên manthanein tous Erasistrateious, alla par' autôn tôn philosophôn, hois malista dokei prôton episkopeisthai ta stoicheia tôn ontôn hapantôn. Oukoun oud' Erasistraton an tis orthôs achri tosautês amathias nomizoi proêkein, hôs mêde tautên gnôrisai dynêthênai tên akolou||thian, all' hama men hypothesthai 102 technikên tên physin, hama d' eis apathê kai anarma kai ametablêta stoicheia katathrausai tên ousian. kai mên ei dôsei tin' en tois stoicheiois alloiôsin te kai metabolên kai henôsin kai synecheian, hen asyntheton autô to haploun angeion ekeino, kathaper kai autos onomazei, genêsetai. all' hê men haplê phleps ex hautês traphêsetai, to neuron de kai hê artêria para tês plebos. pôs kai tina tropon? en toutô gar dê kai prosthen genomenoi tô logô tês tôn Erasistrateiôn diaphônias emnêmoneusamen, epedeixamen de kai kath' hekaterous men aporon einai tên tôn haplôn ekeinôn angeiôn threpsin, alla kai krinai tên machên autôn ouk ôknêsamen kai timêsai ton Erasistraton eis tên beltiona metastêsantes hairesin. Authis oun epi tên hen haploun hênômenon heautô pantê to stoicheiôdes ekeino neuron hypotithemenên hairesin ho logos metabas episkopeisthô, pôs traphêsetai; to gar heurethen entautha koinon an êdê kai tês Hippokratous haireseôs genoito. Kallion d' an moi dokô to zêtou||menon epi tôn 103 nenosêkotôn kai sphodra kataleleptysmenôn basanisthênai. panta gar toutois enargôs phainetai ta moria tou sômatos atropha kai lepta kai pollês prosthêkês te kai anathrepseôs deomena. kai toinyn kai to neuron touto to aisthêton, eph' houper ex archês epoiêsamên ton logon, ischnon men hikanôs gegone, deitai de threpseôs. echei d' en heautô merê pampolla men ekeina ta prôta kai aorata neura ta smikra kai tinas artêrias haplas oligas kai phlebas homoiôs. hapant' oun autou ta neura ta stoicheiôdê kataleleptyntai dêlonoti kai auta, ê, ei mêd' ekeina, oude to holon. kai toinyn kai threpseôs ou to men holon deitai neuron, hekaston d' ekeinôn ou deitai. kai mên ei deitai men anathrepseôs, ouden d' hê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia boêthein autois dynatai dia te tas emprosthen eirêmenas aporias kai dia tên hypoguion ischnotêta, kathaper deixô, zêtêteon hêmin estin heteran aitian threpseôs. Pôs oun hê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia trephein adynatos esti ton houtô diakeimenon? hoti tosouton akolouthein || anankazei tôn synechôn, hoson aporrhei. 104 touto d' epi men tôn euektountôn hikanon estin eis tên threpsin, isa gar ep' autôn einai chrê tois aporrheousi ta prostithemena; epi de tôn eschatôs ischnôn kai pollês anathrepseôs deomenôn ei mê pollaplasion eiê to prostithemenon tou kenoumenou, tên ex archês hexin analabein ouk an pote dynainto. dêlon oun, hôs helkein auta deêsei tosoutô pleion, hosô kai deitai pleionos. Erasistratos de kantautha proteron poiêsas to deuteron ouk oid' hopôs ouk aisthanetai. dioti gar, phêsi, pollê prosthesis eis anathrepsin gignetai tois nenosêkosi, dia touto kai hê pros tautên akolouthia pollê. pôs d' an pollê prosthesis genoito mê proêgoumenês anadoseôs dapsilous? ei de tên dia tôn phlebôn phoran tês trophês anadosin kalei, tên d' eis hekaston tôn haplôn kai aoratôn ekeinôn neurôn kai artêriôn metalêpsin ouk anadosin alla diadosin, hôs tines onomazein êxiôsan, eita || tên dia tôn phlebôn monê tê pros to kenoumenon 105 akolouthia phêsi gignesthai, tên eis ta logô theôrêta metalêpsin hêmin exêgêsasthô. hoti men gar ouket' epi toutôn hê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia legesthai dynatai kai malist' epi tôn eschatôs ischnôn, apodedeiktai. ti de phêsin ep' autôn en tô deuterô tôn katholou logôn ho Erasistratos, axion epakousai tês lexeôs; "Tois d' eschatois te kai haplois, leptois te kai stenois ousin, ek tôn parakeimenôn angeiôn hê prosthesis symbainei eis ta kenômata tôn apenechthentôn kata ta plagia tôn angeiôn helkomenês tês trophês kai katachôrizomenês." ek tautês tês lexeôs prôton men to kata ta plagia prosiemai te kai apodechomai; kata men gar auto to stoma to haploun neuron ouk an dynaito dechomenon tên trophên houtôs eis holon heauto dianemein; anakeitai gar ekeino tô psychikô pneumati; kata de to plagion ek tês parakeimenês phlebos tês haplês enchôrei labein auto. deuteron d' apodechomai tôn ek tês Erasistratou lexeôs onomatôn to gegrammenon ephexês tô kata ta plagia. || ti gar phêsi? "Kata ta 106 plagia tôn angeiôn helkomenês tês trophês." hoti men oun helketai, kai hêmeis homologoumen, hoti d' ou tê pros to kenoumenon akolouthia, dedeiktai prosthen. VII Let us, then, consider together how it is attracted. How else than in the way that iron is attracted by the lodestone, the latter having a faculty attractive of this particular quality [existing in iron]?[233] But if the beginning of anadosis depends on the squeezing action of the stomach,[234] and the whole movement thereafter on the peristalsis and propulsive action of the veins, as well as on the traction exerted by each of the parts which are undergoing nourishment, then we can abandon the principle of replacement of evacuated matter, as not being suitable for a man who assumes Nature to be a skilled artist; thus we shall also have avoided the contradiction of Asclepiades[235] though we cannot refute it: for the disjunctive argument used for the purposes of demonstration is, in reality, disjunctive not of two but of three alternatives; now, if we treat the disjunction as a disjunction of two alternatives, one of the two propositions assumed in constructing our proof must be false; and if as a disjunctive of three alternatives, no conclusion will be arrived at. VII Exeurômen oun koinê, pôs helketai. pôs d' allôs ê hôs ho sidêros hypo tês hêrakleias lithou dynamin echousês helktikên toiautês poiotêtos? all' ei tên men archên tês anadoseôs hê tês koilias enthlipsis parechetai, tên de meta tauta phoran hapasan hai te phlebes peristellomenai kai proôthousai kai tôn trephomenôn hekaston epispômenon eis heauto, tês pros to kenoumenon akolouthias apostantes, hôs ou prepousês andri technikên hypothemenô tên physin, houtôs an êdê kai tên antilogian eiêmen pepheugotes tên Asklêpiadou mê dynamenoi ge lyein autên. to gar eis tên apodeixin paralambanomenon lêmma to diezeugmenon ouk ek dyoin all' ek triôn esti kata ge tên alêtheian diezeugmenon. ei men oun hôs ek dyoin autô chrê||saimetha, pseudos estai ti tôn eis tên apodeixin 107 pareilêmmenôn; ei d' hôs ek triôn, aperantos ho logos genêsetai. VIII Now Erasistratus ought not to have been ignorant of this if he had ever had anything to do with the Peripatetics--even in a dream. Nor, similarly, should he have been unacquainted with the genesis of the _humours_, about which, not having even anything moderately plausible to say, he thinks to deceive us by the excuse that the consideration of such matters is not the least useful. Then, in Heaven's name, is it useful to know how food is digested in the stomach, but unnecessary to know how _bile_ comes into existence in the veins? Are we to pay attention merely to the evacuation of this humour, and not to its genesis? As though it were not far better to prevent its excessive development from the beginning than to give ourselves all the trouble of expelling it![236] And it is a strange thing to be entirely unaware as to whether its genesis is to be looked on as taking place in the body, or whether it comes from without and is contained in the food. For, if it was right to raise this problem, why should we not make investigations concerning the _blood_ as well--whether it takes its origin in the body, or is distributed through the food as is maintained by those who postulate _homoemeries_?[237] Assuredly it would be much more useful to investigate what kinds of food are suited, and what kinds unsuited, to the process of blood-production[238] rather than to enquire into what articles of diet are easily mastered by the activity of the stomach, and what resist and contend with it. For the choice of the latter bears reference merely to digestion, while that of the former is of importance in regard to the generation of useful blood. For it is not equally important whether the aliment be imperfectly chylified[239] in the stomach or whether it fail to be turned into useful blood. Why is Erasistratus not ashamed to distinguish all the various kinds of digestive failure and all the occasions which give rise to them, whilst in reference to the errors of blood-production he does not utter a single word--nay, not a syllable? Now, there is certainly to be found in the veins both thick and thin blood; in some people it is redder, in others yellower, in some blacker, in others more of the nature of phlegm. And one who realizes that it may smell offensively not in one way only, but in a great many different respects (which cannot be put into words, although perfectly appreciable to the senses), would, I imagine, condemn in no measured terms the carelessness of Erasistratus in omitting a consideration so essential to the practice of our art. Thus it is clear what errors in regard to the subject of _dropsies_ logically follow this carelessness. For, does it not show the most extreme carelessness to suppose that the blood is prevented from going forward into the liver owing to the _narrowness of the passages_, and that dropsy can never occur in any other way? For, to imagine that dropsy is never caused by the spleen[240] or any other part, but always by induration of the liver,[241] is the standpoint of a man whose intelligence is perfectly torpid and who is quite out of touch with things that happen every day. For, not merely once or twice, but frequently, we have observed dropsy produced by chronic haemorrhoids which have been suppressed,[242] or which, through immoderate bleeding, have given the patient a severe chill; similarly, in women, the complete disappearance of the monthly discharge,[243] or an undue evacuation such as is caused by violent bleeding from the womb, often provoke dropsy; and in some of them the so-called female flux ends in this disorder. I leave out of account the dropsy which begins in the flanks or in any other susceptible part; this clearly confutes Erasistratus's assumption, although not so obviously as does that kind of dropsy which is brought about by an excessive chilling of the whole constitution; this, which is the primary reason for the occurrence of dropsy, results from a failure of blood-production,[244] very much like the diarrhoea which follows imperfect digestion of food; certainly in this kind of dropsy neither the liver nor any other viscus becomes indurated. The learned Erasistratus, however, overlooks--nay, despises--what neither Hippocrates, Diocles, Praxagoras, nor Philistion[245] despised, nor indeed any of the best philosophers, whether Plato, Aristotle, or Theophrastus; he passes by whole functions as though it were but a trifling and casual department of medicine which he was neglecting, without deigning to argue whether or not these authorities are right in saying that the bodily parts of all animals are governed by the Warm, the Cold, the Dry and the Moist, the one pair being active and the other passive, and that among these the Warm has most power in connection with all functions, but especially with the genesis of the humours.