Introduction, p. xxix.

[10] "Conveyance," "transport," "transit"; purely mechanical or passive motion, as distinguished from _alteration_ (qualitative change). [11] "Waxing and waning," the latter literally _phthisis_, a wasting or "decline;" _cf._ Scotch _divining_, Dutch _verdwijnen_. [12] Becoming and perishing: Latin, _generatio et corruptio_. [13] "Ad substantiam productio seu ad formam processus" (Linacre). [14] "Preformationist" doctrine of Anaxagoras. To him the apparent alteration in qualities took place when a number of minute pre-existing bodies, all bearing the same quality, came together in sufficient numbers to impress that quality on the senses. The factor which united the minute quality-bearers was Nous. "In the beginning," says Anaxagoras, "all things existed together--then came Nous and brought them into order." [15] "De ea alteratione quae per totam fit substantiam" (Linacre). [16] The systematizer of Stoicism and successor of Zeno. [17] Note characteristic impatience with metaphysics. To Galen, as to Hippocrates and Aristotle, it sufficed to look on the qualitative differences apprehended by the senses as fundamental. Zeno of Citium was the founder of the Stoic school; on the further analysis by this school of the _qualities_ into _bodies_ _cf._ p. 144, note 3 (203). [18] A rallying-ground: lit. a place where two glens meet. [19] Thus according to Gomperz (_Greek Thinkers_), the hypothesis of Anaxagoras was that "the bread ... already contained the countless forms of matter as such which the human body displays. Their minuteness of size would withdraw them from our perception. For the defect or 'weakness' of the senses is the narrowness of their receptive area. These elusive particles are rendered visible and tangible by the process of _nutrition_, which combines them." [20] Therefore the blood must have come from the bread. The food from the alimentary canal was supposed by Galen to be converted into blood in and by the portal veins, _cf._ p. 17. [21] By "elements" is meant all homogeneous, amorphous substances, such as metals, &c., as well as the elementary _tissues_. [22] Work or product. Lat. _opus_. _cf._ p. 3, note 2 (6). [23] Operation, activation, or functioning. Lat. _actio_. _cf._ _loc. cit._ [24] _i.e._ a concomitant (secondary) or passive affection. Galen is contrasting active and passive "motion." _cf._ p. 6, note 1 (10). [25] As already indicated, there is no exact English equivalent for the Greek term _physis_, which is a principle immanent in the animal itself, whereas our term "Nature" suggests something more transcendent; we are forced often, however, to employ it in default of a better word. _cf._ p. 2, note 1 (5). [26] In Greek _anadosis_. This process includes two stages: (1) transmission of food from alimentary canal to liver (rather more than our "absorption"); (2) further transmission from liver to tissues. _Anadosis_ is lit. a yielding-up, a "delivery;" it may sometimes be rendered "dispersal." "Distribution" (_diadosis_) is a further stage; _cf._ p. 163, note 4 (230). [27] _cf._ p. 9. [28] Since heat and cold tend to cause diffusion and condensation respectively. [29] Lit. _haematopoietic_. _cf._ p. 11, note 3 (20). [30] Lit. _peptic_. [31] Lit. _sphygmic_. [32] _Genesis_ corresponds to the intrauterine life, or what we may call _embryogeny_. _Alteration_ here means histogenesis or tissue-production; _shaping_ or _moulding_ (in Greek _diaplasis_) means the ordering of these tissues into organs (organogenesis). [33] _cf._ p. 25, note 4 (49). [34] Note inadequate analogy of semen with fertilised seeds of plants (_i.e._ of gamete with zygote). Strictly speaking, of course, semen corresponds to pollen. _cf._ p. 130, note 2 (188). [35] _i.e._ the four primary qualities; _cf._ chap. iii. _supra_. [36] Various secondary or derivative differences in the tissues. Note pre-eminence of sense of touch. [37] _De Anima_, ii. _et seq._ [38] Lit. _homoeomerous_ = of similar parts throughout, "the same all through." He refers to the elementary tissues, conceived as not being susceptible of