[246] Now, one cannot be blamed for not agreeing with all these great men, nor for imagining that one knows more than they; but not to consider such distinguished teaching worthy either of contradiction or even mention shows an extraordinary arrogance. Now, Erasistratus is thoroughly small-minded and petty to the last degree in all his disputations--when, for instance, in his treatise "On Digestion,"[247] he argues jealously with those who consider that this is a process of putrefaction of the food; and, in his work "On Anadosis,"[248] with those who think that the anadosis of blood through the veins results from the contiguity of the arteries; also, in his work "On Respiration," with those who maintain that the air is forced along by contraction. Nay, he did not even hesitate to contradict those who maintain that the urine passes into the bladder in a vaporous state,[249] as also those who say that imbibed fluids are carried into the lung. Thus he delights to choose always the most valueless doctrines, and to spend his time more and more in contradicting these; whereas on the subject of the _origin of blood_ (which is in no way less important than the chylification[250] of food in the stomach) he did not deign to dispute with any of the ancients, nor did he himself venture to bring forward any other opinion, despite the fact that at the beginning of his treatise on "General Principles" he undertook to say how all the various natural functions take place, and through what parts of the animal! Now, is it possible that, when the faculty which naturally digests food is weak, the animal's digestion fails, whereas the faculty which turns the digested food into blood cannot suffer any kind of impairment?[251] Are we to suppose this latter faculty alone to be as tough as steel and unaffected by circumstances? Or is it that weakness of this faculty will result in something else than dropsy? The fact, therefore, that Erasistratus, in regard to other matters, did not hesitate to attack even the most trivial views, whilst in this case he neither dared to contradict his predecessors nor to advance any new view of his own, proves plainly that he recognized the fallacy of his own way of thinking.[252] For what could a man possibly say about blood who had no use for _innate heat_? What could he say about yellow or black bile, or phlegm? Well, of course, he might say that the bile could come directly from without, mingled with the food! Thus Erasistratus practically says so in the following words: "It is of no value in practical medicine to find out whether a fluid of this kind[253] arises from the elaboration of food in the stomach-region, or whether it reaches the body because it is mixed with the food taken in from outside." But, my very good Sir, you most certainly maintain also that this humour has to be evacuated from the animal, and that it causes great pain if it be not evacuated. How, then, if you suppose that no good comes from the bile, do you venture to say that an investigation into its origin is of no value in medicine? Well, let us suppose that it is contained in the food, and not specifically secreted in the liver (for you hold these two things possible). In this case, it will certainly make a considerable difference whether the ingested food contains a minimum or a maximum of bile; for the one kind is harmless, whereas that containing a large quantity of bile, owing to the fact that it cannot be properly purified[254] in the liver, will result in the various affections--particularly jaundice--which Erasistratus himself states to occur where there is much bile. Surely, then, it is most essential for the physician to know in the first place, that the bile is contained in the food itself from outside, and, secondly, that for example, beet contains a great deal of bile, and bread very little, while olive oil contains most, and wine least of all, and all the other articles of diet different quantities. Would it not be absurd for any one to choose voluntarily those articles which contain more bile, rather than those containing less? What, however, if the bile is not contained in the food, but comes into existence in the animal's body? Will it not also be useful to know what _state of the body_ is followed by a greater, and what by a smaller occurrence of bile?[255] For obviously it is in our power to alter and transmute morbid states of the body--in fact, to give them a turn for the better. But if we did not know in what respect they were morbid or in what way they diverged from the normal, how should we be able to ameliorate them? Therefore it is not useless in treatment, as Erasistratus says, to know the actual truth about the genesis of bile. Certainly it is not impossible, or even difficult to discover that the reason why _honey_ produces yellow bile is not that it contains a large quantity of this within itself, but because it [the honey] undergoes change, becoming _altered_ and transmuted into bile. For it would be bitter to the taste if it contained bile from the outset, and it would produce an equal quantity of bile in every person who took it. The facts, however, are not so.[256] For in those who are in the prime of life, especially if they are warm by nature and are leading a life of toil, the honey changes entirely into yellow bile. Old people, however, it suits well enough, inasmuch as the alteration which it undergoes is not into bile, but into blood. Erasistratus, however, in addition to knowing nothing about this, shows no intelligence even in the division of his argument; he says that it is of no practical importance to investigate whether the bile is contained in the food from the beginning or comes into existence as a result of gastric digestion. He ought surely to have added something about its genesis in liver and veins, seeing that the old physicians and philosophers declare that it along with the blood is generated in these organs. But it is inevitable that people who, from the very outset, go astray, and wander from the right road, should talk such nonsense, and should, over and above this, neglect to search for the factors of most practical importance in medicine. Having come to this point in the argument, I should like to ask those who declare that Erasistratus was very familiar with the Peripatetics, whether they know what Aristotle stated and demonstrated with regard to our bodies being compounded out of the Warm, the Cold, the Dry and the Moist, and how he says that among these the Warm is the most active, and that those animals which are by nature warmest have abundance of blood, whilst those that are colder are entirely lacking in blood, and consequently in winter lie idle and motionless, lurking in holes like corpses. Further, the question of the colour of the blood has been dealt with not only by Aristotle but also by Plato.[257] Now I, for my part, as I have already said, did not set before myself the task of stating what has been so well demonstrated by the Ancients, since I cannot surpass these men either in my views or in my method of giving them expression. Doctrines, however, which they either stated without demonstration, as being self-evident (since they never suspected that there could be sophists so degraded as to contemn the truth in these matters), or else which they actually omitted to mention at all--these I propose to discover and prove. Now in reference to the _genesis of the humours_, I do not know that any one could add anything wiser than what has been said by Hippocrates, Aristotle, Praxagoras, Philotimus[258] and many other among the Ancients. These men demonstrated that when the nutriment becomes altered in the veins by the innate heat, blood is produced when it is in moderation, and the other humours when it is not in proper proportion. And all the observed facts[259] agree with this argument. Thus, those articles of food, which are by nature warmer are more productive of bile, while those which are colder produce more phlegm. Similarly of the periods of life, those which are naturally warmer tend more to bile, and the colder more to phlegm. Of occupations also, localities and seasons, and, above all, of natures[260] themselves, the colder are more phlegmatic, and the warmer more bilious. Also cold diseases result from phlegm, and warmer ones from yellow bile. There is not a single thing to be found which does not bear witness to the truth of this account. How could it be otherwise? For, seeing that every part functions in its own special way because of the manner in which the four qualities are compounded, it is absolutely necessary that the function [activity] should be either completely destroyed, or, at least hampered, by any damage to the qualities, and that thus the animal should fall ill, either as a whole, or in certain of its parts. Also the diseases which are primary and most generic are four in number, and differ from each other in warmth, cold, dryness and moisture. Now, Erasistratus himself confesses this, albeit unintentionally;[261] for when he says that the digestion of food becomes worse in fever, not because the innate heat has ceased to be in due proportion, as people previously supposed, but because the stomach, with its activity impaired, cannot contract and triturate as before--then, I say, one may justly ask him what it is that has impaired the activity of the stomach. Thus, for example, when a bubo develops following an accidental wound[262] gastric digestion does not become impaired _until after the patient has become fevered_; neither the bubo nor the sore of itself impedes in any way or damages the activity of the stomach. But if fever occurs, the digestion at once deteriorates, and we are also right in saying that the activity of the stomach at once becomes impaired. We must add, however, by what it has been impaired. For the wound was not capable of impairing it, nor yet the bubo, for, if they had been, then they would have caused this damage before the fever as well. If it was not these that caused it, then it was the excess of heat[263] (for these two symptoms occurred besides the bubo--an alteration in the arterial and cardiac movements[264] and an excessive development of natural heat). Now the alteration of these movements will not merely not impair the function of the stomach in any way: it will actually prove an additional help among those animals in which, according to Erasistratus, the _pneuma_, which is propelled through the arteries and into the alimentary canal, is of great service in digestion;[265] there is only left, then, the disproportionate heat to account for the damage to the gastric activity. For the pneuma is driven in more vigorously and continuously, and in greater quantity now than before; thus in this case, the animal whose digestion is promoted by pneuma will digest more, whereas the remaining factor--abnormal heat--will give them indigestion. For to say, on the one hand, that the pneuma has a certain property by virtue of which it promotes digestion, and then to say that this property disappears in cases of fever, is simply to admit the absurdity. For when they are again asked what it is that has altered the pneuma, they will only be able to reply, "the abnormal heat," and particularly if it be the pneuma in the food canal which is in question (since this does not come in any way near the bubo). Yet why do I mention those animals in which the property of the pneuma plays an important part, when it is possible to base one's argument upon human beings, in whom it is either of no importance at all, or acts quite faintly and feebly?[266] But Erasistratus himself agrees that human beings digest badly in fevers, adding as the cause that the activity of the stomach has been impaired. He cannot, however, advance any other cause of this impairment than abnormal heat. But if it is not by accident that the abnormal heat impairs this activity, but by virtue of its own essence and power, then this abnormal heat must belong to the _primary diseases_. But, indeed, if _disproportion_ of heat belongs to the primary diseases, it cannot but be that a _proportionate_ blending [eucrasia] of the qualities produces the normal activity.[267] For a disproportionate blend [dyscrasia] can only become a cause of the primary diseases through derangement of the eucrasia. That is to say, it is because the [normal] activities arise from the eucrasia that the primary impairments of these activities necessarily arise from its derangement. I think, then, it has been proved to the satisfaction of those people who are capable of seeing logical consequences, that, even according to Erasistratus's own argument, the cause of the normal functions is eucrasia of the Warm.[268] Now, this being so, there is nothing further to prevent us from saying that, in the case of each function, eucrasia is followed by the more, and dyscrasia by the less favourable alternative. And, therefore, if this be the case, we must suppose blood to be the outcome of proportionate, and yellow bile of disproportionate heat. So we naturally find yellow bile appearing in greatest quantity in ourselves at the warm periods of life, in warm countries, at warm seasons of the year, and when we are in a warm condition; similarly in people of warm temperaments, and in connection with warm occupations, modes of life, or diseases. And to be in doubt as to whether this humour has its genesis in the human body or is contained in the food is what you would expect from one who has--I will not say failed to see that, when those who are perfectly healthy have, under the compulsion of circumstances, to fast contrary to custom, their mouths become bitter and their urine bile-coloured, while they suffer from gnawing pains in the stomach--but has, as it were, just made a sudden entrance into the world, and is not yet familiar with the phenomena which occur there. Who, in fact, does not know that anything which is overcooked grows at first salt and afterwards bitter? And if you will boil honey itself, far the sweetest of all things, you can demonstrate that even this becomes quite bitter. For what may occur as a result of boiling in the case of other articles which are not warm by nature, exists naturally in honey; for this reason it does not become sweeter on being boiled, since exactly the same quantity of heat as is needed for the production of sweetness exists from beforehand in the honey. Therefore the external heat, which would be useful for insufficiently warm substances, becomes in the honey a source of damage, in fact an excess; and it is for this reason that honey, when boiled, can be demonstrated to become bitter sooner than the others. For the same reason it is easily transmuted into bile in those people who are naturally warm, or in their prime, since warm when associated with warm becomes readily changed into a disproportionate combination and turns into bile sooner than into blood. Thus we need a cold temperament and a cold period of life if we would have honey brought to the nature of blood.[269] Therefore Hippocrates not improperly advised those who were naturally bilious not to take honey, since they were obviously of too warm a temperament. So also, not only Hippocrates, but all physicians say that honey is bad in bilious diseases but good in old age; some of them having discovered this through the indications afforded by its nature, and others simply through experiment,[270] for the Empiricist physicians too have made precisely the same observation, namely, that honey is good for an old man and not for a young one, that it is harmful for those who are naturally bilious, and serviceable for those who are phlegmatic. In a word, in bodies which are warm either through nature, disease, time of life, season of the year, locality, or occupation, honey is productive of bile, whereas in opposite circumstances it produces blood. But surely it is impossible that the same article of diet can produce in certain persons bile and in others blood, if it be not that the genesis of these humours is accomplished _in the body_. For if all articles of food contained bile from the beginning and of themselves, and did not produce it by undergoing change in the animal body, then they would produce it similarly in all bodies; the food which was bitter to the taste would, I take it, be productive of bile, while that which tasted good and sweet would not generate even the smallest quantity of bile. Moreover, not only honey but all other sweet substances are readily converted into bile in the aforesaid bodies which are warm for any of the reasons mentioned. Well, I have somehow or other been led into this discussion,--not in accordance with my plan, but compelled by the course of the argument. This subject has been treated at great length by Aristotle and Praxagoras, who have correctly expounded the view of Hippocrates and Plato. VIII Kai taut' ouk echrên agnoein ton Erasistraton, eiper kan onar pote tois ek tou peripatou synetychen, hôsper oun oude ta peri tês geneseôs tôn chymôn, hyper hôn ouden echôn eipein oude mechri tou metriou pithanon oietai parakrouesthai skêptomenos, hôs oude chrêsimos holôs estin hê tôn toioutôn episkepsis. eit', ô pros theôn, hopôs men ta sitia kata tên gastera pettetai chrêsimon epistasthai, pôs d' en tais phlepsin hê cholê gignetai, peritton? kai tês kenôseôs ara phrontisteon autês monês, amelêteon de tês geneseôs? hôsper ouk ameinon hyparchon makrô to kôlyein euthys ex archês gennasthai pleiona tou pragmat' echein ekkenountas. thaumaston de kai to diaporein, eit' en tô sômati tên genesin autês hypotheteon eit' euthys exôthen en tois sitiois periechesthai phateon. ei gar dê touto kalôs êporêtai, ti ouchi kai peri tou haimatos episkepsometha, poteron en tô sômati || lambanei tên genesin ê tois sitiois 108 parespartai, kathaper hoi tas homoiomereias hypotithemenoi phasi? kai mên pollô g' ên chrêsimôteron zêteisthai, poia tôn sitiôn homologei tê tês haimatôseôs energeia kai poia diapheretai, tou zêtein, tina men tê tês gastros energeia nikatai rhadiôs, tina d' antibainei kai machetai. toutôn men gar hê eklexis eis pepsin monên, ekeinôn d' eis haimatos chrêstou diapherei genesin. oude gar ison estin ê mê kalôs en tê gastri chylôthênai tên trophên ê mê chrêston haima gennêthênai. pôs d' ouk aideitai tas men tês pepseôs apotychias diairoumenos, hôs pollai t' eisi kai kata pollas gignontai prophaseis, hyper de tôn tês haimatôseôs sphalmatôn oud' achri rhêmatos henos oud' achri syllabês mias phthenxamenos? kai mên heurisketai ge kai pachy kai lepton en tais phlepsin haima kai tois men erythroteron, tois de xanthoteron, tois de melanteron, tois de phlegmatôdesteron. ei d' hoti kai dysôdes ouch hena tropon all' en pollais pany diaphorais arrhêtois men logô, sa||phestatais d' aisthêsesi phainetai gignomenon, 109 eideiê tis, ouk an oimai metriôs eti katagnôsesthai tês Erasistratou rhathymias auton houtô g' anankaian eis ta erga tês technês theôrian paralipontos. Enargê gar dê kai ta peri tôn hyderôn hamartêmata tê rhathymia tautê kata logon êkolouthêkota. to te gar tê stenochôria tôn hodôn kôlyesthai nomizein prosô tou hêpatos ienai to haima kai mêdepot' an allôs hyderon dynasthai systênai pôs ouk eschatên endeiknytai rhathymian? to te mê dia ton splêna mêde di' allo ti morion, all' aei dia ton en tô hêpati skirrhon hyderon oiesthai gignesthai teleôs argou tên dianoian anthrôpou kai mêdeni tôn hosêmerai gignomenôn parakolouthountos. epi men ge chroniais haimorrhoïsin epischetheisais ê dia kenôsin ametron eis psyxin eschatên agagousais ton anthrôpon ouch hapax oude dis alla pollakis êdê tetheametha systantas hyderous, hôsper ge kai gynaixin hê te tês eph' hekastô mêni katharseôs apôleia pantelês kai ametros kenôsis, hotan haimorrhagêsôsi poth' hai mêtrai sphodrôs, epekalesanto pol||lakis hyderon kai 110 tisin autôn kai ho gynaikeios onomazomenos rhous eis tout' eteleutêse to pathos, hina tous apo tôn keneônôn archomenous ê allou tinos tôn epikairôn moriôn hyderous paralipô, saphôs men kai autous exelenchontas tên Erasistrateion hypolêpsin, all' ouch houtôs enargôs hôs hoi dia katapsyxin sphodran tês holês hexeôs apoteloumenoi. prôtê gar hautê geneseôs hyderôn aitia dia tên apotychian tês haimatôseôs gignomenê tropon homoiotaton tais epi tê tôn sitiôn apepsia diarrhoiais. ou mên eskirrhôtai ge kata tous toioutous hyderous oud' allo ti splanchnon oude to hêpar. All' Erasistratos ho sophos hyperidôn kai kataphronêsas, hôn outh' Hippokratês oute Dioklês oute Praxagoras oute Philistiôn all' oude tôn aristôn philosophôn oudeis katephronêsen oute Platôn out' Aristotelês oute Theophrastos, holas energeias hyperbainei kathaper ti smikron kai to tychon tês technês paralipôn meros oud' anteipein axiôsas, eit' orthôs eite kai mê || sympantes 111 houtoi thermô kai psychrô kai xêrô kai hygrô, tois men hôs drôsi, tois d' hôs paschousi, ta kata to sôma tôn zôôn hapantôn dioikeisthai phasi kai hôs to thermon en autois eis te tas allas energeias kai malist' eis tên tôn chymôn genesin to pleiston dynatai. alla to men mê peithesthai tosoutois te kai têlikoutois andrasi kai pleon autôn oiesthai ti gignôskein anemesêton, to de mêt' antilogias axiôsai mête mnêmês houtôs endoxon dogma thaumastên tina tên hyperopsian endeiknytai. Kai mên smikrotatos esti tên gnômên kai