further analysis. [39] That is, by the bodily eye, and not by the mind's eye. The observer is here called an _autoptes_ or "eye-witness." Our medical term _autopsy_ thus means literally a _persona inspection_ of internal parts, ordinarily hidden. [40] _i.e._ "alteration" is the earlier of the two stages which constitute embryogeny or "genesis." _cf._ p. 18, note 1 (32). [41] The terms Galen actually uses are: _ostopoietic_, _neuropoietic_, _chondropoietic_. [42] As we should say, _parenchyma_ (a term used by Erasistratus). [43] Those were all the elemental tissues that Aristotle, for example, had recognized; other tissues (_e.g._ flesh or muscle) he believed to be complexes of these. [44] Or _tunics_. [45] _i.e._ tissues. [46] As, for example, Aristotle had held; _cf._ p. 23, note 3 (43). Galen added many new tissues to those described by Aristotle. [47] Lit. _synthesis_. [48] By this is meant the _duodenum_, considered as an outgrowth or prolongation of the stomach towards the intestines. [49] _cf._ p. 19, note 2 (33). [50] Lit. the _auxetic_ or _incremental_ faculty. [51] _i.e._ to the alterative and shaping faculties (histogenetic and organogenetic). [52] If the reading is correct we can only suppose that Galen meant _the embryo_. [53] _i.e._ not the pre-natal development of tissue already described. _cf._ chap. vi. [54] Administration, lit. "economy." [55] The _activation_ or _functioning_ of this faculty, the faculty _in actual operation_. _cf._ p. 3, note 2 (6). [56] "Un rapport commun et une affinité" (Daremberg). "Societatem aliquam cognationemque in qualitatibus" (Linacre). _cf._ p. 36, note 2 (61). [57] Lit. "necessity"; more _restrictive_, however, than our "law of Nature." _cf._ p. 314, note 1 (386). [58] His point is that no great change, in colours or in anything else, can take place at one step. [59] Not quite our "waste _products_," since these are considered as being partly synthetic, whereas the Greek _perittomata_ were simply superfluous substances which could not be used and were thrown aside. [60] Note "our natures," _cf._ p. 12, note 4 (25); p. 47, note 1 (75). [61] The term [Greek: oikeios], here rendered _appropriate_, is explained on p. 33. _cf._ also footnote on same page. Linacre often translated it _conveniens_, and it may usually be rendered _proper_, _peculiar_, _own special_, or _own particular_ in English. Sometimes it is almost equal to _akin_, _cognate_, _related_: _cf._ p. 319, note 2 (394). With Galen's [Greek: oikeios] and [Greek: allotrios] we may compare the German terms _eigen_ and _fremd_ used by Aberhalden in connection with his theory of defensive ferments in the blood-serum. [62] Transit, _cf._ p. 6, note 1 (10). [63] _i.e._ of the living organism, _cf._ p. 2, note 1 (5). [64] _i.e._ with nutrition. [65] We might perhaps say, more shortly, "assimilation of food to feeder," or, "of food to fed"; Linacre renders, "nutrimenti cum nutrito assimilatio." [66] Lit. _prosphysis_, _i.e._ attachment, implantation. [67] Lit. _prosthesis_, "apposition." One is almost tempted to retain the terms _prosthesis_ and _prosphysis_ in translation, as they obviously correspond much more closely to Galen's physiological conceptions than any English or semi-English words can. [68] Lit. _phthisis_. _cf._ p. 6, note 2 (11). Now means _tuberculosis_ only. [69] More literally, "chymified." In _anasarca_ the subcutaneous tissue is soft, and pits on pressure. In the "white" disease referred to here (by which is probably meant _nodular leprosy_) the same tissues are indurated and "brawny." The principle of certain diseases being best explained as cases of _arrest_ at various stages of the metabolic path is recognized in modern pathology, although of course the instances given by Galen are too crude to stand. [70] The effects of _oxidation_ attributed to the heat which accompanies it? _cf._ p. 141, note 1 (199); p. 254, note 1 (332). [71] Here follows a contrast between the Vitalists and the Epicurean Atomists. _cf._ p. 153 _et seq._ [72] A unity or _continuum_, an _individuum_. [73] Lit. to the _physis_ or