tapeinos eschatôs en hapasais tais antilogiais en men tois peri tês pepseôs logois tois sêpesthai ta sitia nomizousi philotimôs antilegôn, en de tois peri tês anadoseôs tois dia tên parathesin tôn artêriôn anadidosthai to dia tôn phlebôn haima nomizousin, en de tois peri tês anapnoês tois periôtheisthai ton aera phaskousin. ouk ôknêse d' oude tois atmoeidôs eis tên kystin ienai ta oura nomizousin anteipein oude tois eis || ton pneumona 112 pheresthai to poton. houtôs en hapasi tas cheiristas epilegomenos doxas agalletai diatribôn epi pleon en tais antilogiais; epi de tês tou haimatos geneseôs ouden atimoteras ousês tês en tê gastri chylôseôs tôn sitiôn out' anteipein tini tôn presbyterôn êxiôsen out' autos eisêgêsasthai tin' heteran gnômên etolmêsen, ho peri pasôn tôn physikôn energeiôn en archê tôn katholou logôn hyposchomenos erein, hopôs te gignontai kai di' hôntinôn tou zôou moriôn. ê tês men pettein ta sitia pephykuias dynameôs arrhôstousês apeptêsei to zôon, tês d' haimatousês ta pephthenta ouden estai pathêma to parapan, all' adamantinê tis hêmin hautê monê kai apathês estin? ê allo ti tês arrhôstias autês ekgonon hyparxei kai ouch hyderos? dêlos oun enargôs estin ho Erasistratos ex hôn en men tois allois oude tais phaulotatais doxais antilegein ôknêsen, entauthoi d' out' anteipein tois prosthen out' autos eipein ti kainon etolmêse, to sphalma tês heautou gnôrizôn haireseôs. Ti gar an kai legein eschen hyper haimatos || anthrôpos 113 eis mêden tô symphytô thermô chrômenos? ti de peri xanthês cholês ê melainês ê phlegmatos? hoti nê Dia dynaton estin anamemigmenên tois sitiois euthys exôthen paragignesthai tên cholên. legei goun hôde pôs autois onomasi; "Poteron d' en tê peri tên koilian katergasia tês trophês gennatai toiautê hygrasia ê memigmenê tois exôthen prospheromenois paragignetai, ouden chrêsimon pros iatrikên epeskephthai." kai mên, ô gennaiotate, kai kenousthai chrênai phaskeis ek tou zôou ton chymon touton kai megalôs lypein, ei mê kenôtheiê. pôs oun ouden ex autou chrêston hypolambanôn gignesthai tolmas achrêston legein eis iatrikên einai tên peri tês geneseôs autou skepsin? Hypokeisthô gar en men tois sitiois periechesthai, mê diakrinesthai d' akribôs en hêpati; tauta gar amphotera nomizeis einai dynata. kai mên ou smikron entautha to diapheron ê elachistên ê pampollên cholên en heautois periechonta prosarasthai sitia. ta men gar akindyna, ta de pampollên periechonta tô mê dynasthai pasan autên en || hêpati katharthênai kalôs aitia katastêsetai tôn t' 114 allôn pathôn, hôn autos ho Erasistratos epi plêthei cholês gignesthai phêsi, kai tôn ikterôn ouch hêkista. pôs oun ouk anankaiotaton iatrô gignôskein, prôton men, hôs en tois sitiois autois exôthen hê cholê periechetai, deuteron d', hôs to men teutlon, ei tychoi, pampollên, ho d' artos elachistên kai to men elaion pleistên, ho d' oinos oligistên hekaston te tôn allôn anison tô plêthei periechei tên cholên? pôs gar ouk an eiê geloiotatos, hos an hekôn hairêtai ta pleiona cholên en heautois periechonta pro tôn enantiôn? Ti d' ei mê periechetai men en tois sitiois hê cholê, gignetai d' en tois tôn zôôn sômasin? ê ouchi kai kata touto chrêsimon epistasthai, tini men katastasei sômatos hepetai pleiôn autês hê genesis, tini d' elattôn? alloioun gar dêpou kai metaballein hoioi t' esmen kai trepein epi to beltion aei tas mochthêras katastaseis tou sômatos. all' ei mê gignôskoimen, kathoti mochthêrai kai hopê tês deousês existantai, pôs an autas epanagein hoioi t' eiêmen epi to || kreitton? 115 Oukoun achrêston estin eis tas iaseis, hôs Erasistratos phêsin, epistasthai talêthes auto peri geneseôs cholês. ou mên oud' adynaton oud' asaphes exeurein, hoti mê tô pleistên en heautô periechein to meli tên xanthên cholên all' en tô sômati metaballomenon eis autên alloioutai te kai trepetai. pikron te gar an ên geuomenois, ei cholên exôthen euthys en heautô perieichen hapasi t' an hôsautôs tois anthrôpois ison autês egenna to plêthos. all' ouch hôd' echei talêthes. en men gar tois akmazousi kai malist' ei physei thermoteroi kai bion eien biountes talaipôron, hapan eis xanthên cholên metaballei to meli; tois gerousi d' hikanôs estin epitêdeion, hôs an ouk eis cholên all' eis haima tên alloiôsin en ekeinois lambanon. Erasistratos de pros tô mêden toutôn gignôskein oude peri tên diairesin tou logou sôphronei, poteron en tois sitiois hê cholê periechetai euthys ex archês ê kata tên en tê koilia katergasian egeneto, mêden einai chrêsimon eis iatrikên epeskephthai legôn. echrên || gar dêpou prostheinai ti kai peri tês en 116 hêpati kai phlepsi geneseôs autês, en toisde tois organois gennasthai tên cholên hama tô haimati tôn palaiôn iatrôn te kai philosophôn apophênamenôn. alla tois euthys ex archês sphaleisi kai diamartanousi tês orthês hodou toiauta te lêrein anankaion esti kai proseti tôn chrêsimôtatôn eis tên technên paralipein tên zêtêsin. Hêdeôs d' an entautha tou logou gegonôs êromên tous homilêsai phaskontas auton epi pleiston tois ek tou peripatou philosophois, ei gignôskousin, hosa peri tou kekrasthai ta sômath' hêmôn ek thermou kai psychrou kai xêrou kai hygrou pros Aristotelous eirêtai te kai apodedeiktai, kai hôs to thermon en autois esti to drastikôtaton kai hôs tôn zôôn hosa men thermotera physei, tauta pantôs enaima, ta d' epi pleon psychrotera pantôs anaima kai dia touto tou cheimônos arga kai akinêta keitai phôleuonta dikên nekrôn. eirêtai de kai peri tês chroias tou haimatos ouk Aristotelei monon, alla kai Platôni. kai hêmeis nyn, hoper êdê kai prosthen eipon, || ou ta kalôs apodedeigmena tois palaiois legein 117 prouthemetha, mête tê gnômê mête tê lexei tous andras ekeinous hyperbalesthai dynamenoi; ta d' êtoi chôris apodeixeôs hôs enargê pros autôn eirêmena dia to mêd' hyponoêsai mochthêrous houtôs esesthai tinas sophistas, hoi kataphronêsousi tês en autois alêtheias, ê kai paraleleimmena teleôs hyp' ekeinôn axioumen heuriskein te kai apodeiknynai. Peri de tês tôn chymôn geneseôs ouk oid', ei echei tis heteron prostheinai sophôteron hôn Hippokratês eipe kai Aristotelês kai Praxagoras kai Philotimos kai alloi polloi tôn palaiôn. apodedeiktai gar ekeinois tois andrasin alloioumenês tês trophês en tais phlepsin hypo tês emphytou thermasias haima men hypo tês symmetrias tês kat' autên, hoi d' alloi chymoi dia tas ametrias gignomenoi; kai toutô tô logô panth' homologei ta phainomena. kai gar tôn edesmatôn hosa men esti thermotera physei, cholôdestera, ta de psychrotera phlegmatikôtera; kai tôn hêlikiôn hôsautôs cholôdeste||rai men hai thermoterai physei, 118 phlegmatôdesterai d' hai psychroterai; kai tôn epitêdeumatôn de kai tôn chôrôn kai tôn hôrôn kai poly dê proteron eti tôn physeôn autôn hai men psychroterai phlegmatôdesterai, cholôdesterai d' hai thermoterai; kai nosêmatôn ta men psychra tou phlegmatos ekgona, ta de therma tês xanthês cholês; kai holôs ouden estin heurein tôn pantôn, ho mê toutô tô logô martyrei. pôs d' ou mellei? dia gar tên ek tôn tettarôn poian krasin hekastou tôn moriôn hôdi pôs energountos anankê pasa kai dia tên blabên autôn ê diaphtheiresthai teleôs ê empodizesthai ge tên energeian kai houtô nosein to zôon ê holon ê kata ta moria. Kai ta prôta ge kai genikôtata nosêmata tettara ton arithmon hyparchei thermotêti kai psychrotêti kai xêrotêti kai hygrotêti diapheronta. touto de kai autos ho Erasistratos homologei kaitoi mê boulomenos. hotan gar en tois pyretois cheirous tôn sitiôn tas pepseis gignesthai legê, mê dioti tês emphytou || thermasias hê 119 symmetria diephthartai, kathaper hoi prosthen hypelambanon, all' hoti peristellesthai kai tribein hê gastêr ouch homoiôs dynatai beblammenê tên energeian, eresthai dikaion auton, hypo tinos hê tês gastros energeia beblaptai. Genomenou gar, ei tychoi, boubônos epi prosptaismati, prin men pyrexai ton anthrôpon, ouk an cheiron hê gastêr pepseien; ou gar hikanon ên oudeteron autôn outh' ho boubôn oute to helkos empodisai ti kai blapsai tên energeian tês koilias; ei de pyrexeien, euthys men hai pepseis gignontai cheirous, euthys de kai tên energeian tês gastros beblaphthai phamen orthôs legontes. all' hypo tinos eblabê, prostheinai chrê tô logô. to men gar helkos ouch hoion t' ên autên blaptein, hôsper oud' ho boubôn; ê gar an eblapse kai pro tou pyretou. ei de mê tauta, dêlon, hôs hê tês thermasias pleonexia. dyo gar tauta prosegeneto tô boubôni, hê tês kata tas artêrias te kai tên kardian kinêseôs alloiôsis kai hê tês kata physin thermasias pleonexia. all' hê men tês kinêseôs alloiôsis ou monon ouden blapsei tên energeian tês ga||stros, alla kai prosôphelêsei kat' ekeina tôn zôôn, 120 en hois eis tên pepsin hypetheto pleiston dynasthai to dia tôn artêriôn eis tên koilian empipton pneuma. dia loipên oun eti kai monên tên ametron thermasian hê blabê tês energeias tê gastri. to men gar pneuma sphodroteron te kai synechesteron kai pleon empiptei nyn ê proteron. hôste tautê men mallon pepsei ta dia to pneuma kalôs pettonta zôa, dia loipên d' eti tên para physin thermasian apeptêsei. to gar kai tô pneumati phanai tin' hyparchein idiotêta, kath' hên pettei, kapeita tautên pyrettontôn diaphtheiresthai kath' heteron tropon estin homologêsai to atopon. erôtêthentes gar authis, hypo tinos êlloiôthê to pneuma, monên hexousin apokrinesthai tên para physin thermasian kai malist' epi tou kata tên koilian; oude gar plêsiazei kat' ouden touto tô boubôni. Kaitoi ti tôn zôôn ekeinôn, en hois hê tou pneumatos idiotês mega dynatai, mnêmoneuô, paron ep' anthrôpois, en hois ê ouden ê pantapasin amy||dron ti kai mikron 121 ôphelei, poieisthai ton logon? all' hoti men en tois pyretois houtoi kakôs pettousin, homologei kai autos kai tên g' aitian prostitheis beblaphthai phêsi tês gastros tên energeian. ou mên allên ge tina prophasin tês blabês eipein echei plên tês para physin thermasias. all' ei blaptei tên energeian hê para physin thermasia mê kata ti symbebêkos, alla dia tên hautês ousian te kai dynamin, ek tôn prôtôn an eiê nosêmatôn; kai mên ouk endechetai tôn prôtôn men einai nosêmatôn tên ametrian tês thermasias, tên d' energeian hypo tês eukrasias mê gignesthai. oude gar di' allo ti dynaton gignesthai tên dyskrasian aitian tôn prôtôn nosêmatôn all' ê dia tên eukrasian diaphtheiromenên. tô gar hypo tautês gignesthai tas energeias anankê kai tas prôtas autôn blabas diaphtheiromenês gignesthai. Hoti men oun kai kat' auton ton Erasistraton hê eukrasia tou thermou tôn energeiôn aitia, tois theôrein to akolouthon dynamenois hikanôs apodedeichthai nomizô. toutou d' hyparchontos hêmin ouden eti chalepon || eph' 122 hekastês energeias tê men eukrasia to beltion hepesthai legein, tê de dyskrasia ta cheirô. kai toinyn eiper tauth' houtôs echei, to men haima tês symmetrou thermasias, tên de xanthên cholên tês ametrou nomisteon hyparchein engonon. houtô gar kai hêmin en te tais thermais hêlikiais kai tois thermois chôriois kai tais hôrais tou etous tais thermais kai tais thermais katastasesin, hôsautôs de kai tais thermais krasesi tôn anthrôpôn kai tois epitêdeumasi te kai tois diaitêmasi kai tois nosêmasi tois thermois eulogôs hê xanthê cholê pleistê phainetai gignomenê. To d' aporein, eit' en tois sômasi tôn anthrôpôn ho chymos houtos echei tên genesin eit' en tois sitiois periechetai, mêd' hoti tois hygiainousin amemptôs, hotan asitêsôsi para to ethos hypo tinos peristaseôs pragmatôn anankasthentes, pikron men to stoma gignetai, cholôdê de ta oura, daknetai d' hê gastêr, heôrakotos estin all' hôsper exaiphnês nyn eis ton kosmon elêlythotos kai mêpô ta kat' auton phainomena gignôskontos. epei tis ouk oiden, hôs hekaston tôn hepsomenôn epi pleon halykôteron men to prôton, hysteron || de pikroteron gignetai? kan 123 ei to meli boulêtheiês auto to pantôn glykytaton epi pleiston hepsein, apodeixeis kai touto pikrotaton; ho gar tois allois, hosa mê physei therma, para tês hepsêseôs engignetai, tout' ek physeôs hyparchei tô meliti. dia tout' oun hepsomenon ou gignetai glykyteron; hoson gar echrên einai thermotêtos eis genesin glykytêtos, akribôs autô touto pan oikothen hyparchei. ho toinyn exôthen tois ellipôs thermois ên ôphelimon, tout' ekeinô blabê te kai ametria gignetai kai dia touto thatton tôn allôn hepsomenon apodeiknytai pikron. di' auto de touto kai tois thermois physei kai tois akmazousin eis cholên hetoimôs metaballetai. thermô gar thermon plêsiazon eis ametrian kraseôs hetoimôs existatai kai phthanei cholê gignomenon, ouch haima. deitai toinyn psychras men kraseôs anthrôpou, psychras d' hêlikias, hin' eis haimatos agêtai physin. oukoun apo tropou synebouleusen Hippokratês tois physei pikrocholois mê prospherein to meli, hôs an thermoteras || dêlonoti kraseôs hyparchousin. houtô de kai tois 124 nosêmasi tois pikrocholois polemion einai to meli kai tê tôn gerontôn hêlikia philion ouch Hippokratês monon alla kai pantes iatroi legousin, hoi men ek tês physeôs autou tên dynamin endeixamenês heurontes, hoi d' ek tês peiras monês. oude gar oude tois apo tês empeirias iatrois heteron ti para tauta tetêrêtai gignomenon, alla chrêston men geronti, neô d' ou chrêston, kai tô men physei pikrocholô blaberon, ôphelimon de tô phlegmatôdei; kai tôn nosêmatôn hôsautôs tois men pikrocholois echthron, tois de phlegmatôdesi philion; heni de logô tois men thermois sômasin ê dia physin ê dia noson ê di' hêlikian ê di' hôran ê dia chôran ê di' epitêdeuma cholês gennêtikon, haimatos de tois enantiois. Kai mên ouk endechetai tauton edesma tois men cholên gennan, tois d' haima mê ouk en tô sômati tês geneseôs autôn epiteloumenês. ei gar dê oikothen ge kai par' heautou tôn edesmatôn hekaston echon kai ouk en tois tôn zôôn sômasi || metaballomenon egenna tên cholên, en 125 hapasin an homoiôs autên tois sômasin egenna kai to men pikron exô geuomenois ên an oimai cholês poiêtikon, ei de ti glyky kai chrêston, ouk an oude to brachytaton ex autou cholês egennato. kai mên ou to meli monon, alla kai tôn allôn hekaston tôn glykeôn tois proeirêmenois sômasi tois di' hotioun tôn eirêmenôn thermois ousin eis cholên hetoimôs existatai. Kaitoi taut' ouk oid' hopôs exênechthên eipein ou proelomenos all' hyp' autês tou logou tês akolouthias anankastheis. eirêtai d' epi pleiston hyper autôn Aristotelei te kai Praxagora tên Hippokratous kai Platônos gnômên orthôs exêgêsamenois. IX For this reason the things that we have said are not to be looked upon as proofs but rather as indications of the dulness[271] of those who think differently, and who do not even recognise what is agreed on by everyone and is a matter of daily observation. As for the scientific proofs of all this, they are to be drawn from these principles of which I have already spoken[272]--namely, that bodies act upon and are acted upon by each other in virtue of the Warm, Cold, Moist and Dry. And if one is speaking of any activity, whether it be exercised by vein, liver, arteries, heart, alimentary canal, or any part, one will be inevitably compelled to acknowledge that this activity depends upon the way in which the four qualities are blended. Thus I should like to ask the Erasistrateans why it is that the stomach contracts upon the food, and why the veins generate blood. There is no use in recognizing the mere fact of contraction, without also knowing the _cause_; if we know this, we shall also be able to rectify the failures of function. "This is no concern of ours," they say; "we do not occupy ourselves with such causes as these; they are outside the sphere of the _practitioner_,[273] and belong to that of the _scientific investigator_."[274] Are you, then, going to oppose those who maintain that the cause of the function of every organ is a natural eucrasia,[275] that the dyscrasia is itself known as a _disease_, and that it is certainly by this that the activity becomes impaired? Or, on the other hand, will you be convinced by the proofs which the ancient writers furnished? Or will you take a midway course between these two, neither perforce accepting these arguments as true nor contradicting them as false, but suddenly becoming sceptics--Pyrrhonists, in fact? But if you do this you will have to shelter yourselves behind the Empiricist teaching. For how are you going to be successful in treatment, if you do not understand the real essence of each disease? Why, then, did you not call yourselves Empiricists from the beginning? Why do you confuse us by announcing that you are investigating natural activities with a view to treatment? If the stomach is, in a particular case, unable to exercise its peristaltic and grinding functions, how are we going to bring it back to the normal if we do not know the _cause_ of its disability? What I say is[276] that we must cool the over-heated stomach and warm the chilled one; so also we must moisten the one which has become dried up, and conversely; so, too, in combinations of these conditions; if the stomach becomes at the same time warmer and drier than normally, the first principle of treatment is at once to chill and moisten it; and if it become colder and moister, it must be warmed and dried; so also in other cases. But how on earth are the followers of Erasistratus going to act, confessing as they do that they make no sort of investigation into the cause of disease? For the fruit of the enquiry into activities is that by knowing the causes of the dyscrasiae one may bring them back to the normal, since it is of no use for the purposes of treatment merely to know what the activity of each organ is. Now, it seems to me that Erasistratus is unaware of this fact also, that the actual disease is that condition of the body which, not accidentally, but primarily and of itself, impairs the normal function. How, then, is he going to diagnose or cure diseases if he is entirely ignorant of what they are, and of what kind and number? As regards the stomach, certainly, Erasistratus held that one should at least investigate _how_ it digests the food. But why was not investigation also made as to the primary originative cause of this? And, as regards the veins and the blood, he omitted even to ask the question "_how?_" Yet neither Hippocrates nor any of the other physicians or philosophers whom I mentioned a short while ago thought it right to omit this; they say that when the heat which exists naturally in every animal is well blended and moderately moist it generates blood; for this reason they also say that the blood is a _virtually_ warm and moist humour, and similarly also that yellow bile is warm and dry, even though for the most part it appears moist. (For in them the _apparently_ dry would seem to differ from the _virtually_ dry.) Who does not know that brine and sea-water preserve meat and keep it uncorrupted,[277] whilst all other water--the drinkable kind--readily spoils and rots it? And who does not know that when yellow bile is contained in large quantity in the stomach, we are troubled with an unquenchable thirst, and that when we vomit this up, we at once become much freer from thirst than if we had drunk very large quantities of fluid? Therefore this humour has been very properly termed warm, and also virtually dry. And, similarly, _phlegm_ has been called cold and moist; for about this also clear proofs have been given by Hippocrates and the other Ancients. Prodicus[278] also, when in his book "On the Nature of Man" he gives the name "phlegm" (from the verb [Greek: pephlechthai]) to that element in the humours which has been burned or, as it were, over-roasted, while using a different terminology, still keeps to the fact just as the others do; this man's innovations in nomenclature have also been amply done justice to by Plato.[279] Thus, the white-coloured substance which everyone else calls _phlegm_, and which Prodicus calls _blenna_ [mucus],[280] is the well-known cold, moist humour which collects mostly in old people and in those who have been chilled[281] in some way, and not even a lunatic could say that this was anything else than cold and moist. If, then, there is a warm and moist humour, and another which is warm and dry, and yet another which is moist and cold, is there none which is virtually _cold and dry_? Is the fourth combination of temperaments, which exists in all other things, non-existent in the humours alone? No; the _black bile_ is such a humour. This, according to intelligent physicians and philosophers, tends to be in excess, as regards seasons, mainly in the fall of the year, and, as regards ages, mainly after the prime of life. And, similarly, also they say that there are cold and dry modes of life, regions, constitutions, and diseases. Nature, they suppose, is not defective in this single combination like the three other combinations, it extends everywhere. At this point, also, I would gladly have been able to ask Erasistratus whether his "artistic" Nature has not constructed any organ for _clearing away_ a humour such as this. For whilst there are two organs for the excretion of urine, and another of considerable size for that of yellow bile, does the humour which is more pernicious than these wander about persistently in the veins mingled with the blood? Yet Hippocrates says, "Dysentery is a fatal condition if it proceeds from black bile"; while that proceeding from yellow bile is by no means deadly, and most people recover from it; this proves how much more pernicious and acrid in its potentialities is black than yellow bile. Has Erasistratus, then, not read the book, "On the Nature of Man," any more than any of the rest of Hippocrates's writings, that he so carelessly passes over the consideration of the humours? Or, does he know it, and yet voluntarily neglect one of the finest studies[282] in medicine? Thus he ought not to have said anything about the _spleen_,[283] nor have stultified himself by holding that an artistic Nature would have prepared