the _psyche_; that is, a denial of the autonomy of physiology and psychology. [74] Lit. _somata_. [75] For "natures" in the plural, involving the idea of a separate nature immanent in each individual, _cf._ p. 36, note 1 (60). [76] A lost work. [77] For Asclepiades _v._ p. 49, note 5 (82). [78] "Le corps tout entier a unité de souffle (_perspiration et expiration_) et unité de flux (_courants_, _circulation des liquides_)" (Daremberg). "Conspirabile et confluxile corpus esse" (Linacre). Apparently Galen refers to the pneuma and the various humours. _cf._ p. 293, note 2 (366). [79] _i.e._ "appropriated"; very nearly "assimilated." [80] "Attractricem convenientis qualitatis vim" (Linacre). _cf._ p. 36, note 2 (61). [81] Lit. "obvious phenomena." [82] Asclepiades of Bithynia, who flourished in the first half of the first century B.C., was an adherent of the atomistic philosophy of Democritus, and is the typical representative of the Mechanistic school in Graeco-Roman medicine; he disbelieved in any principle of individuality ("nature") in the organism, and his methods of treatment, in accordance with his pathology, were mechano-therapeutical. _cf._ p. 64, note 3 (100). [83] Diocles of Carystus was the chief representative of the Dogmatic or Hippocratic school in the first half of the fourth century B.C. Praxagoras was his disciple, and followed him in the leadership of the school. For Erasistratus, _cf._ p. 95 _et seq._ [84] Sufferers from kidney-trouble. [85] The ureters. [86] Unless otherwise stated, "peritoneum" stands for parietal peritoneum alone. [87] In the peritoneal cavity. [88] Contrast, however, _anasarca_, p. 41. [89] Regurgitation, however, is prevented by the fact that the ureter runs for nearly one inch obliquely through the bladder wall before opening into its cavity, and thus an efficient _valve_ is produced. [90] On the [Greek: technê] (artistic or creative skill) shown by the living organism ([Greek: physis]) _v._ pp. 25, 45, 47; Introduction, p. xxix. [91] Direct denial of Aristotle's dictum that "Nature does nothing in vain." We are reminded of the view of certain modern laboratory physicians and surgeons that the _colon_ is a "useless" organ, _cf._ Erasistratus, p. 143. [92] The _vasa deferentia_. [93] "De l'habileté et de la prévoyance de la nature à l'égard des animaux" (Daremberg). _cf._ p. 56, note 1 (90). [94] _cf._ p. 36, note 2 (61). [95] The morbid material passed successively through the stages of "crudity," "coction" (_pepsis_), and "elimination" (_crisis_). For "critical days" _cf._ p. 74, note 1 (121). [96] This was the process by which nutriment was taken up from the alimentary canal; "absorption," "dispersal;" _cf._ p. 13, note 5 (26). The subject is dealt with more fully in chap. xvi. [97] Lit. _catharsis_. [98] _i.e._ urine. [99] On use of [Greek: kenoô] _v._ p. 67, note 9 (110). [100] _i.e._ bile and phlegm had no existence as such before the drugs were given; they are the products of dissolved tissue. Asclepiades did not believe that diseases were due to a _materia peccans_, but to disturbances in the movements of the molecules ([Greek: onkoi]) which constitute the body; thus, in opposition to the humoralists such as Galen, he had no use for drugs. _cf._ p. 49, note 5 (82). [101] About 4 oz., or one-third of a pint. [102] The Empiricists, _cf._ Introduction, p. xiii. [103] His [Greek: onkoi] or molecules. [104] He does not say "organized" or "living" body; inanimate things were also thought to possess "natures"; _cf._ p. 2, note 1 (5). [105] Carthamus tinctorius. [106] Daphne Gnidium. [107] Euphorbia acanthothamnos. [108] Teucrium chamaedrys. [109] Atractylis gummifera. [110] On use of [Greek: kenoô] _cf._ p. 98, note 1 (148). [111] Empiricist physicians. [112] Note that drugs also have "natures"; _cf._ p. 66, note 3 (104), and pp. 83-84. [113] Pun here. [114] Lit. _physiology_, _i.e._ _nature-lore_, almost our "Natural Philosophy"; _cf._ Introduction, p. xxvi. [115] The ultimate particle of Epicurus was the [Greek: atomos] or atom (lit. "non-divisible"), of Asclepiades, the [Greek: onkos] or molecule. Asclepiades took his atomic theory from Epicurus, and he again from Democritus; _cf._ p. 49, note 5 (82). [116] Lit. _Herculean stone_. [117] Lit. _aetiology_. [118] _Anadosis_; _cf._ p. 62, note 1 (96). [119] _cf._ p. 45. [120] The _vis conservatrix et medicatrix Naturae_. [121] _cf._ p. 61, note 3 (95). The _crisis_ or resolution in fevers was observed to take place with a certain regularity; hence arose the doctrine of "critical days." [122] These were hypothetical spaces or channels between the atoms; _cf._ Introduction, p. xiv. [123] He means the specific drawing power or faculty of the lodestone. [124] _cf._ our modern "radium-emanations." [125] _cf._ Ehrlich's hypothesis of "receptors" in explanation of the "affinities" of animal cells. [126] _i.e._ from the point of view of the theory. [127] _cf._ p. 69, note 2 (112). [128] That is to say, the two properties should go together in all cases--which they do not. [129] _Trygon pastinaca_. [130] _cf._ p. 66, note 3 (104). [131] The way that corn can attract moisture. [132] Specific attraction of the "proper" quality; _cf._ p. 85, note 3 (130). [133] Theory of evaporation insufficient to account for it. _cf._ p. 104, note 1 (156). [134] Playful suggestion of free-will in the urine. [135] Specific attraction, _cf._ p. 87, note 2 (233). [136] _i.e._ there would be no selective action. [137] Nasal mucus was supposed to be the non-utilizable part of the nutriment conveyed to the brain, _cf._ p. 214, note 3 (297). [138] He means from its origin in the liver (_i.e._ in the three hepatic veins). His idea was that the upper division took nutriment to heart, lungs, head, etc., and the lower division to lower part of body. On the relation of right auricle to vena cava and right ventricle, _cf._ p. 321, notes 4 (398) and 5 (399). [139] We arrive at our belief by excluding other possibilities. [140] _i.e._ the mechanistic physicists. _cf._ pp. 45-47. [141] _cf._ p. 85, note 3 (130). [142] The subject of _anadosis_ is taken up in the next chapter. _cf._ also p. 62, note 1 (96). [143] On Erasistratus _v._ Introd. p. xii. His view that the stomach exerts no _holké_, or attraction, is dealt with more fully in Book III., chap. viii. [144] _i.e._ the tissues. [145] _cf._ p. 291. [146] _Peristalsis_ may be used here to translate Gk. _peristolé_, meaning the contraction and dilation of muscle-fibres _circularly_ round a lumen, _cf._ p. 263, note 2 (341). [147] For a demonstration that this phenomenon is a conclusive proof neither of _peristolé_ nor of real vital _attraction_, but is found even in dead bodies _v._ p. 267. [148] This was Erasistratus's favourite principle, known in Latin as the "horror vacui" and in English as "Nature's abhorrence of a vacuum," although these terms are not an exact translation of the Greek. [Greek: to kenoumenon] probably means _the vacuum_, not the _matter evacuated_, although Galen elsewhere uses [Greek: kenoô] in the latter (non-classical) sense, _e.g._ pp. 67, 215. Akolouthia is a _following-up_, a _sequence_, almost a _consequence_. [149] _v._ p. 123. [150] _cf._ Book II., chap. i. [151] Vital factor necessary over and above the mechanical. [152] _cf._ p. 119, note 2 (173). [153] pp. 91, 93. [154] _i.e._ the part below the liver; _cf._ p. 91, note 2 (138). [155] Renal veins. [156] _cf._ p. 87, note 3 (133). [157] [Greek: koilên]: the usual reading is [Greek: koilian], which would make it "from the region of the alimentary canal." _cf._ p. 118, note 1 (171). [158] Not at an earlier stage, when it is still on its way from the alimentary canal to the liver. [159] _i.e._ a renal vein. [160] In a toast, the third cup was drunk to Zeus Sôtêr (the Saviour). [161] An anatomist of the Alexandrian school. [162] _cf._ nasal mucus, p. 90, note 1 (137). [163] "Sur l'Ensemble des Choses" (Daremberg). [164] About twelve quarts. This is about five times as much as the average daily excretion, and could only be passed if a very large amount of wine were drunk. [165] _cf._ p. 51. [166] Horror vacui. Note analogical reasoning; _cf._ p. 289, note 1 (360).