so large an organ for no purpose. As a matter of fact, not only Hippocrates and Plato--who are no less authorities on Nature than is Erasistratus--say that this viscus also is one of those which cleanse the blood, but there are thousands of the ancient physicians and philosophers as well who are in agreement with them. Now, all of these the high and mighty Erasistratus affected to despise, and he neither contradicted them nor even so much as mentioned their opinion. Hippocrates, indeed, says that the spleen wastes in those people in whom the body is in good condition, and all those physicians also who base themselves on experience[284] agree with this. Again, in those cases in which the spleen is large and is increasing from internal suppuration, it destroys the body and fills it with evil humours;[285] this again is agreed on, not only by Hippocrates, but also by Plato and many others, including the Empiric physicians. And the jaundice which occurs when the spleen is out of order is darker in colour, and the cicatrices of ulcers are dark. For, generally speaking, when the spleen is drawing the atrabiliary[286] humour into itself to a less degree than is proper, the blood is unpurified, and the whole body takes on a bad colour. And when does it draw this in to a less degree than proper? Obviously, when it [the spleen] is in a bad condition. Thus, just as the kidneys, whose function it is to attract the urine, do this badly when they are out of order, so also the spleen, which has in itself a native power of attracting an atrabiliary quality,[287] if it ever happens to be weak, must necessarily exercise this attraction badly, with the result that the blood becomes thicker and darker. Now all these points, affording as they do the greatest help in the diagnosis and in the cure of disease were entirely passed over by Erasistratus, and he pretended to despise these great men--he who does not despise ordinary people, but always jealously attacks the most absurd doctrines. Hence, it was clearly because he had nothing to say against the statements made by the ancients regarding the function and utility of the spleen, and also because he could discover nothing new himself, that he ended by saying nothing at all. I, however, for my part, have demonstrated, firstly from the _causes_ by which everything throughout nature is governed (by the causes I mean the Warm, Cold, Dry and Moist) and secondly, from obvious bodily phenomena, that there must needs be a cold and dry humour.[288] And having in the next place drawn attention to the fact that this humour is black bile [atrabiliary] and that the viscus which clears it away is the spleen--having pointed this out by help of as few as possible of the proofs given by ancient writers, I shall now proceed to what remains of the subject in hand. What else, then, remains but to explain clearly what it is that happens in the generation of the humours, according to the belief and demonstration of the Ancients? This will be more clearly understood from a comparison. Imagine, then, some new wine which has been not long ago pressed from the grape, and which is fermenting and undergoing _alteration_ through the agency of its contained heat.[289] Imagine next two residual substances produced during this process of alteration, the one tending to be light and air-like and the other to be heavy and more of the nature of earth; of these the one, as I understand, they call the _flower_ and the other the _lees_. Now you may correctly compare yellow bile to the first of these, and black bile to the latter, although these humours have not the same appearance when the animal is in normal health as that which they often show when it is not so; for then the yellow bile becomes _vitelline_,[290] being so termed because it becomes like the yolk of an egg, both in colour and density; and again, even the black bile itself becomes much more malignant than when in its normal condition,[291] but no particular name has been given to [such a condition of] the humour, except that some people have called it _corrosive_ or _acetose_, because it also becomes sharp like vinegar and corrodes the animal's body--as also the earth, if it be poured out upon it--and it produces a kind of fermentation and seething, accompanied by bubbles--an abnormal putrefaction having become added to the natural condition of the black humour. It seems to me also that most of the ancient physicians give the name _black humour_ and not _black bile_ to the normal portion of this humour, which is discharged from the bowel and which also frequently rises to the top [of the stomach-contents]; and they call _black bile_ that part which, through a kind of combustion and putrefaction, has had its quality changed to acid. There is no need, however, to dispute about names, but we must realise the facts, which are as follow:-- In the genesis of blood, everything in the nutriment[292] which belongs naturally to the thick and earth-like part of the food,[292] and which does not take on well the alteration produced by the innate heat--all this the spleen draws into itself. On the other hand, that part of the nutriment which is roasted, so to speak, or burnt (this will be the warmest and sweetest part of it, like honey and fat), becomes _yellow bile_, and is cleared away through the so-called biliary[293] vessels; now, this is thin, moist, and fluid, not like what it is when, having been roasted to an _excessive_ degree, it becomes yellow, fiery, and thick, like the yolk of eggs; for this latter is already abnormal, while the previously mentioned state is natural. Similarly with the black humour: that which does not yet produce, as I say, this seething and fermentation on the ground, is natural, while that which has taken over this character and faculty is unnatural; it has assumed an acridity owing to the combustion caused by abnormal heat, and has practically become transformed into ashes.[294] In somewhat the same way burned lees differ from unburned. The former is a warm substance, able to burn, dissolve, and destroy the flesh. The other kind, which has not yet undergone combustion, one may find the physicians employing for the same purposes that one uses the so-called _potter's earth_ and other substances which have naturally a combined drying and chilling action. Now the vitelline bile also may take on the appearance of this combusted black bile, if ever it chance to be roasted, so to say, by fiery heat. And all the other forms of bile are produced, some from a blending of those mentioned, others being, as it were, transition-stages in the genesis of these or in their conversion into one another. And they differ in that those first mentioned are unmixed and unique, while the latter forms are diluted with various kinds of _serum_. And all the serums in the humours are waste substances, and the animal body needs to be purified from them. There is, however, a natural use for the humours first mentioned, both thick and thin; the blood is purified both by the spleen and by the bladder beside the liver, and a part of each of the two humours is put away, of such quantity and quality that, if it were carried all over the body, it would do a certain amount of harm. For that which is decidedly thick and earthy in nature, and has entirely escaped alteration in the liver, is drawn by the spleen into itself[295]; the other part which is only moderately thick, after being elaborated [in the liver], is carried all over the body. For the blood in many parts of the body has need of a certain amount of thickening, as also, I take it, of the _fibres_ which it contains. And the use of these has been discussed by Plato,[296] and it will also be discussed by me in such of my treatises as may deal with the use of parts. And the blood also needs, not least, the yellow humour, which has as yet not reached the extreme stage of combustion; in the treatises mentioned it will be pointed out what purpose is subserved by this. Now Nature has made no organ for clearing away _phlegm_, this being cold and moist, and, as it were, half-digested nutriment; such a substance, therefore, does not need to be evacuated, but remains in the body and undergoes _alteration_ there. And perhaps one cannot properly give the name of _phlegm_ to the surplus-substance which runs down from the brain,[297] but one should call it _mucus_ [blenna] or _coryza_--as, in fact, it is actually termed; in any case it will be pointed out, in the treatise "On the Use of Parts," how Nature has provided for the evacuation of this substance. Further, the device provided by Nature which ensures that the phlegm which forms in the stomach and intestines may be evacuated in the most rapid and effective way possible--this also will be described in that commentary. As to that portion of the phlegm which is carried in the veins, seeing that this is of service to the animal it requires no evacuation. Here too, then, we must pay attention and recognise that, just as in the case of each of the two kinds of bile, there is one part which is useful to the animal and in accordance with its nature, while the other part is useless and contrary to nature, so also is it with the phlegm; such of it as is sweet is useful to the animal and according to nature, while, as to such of it as has become bitter or salt, that part which is bitter is completely undigested, while that part which is salt has undergone putrefaction. And the term "_complete indigestion_" refers of course to the second digestion--that which takes place in the veins; it is not a failure of the first digestion--that in the alimentary canal--for it would not have become a humour at the outset if it had escaped this digestion also. It seems to me that I have made enough reference to what has been said regarding the genesis and destruction of humours by Hippocrates, Plato, Aristotle, Praxagoras, and Diocles, and many others among the Ancients; I did not deem it right to transport the whole of their final pronouncements into this treatise. I have said only so much regarding each of the humours as will stir up the reader, unless he be absolutely inept, to make himself familiar with the writings of the Ancients, and will help him to gain more easy access to them. In another treatise[298] I have written on the humours according to Praxagoras, son of Nicarchus; although this authority makes as many as ten humours, not including the blood (the blood itself being an eleventh), this is not a departure from the teaching of Hippocrates; for Praxagoras divides into species and varieties the humours which Hippocrates first mentioned, with the demonstration proper to each. Those, then, are to be praised who explain the points which have been duly mentioned, as also those who add what has been left out; for it is not possible for the same man to make both a beginning and an end. Those, on the other hand, deserve censure who are so impatient that they will not wait to learn any of the things which have been duly mentioned, as do also those who are so ambitious that, in their lust after novel doctrines, they are always attempting some fraudulent sophistry, either purposely neglecting certain subjects, as Erasistratus does in the case of the humours, or unscrupulously attacking other people, as does this same writer, as well as many of the more recent authorities. But let this discussion come to an end here, and I shall add in the third book all that remains. IX Mê toinyn hôs apodeixeis hyph' hêmôn eirêsthai nomizein ta toiauta mallon ê peri tês tôn allôs gignôskontôn anaisthêsias endeixeis, hoi mêde ta pros hapantôn homologoumena kai kath' hekastên hêmeran phainomena gignôskousin; tas d' apodeixeis autôn tas kat' epistêmên ex ekeinôn chrê lambanein tôn archôn, hôn êdê kai prosthen || eipomen, hôs to dran kai paschein eis allêla 126 tois sômasin hyparchei kata to thermon kai psychron kai xêron kai hygron. kai eite phlebas eith' hêpar eit' artêrias eite kardian eite koilian eit' allo ti morion energein tis phêseien hêntinoun energeian, aphyktois anankais anankasthêsetai dia tên ek tôn tettarôn poian krasin homologêsai tên energeian hyparchein autô. dia ti gar hê gastêr peristelletai tois sitiois, dia ti d' hai phlebes haima gennôsi, para tôn Erasistrateiôn edeomên akousai. to gar hoti peristelletai monon auto kath' heauto gignôskein oudepô chrêston, ei mê kai tên aitian eideiêmen; houtô gar an oimai kai ta sphalmata therapeusaimen. ou melei, phasin, hêmin oude polypragmonoumen eti tas toiautas aitias; hyper iatron gar eisi kai tô physikô prosêkousi. poteron oun oud' antereite tô phaskonti tên men eukrasian tên kata physin aitian einai tês energeias hekastô tôn organôn, tên d' au dyskrasian noson t êdê kaleisthai kai pantôs hyp' au||tês blaptesthai tên energeian? ê peisthêsesthe tais 127 tôn palaiôn apodeixesin? ê triton ti kai meson hekaterou toutôn praxete mêth' hôs alêthesi tois logois ex anankês peithomenoi mêt' antilegontes hôs pseudesin, all' aporêtikoi tines exaiphnês kai Pyrrhôneioi genêsesthe? kai mên ei touto drasete, tên empeirian anankaion hymin prostêsasthai. tô gar an eti tropô kai tôn iamatôn euporoiête tên ousian hekastou tôn nosêmatôn agnoountes? ti oun ouk ex archês empeirikous hymas autous ekalesate? ti de pragmath' hêmin parechete physikas energeias epangellomenoi zêtein iaseôs heneken? ei gar adynatos hê gastêr esti tini peristellesthai kai tribein, pôs autên eis to kata physin epanaxomen agnoountes tên aitian tês adynamias? egô men phêmi tên men hypertethermasmenên empsykteon hêmin einai, tên d' epsygmenên thermanteon; houtô de kai tên exêrasmenên hygranteon, tên d' hygrasmenên xêranteon. alla kai || kata syzygian, ei 128 thermotera tou kata physin hama kai xêrotera tychoi gegenêmenê, kephalaion einai tês iaseôs empsychein th' hama kai hygrainein; ei d' au psychrotera te kai hygrotera, thermainein te kai xêrainein kapi tôn allôn hôsautôs; hoi d' ap' Erasistratou ti pote kai praxousin oud' holôs zêtein tôn energeiôn tas aitias homologountes? ho gar toi karpos tês peri tôn energeiôn zêtêseôs houtos esti, to tas aitias tôn dyskrasiôn eidota eis to kata physin epanagein autas, hôs auto ge monon to gnônai tên hekastou tôn organôn energeian hêtis estin oupô chrêston eis tas iaseis. Erasistratos de moi dokei kai auto tout' agnoein, hôs, hêtis an en tô sômati diathesis blaptê tên energeian mê kata ti symbebêkos alla prôtôs te kai kath' heautên, hautê to nosêma estin auto. pôs oun eti diagnôstikos te kai iatikos estai tôn nosêmatôn agnoôn holôs auta tina t' esti kai posa kai poia? kata men dê tên gastera to ge tosouton Erasistratos êxiôse zêteisthai to pôs pettetai ta sitia; || to d' hêtis prôtê te kai archêgos aitia 129 toutou, pôs ouk epeskepsato? kata de tas phlebas kai to haima kai auto to pôs parelipen. All' outh' Hippokratês out' allos tis hôn oligô prosthen emnêmoneusa philosophôn ê iatrôn axion ôet' einai paralipein; alla tên kata physin en hekastô zôô thermasian eukraton te kai metriôs hygran ousan haimatos einai phasi gennêtikên kai di' auto ge touto kai to haima thermon kai hygron einai phasi tê dynamei chymon, hôsper tên xanthên cholên thermên kai xêran einai, ei kai hoti malisth' hygra phainetai. diapherein gar autois dokei to kata phantasian hygron tou kata dynamin. ê tis ouk oiden, hôs halmê men kai thalatta taricheuei ta krea kai asêpta diaphylattei, to d' allo pan hydôr to potimon hetoimôs diaphtheirei te kai sêpei? tis d' ouk oiden, hôs xanthês cholês en tê gastri periechomenês pollês apaustô dipsei synechometha kai hôs emesantes autên euthys adipsoi gignometha mallon ê ei pampoly poton prosêrametha? || thermos oun eulogôs ho chymos houtos 130 eirêtai kai xêros kata dynamin, hôsper ge kai to phlegma psychron kai hygron. enargeis gar kai peri toutou pisteis Hippokratei te kai tois allois eirêntai palaiois. Prodikos d' en tô peri physeôs anthrôpou grammati to synkekaumenon kai hoion hyperôptêmenon en tois chymois onomazôn phlegma para to pephlechthai tê lexei men heterôs chrêtai, phylattei mentoi to pragma kata tauto tois allois. tên d' en tois onomasi tandros toutou kainotomian hikanôs endeiknytai kai Platôn. alla touto ge to pros hapantôn anthrôpôn onomazomenon phlegma to leukon tên chroan, ho blennan onomazei Prodikos, ho psychros kai hygros chymos estin houtos kai pleistos tois te gerousi kai tois hopôsdêpote psygeisin athroizetai kai oudeis oude mainomenos an allo ti ê psychron kai hygron eipoi an auton. Ar' oun thermos men tis esti kai hygros chymos kai thermos kai xêros heteros kai hygros kai psychros allos, oudeis d' esti psychros kai xêros tên dynamin, all' hê tetartê syzygia tôn kraseôn || en hapasi tois allois 131 hyparchousa monois tois chymois ouch hyparchei? kai mên hê ge melaina cholê toioutos esti chymos, hon hoi sôphronountes iatroi kai philosophoi pleonektein ephasan tôn men hôrôn tou etous en phthinopôrô malista, tôn d' hêlikiôn en tais meta tên akmên. houtô de kai diaitêmata kai chôria kai katastaseis kai nosous tinas psychras kai xêras einai phasin; ou gar dê chôlên en tautê monê tê syzygia tên physin einai nomizousin all' hôsper tas allas treis houtô kai tênde dia pantôn ektetasthai. Êuxamên oun kantauth' erôtêsai dynasthai ton Erasistraton, ei mêden organon hê technikê physis edêmiourgêse kathartikon tou toioutou chymou, alla tôn men ourôn ara tês diakriseôs estin organa dyo kai tês xanthês cholês heteron ou smikron, ho de toutôn kakoêthesteros chymos alatai dia pantos en tais phlepsin anamemigmenos tô haimati. kaitoi "Dysenteriê," phêsi pou Hippokratês, "ên apo cholês melainês arxêtai, thanasimon," ou mên hê g' apo tês xan||thês cholês 132 archomenê pantôs olethrios, all' hoi pleious ex autês diasôzontai. tosoutô kakoêthestera te kai drimytera tên dynamin hê melaina cholê tês xanthês estin. ar' oun oute tôn allôn anegnô ti tôn tou Hippokratous grammatôn ho Erasistratos ouden oute to peri physeôs anthrôpou biblion, hin' houtôs argôs parelthoi tên peri tôn chymôn episkepsin, ê gignôskei men, hekôn de paraleipei kallistên tês technês theôrian? echrên oun auton mêde peri tou splênos eirêkenai ti mêd' aschêmonein hypo tês technikês physeôs organon têlikouton matên hêgoumenon kateskeuasthai. kai mên ouch Hippokratês monon ê Platôn, ouden ti cheirous Erasistratou peri physin andres, hen ti tôn kathairontôn to haima kai tout' einai phasi to splanchnon, alla kai myrioi syn autois alloi tôn palaiôn iatrôn te kai philosophôn, hôn hapantôn prospoiêsamenos hyperphronein ho gennaios Erasistratos out' anteipen outh' holôs tês doxês autôn emnêmoneuse. kai mên hosois ge to sôma thallei, toutois ho splên phthinei, phêsin Hippokratês, kai hoi apo tês || empeirias hormômenoi 133 pantes homologousin iatroi. kai hosois g' au megas kai hypoulos auxanetai, toutois kataphtheirei te kai kakochyma ta sômata tithêsin, hôs kai touto palin ouch Hippokratês monon alla kai Platôn alloi te polloi kai hoi apo tês empeirias homologousin iatroi. kai hoi apo splênos de kakopragountos ikteroi melanteroi kai tôn helkôn hai oulai melainai. katholou gar, hotan endeesteron ê prosêken eis heauton helkê ton melancholikon chymon, akatharton men to haima, kakochroun de to pan gignetai sôma. pote d' endeesteron helkei? ê dêlon hoti kakôs diakeimenos? hôsper oun tois nephrois energeias ousês helkein ta oura kakôs helkein hyparchei kakopragousin, houtô kai tô splêni poiotêtos melancholikês helktikên en heautô dynamin echonti symphyton arrhôstêsanti pote tautên anankaion helkein kakôs kan tôde pachyteron êdê kai melanteron gignesthai to haima. Taut' oun hapanta pros te tas diagnôseis tôn nosêmatôn kai tas iaseis megistên parechomena chreian || 134 hyperepêdêse teleôs ho Erasistratos kai kataphronein prosepoiêsato têlikoutôn andrôn ho mêde tôn tychontôn kataphronôn all' aei philotimôs antilegôn tais êlithiôtatais doxais. hô kai dêlon, hôs ouden echôn out' anteipein tois presbyterois hyper hôn apephênanto peri splênos energeias te kai chreias out' autos exeuriskôn ti kainon eis to mêden holôs eipein aphiketo. all' hêmeis ge prôton men ek tôn aitiôn, hois hapanta dioikeitai ta kata tas physeis, tou thermou legô kai psychrou kai xêrou kai hygrou, deuteron d' ex autôn tôn enargôs phainomenôn kata to sôma psychron kai xêron einai tina chrênai chymon apedeixamen. hexês d', hoti kai melancholikos houtos hyparchei kai to kathairon auton splanchnon ho splên estin, dia bracheôn hôs eni malista tôn tois palaiois apodedeigmenôn anamnêsantes epi to leipon eti tois parousi logois aphixometha. Ti d' an eiê leipon allo g' ê exêgêsasthai saphôs, hoion ti boulontai te || kai apodeiknyousi peri tên tôn chymôn 135 genesin hoi palaioi symbainein. enargesteron d' an gnôstheiê dia paradeigmatos. oinon dê moi noei gleukinon ou pro pollou tôn staphylôn ektethlimmenon zeonta te kai alloioumenon hypo tês en autô thermasias; epeita kata tên autou metabolên dyo gennômena perittômata to men kouphoteron te kai aerôdesteron, to de baryteron te kai geôdesteron, hôn to men anthos, oimai, to de tryga kalousi. toutôn tô men heterô tên xanthên cholên, tô d' heterô tên melainan eikazôn ouk an hamartois, ou tên autên echontôn idean tôn chymôn toutôn en tô kata physin dioikeisthai to zôon, hoian kai para physin echontos epiphainontai pollakis. hê men gar xanthê lekithôdês gignetai; kai gar onomazousin houtôs autên, hoti tais tôn ôôn lekithois homoioutai kata te chroan kai pachos. hê d' au melaina kakoêthestera men poly kai hautê tês kata physin; onoma d' ouden idion keitai tô toioutô chymô, plên ei pou tines ê xystikon ê oxôdê keklêkasin auton, hoti kai drimys homoiôs oxei gignetai kai || xyei 136 ge to sôma tou zôou kai tên gên, ei kat' autês ekchytheiê, kai tina meta pompholygôn hoion zymôsin te kai zesin ergazetai, sêpedonos epiktêtou proselthousês ekeinô tô kata physin echonti chymô tô melani. kai moi dokousin hoi pleistoi tôn palaiôn iatrôn auto men to kata physin echon tou toioutou chymou kai diachôroun katô kai pollakis epipolazon anô melana kalein chymon, ou melainan cholên, to d' ek synkauseôs tinos kai sêpedonos eis tên oxeian methistamenon poiotêta melainan onomazein cholên. alla peri men tôn onomatôn ou chrê diapheresthai, to d' alêthes hôd' echon eidenai. Kata tên tou haimatos genesin hoson an hikanôs pachy kai geôdes ek tês tôn sitiôn physeôs empheromenon tê trophê mê dexêtai kalôs tên ek tês emphytou thermasias alloiôsin, ho splên eis heauton helkei touto. to d' optêthen, hôs an tis eipoi, kai synkauthen tês trophês, eiê d' an touto to thermotaton en autê kai glykytaton, hoion to te meli kai hê pimelê, xanthê genomenon cholê dia tôn cholêdochôn onomazomenôn angeiôn ekkathairetai. || lepton d' esti touto kai hygron kai rhyton ouch 137 hôsper hotan optêthen eschatôs xanthon kai pyrôdes kai pachy genêtai tais tôn ôôn homoion lekithois. touto men gar êdê para physin; thateron de to proteron eirêmenon kata physin estin; hôsper ge kai tou melanos chymou to men mêpô tên hoion zesin te kai zymôsin tês gês ergazomenon kata physin esti, to d' eis toiautên methistamenon idean te kai dynamin êdê para physin, hôs an tên ek tês synkauseôs tou para physin thermou proseilêphos drimytêta kai hoion tephra tis êdê gegonos. hôde pôs kai hê kekaumenê tryx tês akaustou diênenke. thermon gar ti chrêma hautê g' hikanôs estin, hôste kaiein te kai têkein kai diaphtheirein tên sarka. tê d' hetera tê mêpô kekaumenê tous iatrous estin heurein chrômenous eis hosaper kai tê gê tê kaloumenê keramitidi kai tois allois, hosa xêrainein th' hama kai psychein pephyken. Eis tên tês houtô synkautheisês melainês cholês idean kai hê lekithôdês ekeinê methistatai pollakis, hotan kai autê poth' hoion optêtheisa tychê pyrôdei thermasia. ta d' alla || tôn cholôn eidê sympanta ta men ek tês tôn 138 eirêmenôn kraseôs gignetai, ta d' hoion hodoi tines eisi tês toutôn geneseôs te kai eis allêla metabolês. diapherousi de tô tas men akratous einai kai monas, ta d' hoion orrhois tisin exygrasmenas. all' hoi men orrhoi tôn chymôn hapantes perittômata kai katharon autôn einai deitai tou zôou to sôma. tôn d' eirêmenôn chymôn esti tis chreia tê physei kai tou pacheos kai tou leptou kai kathairetai pros te tou splênos kai tês epi tô hêpati kysteôs to haima kai apotithetai tosouton te kai toiouton hekaterou meros, hoson kai hoion, eiper eis holon ênechthê tou zôou to sôma, blabên an tin' eirgasato. to gar hikanôs pachy kai geôdes kai teleôs diapepheugos tên en tô hêpati metabolên ho splên eis heauton helkei; to d' allo to metriôs pachy syn tô kateirgasthai pantê pheretai. deitai gar en pollois tou zôou moriois pachytêtos tinos to haima kathaper oimai kai tôn || empheromenôn inôn. kai eirêtai men kai 139 Platôni peri tês chreias autôn, eirêsetai de kai hêmin en ekeinois tois grammasin, en hois an tas chreias tôn moriôn dierchômetha; deitai d' ouch hêkista kai tou xanthou chymou tou mêpô pyrôdous eschatôs gegenêmenou to haima kai tis autô kai hê para toude chreia, di' ekeinôn eirêsetai. Phlegmatos d' ouden epoiêsen hê physis organon kathartikon, hoti psychron kai hygron esti kai hoion hêmipeptos tis trophê. deitai toinyn ou kenousthai to toiouton all' en tô sômati menon alloiousthai. to d' ex enkephalou katarrheon perittôma tacha men an oude phlegma tis orthôs alla blennan te kai koryzan, hôsper oun kai onomazetai, kaloiê. ei de mê, all' hoti ge tês toutou kenôseôs orthôs hê physis prounoêsato, kai tout' en tois peri chreias moriôn eirêsetai. kai gar oun kai to kata te tên gastera kai ta entera synistamenon phlegma hopôs an ekkenôthê kai auto tachista te kai kallista, to pareskeuasmenon tê physei mêchanêma di' ekeinôn eirêsetai kai auto tôn hypomnê||matôn. hoson oun 140 empheretai tais phlepsi phlegma chrêsimon hyparchon tois zôois, oudemias deitai kenôseôs. prosechein de chrê kantautha ton noun kai gignôskein, hôsper tôn cholôn hekateras to men ti chrêsimon esti kai kata physin tois zôois, to d' achrêston te kai para physin, houtô kai tou phlegmatos, hoson men an ê glyky, chrêston einai touto tô zôô kai kata physin, hoson d' oxy kai halmyron egeneto, to men oxy teleôs êpeptêsthai, to d' halmyron diasesêphthai. teleian d' apepsian phlegmatos akouein chrê tên tês deuteras pepseôs dêlonoti tês en phlepsin; ou gar dê tês ge prôtês tês kata tên koilian; ê oud' an egegenêto tên archên chymos, ei kai tautên diepepheugei. Taut' arkein moi dokei peri geneseôs te kai diaphthoras chymôn hypomnêmat' einai tôn Hippokratei te kai Platôni kai Aristotelei kai Praxagora kai Dioklei kai pollois allois tôn palaiôn eirêmenôn; ou gar edikaiôsa panta metapherein eis tonde ton logon ta teleôs ekeinois gegrammena. tosouton de monon hyper hekastou eipon, hoson exormêsei te tous || entynchanontas, ei mê 141 pantapasin eien skaioi, tois tôn palaiôn homilêsai grammasi kai tên eis to rhaon autois syneinai boêtheian parexei. gegraptai de pou kai di' heterou logou peri tôn kata Praxagoran ton Nikarchou chymôn. ei gar kai hoti malista deka poiei chôris tou haimatos, hendekatos gar an eiê chymos auto to haima, tês Hippokratous ouk apochôrei didaskalias. all' eis eidê tina kai diaphoras temnei tous hyp' ekeinou prôtou pantôn hama tais oikeiais apodeixesin eirêmenous chymous. Epainein men oun chrê tous t' exêgêsamenous ta kalôs eirêmena kai tous ei ti paraleleiptai prostithentas; ou gar hoion te ton auton arxasthai te kai teleiôsai; memphesthai de tous houtôs atalaipôrous, hôs mêden hypomenein mathein tôn orthôs eirêmenôn, kai tous eis tosouton philotimous, hôst' epithymia neôterôn dogmatôn aei panourgein ti kai sophizesthai, ta men hekontas paralipontas, hôsper Erasistratos epi tôn chymôn epoiêse, ta de pa||nourgôs antilegontas, hôsper autos 142 th' houtos kai alloi polloi tôn neôterôn. All' houtos men ho logos entauthoi teleutatô, to d' hypoloipon hapan en tô tritô prosthêsô. [167] _cf._ p. 89. [168] This term is nowadays limited to the drawing action of a blister, _cf._ p. 223. [169] The radicles of the hepatic ducts in the liver were supposed to be the active agents in extracting bile from the blood. _cf._ pp. 145-149. [170] _Anadosis_; _cf._ p. 13, note 5 (26). [171] The term [Greek: koilia] is used both specifically for the stomach proper and also (as probably here) in a somewhat wider sense for the stomach _region_, including the adjacent part of the small intestine; this was the part of the alimentary canal from which nutriment was believed to be absorbed by the mesenteric veins; _cf._ p. 309, note 2 (382). [172] _cf._ p. 100, note 2 (152); p. 167, note 2 (234). [173] A characteristic "lesion" in Erasistratus's pathology. [174] A certain subordinate place allowed to the horror vacui. [175] _i.e._ the parts to which the veins convey blood after it leaves the liver--second stage of _anadosis_; _cf._ p. 91, note 2 (138); p. 13, note 5 (26). [176] What we now call the pulmonary artery. Galen believed that the right ventricle existed for the purpose of sending nutrient blood to the lungs. [177] Lit. owing to the ongrowth (_epiphysis_) of membranes; he means the tricuspid valve; _cf._ p. 314, note 2 (387); p. 321, note 4 (398). [178] Horror vacui. [179] But Erasistratus had never upheld this in the case of urinary secretion, _cf._ p. 99. [180] This was the characteristically "anatomical" explanation of bile-secretion made by Erasistratus. _cf._ p. 170, note 2 (241). Why, then, says Galen, does not urine, rather than bile, enter the bile-ducts? [181] Urine, or, more exactly, blood-serum. [182] Or ducts, canals, conduits, _i.e._ _morphological_ factors. [183] Or artistic skill, "artistry." _cf._ Book I., chap. xii. [184] "Only"; _cf._ Introd., p. xxviii. [185] Note how Galen, although he has not yet clearly differentiated physiological from physical processes (both are "natural") yet separates them definitely from the psychical. _cf._ p. 2, footnote (5). A _psychical_ function or activity is, in Latin, _actio animalis_ (from _anima_ = _psyche_). [186] The stage of organogenesis or _diaplasis_; cf. p. 25, note 4 (49). [187] The spermatozoon now becomes an "organism" proper. [188] Galen attributed to the sperma or semen what we should to the fertilized ovum: to him the maternal contribution is purely passive--mere food for the sperm. The epoch-making Ovum Theory was not developed till the seventeenth century. _cf._ p. 19, note 3 (34). [189] _i.e._ we should be talking psychology, not biology; _cf._ stomach, p. 307, note 3 (380). [190] Attraction now described not merely as _qualitative_ but also as _quantitative_. _cf._ p. 85, note 3 (130). [191] He still tends either to biologize physics, or to physicize biology--whichever way we prefer to look at it. _cf._ Book I., chap. xiv. [192] Aristotelian and Stoic duality of an active and a passive principle. [193] Note that early embryonic development is described as a process of _nutrition_. _cf._ p. 130, note 2 (188). [194] On the _alterative_ and _shaping_ faculties _cf._ p. 18, note 1 (32). [195] pp. 27-29. [196] _cf._ Introduction, p. xxvi. [197] _cf._ p. 15. [198] For definitions of _alteration_ and _mingling_ (_crasis_, "temperament") _cf._ Book I., chaps. ii. and iii. [199] _i.e._ are associated with oxidation? _cf._ p. 41, note 3 (70). [200] "Useless" organs; _cf._ p. 56, note 2 (91). For fallacy of Erasistratus's view on the spleen _v._ p. 205. [201] The Stoics. [202] The Peripatetics (Aristotelians). [203] Aristotle regarded the _qualitative_ differences apprehended by our senses (the cold, the warm, the moist, and the dry) as fundamental, while the Stoics held the four corporeal elements (earth, air, fire, and water) to be still more fundamental. _cf._ p. 8, note 3 (17). [204] Lit. bile-receiving (choledochous). [205] _Jecoris portae_, the transverse fissure, by which the portal vein enters the liver. [206] Lit. "anastomosing." [207] More literally, "synapse." [208] The portal vein. [209] The hepatic vein or veins. [210] The portal vein. [211] _cf._ p. 120, note 1 (174). [212] _cf._ p. 272, note 1 (350). [213] _i.e._ one might assume an _attraction_. [214] _i.e._ visible to the mind's eye as distinguished from the bodily eye. _cf._ p. 21, note 4 (39). _Theoreton_ without qualification means merely _visible_, not _theoretic_. _cf._ p. 205, note 1 (282). [215] According to the Pneumatist school, certain of whose ideas were accepted by Erasistratus, the air, breath, pneuma, or spirit was brought by inspiration into the left side of the heart, where it was converted into natural, vital, and psychic pneuma; the latter then went to the brain, whence it was distributed through the nervous system; practically this teaching involved the idea of a _psyche_, or conscious vital principle. "Psychic pneuma" is in Latin _spiritus animalis_ (_anima_ = _psyche_); _cf._ p. 126, note 4 (185).