455. Their kingdom was finally destroyed by Belisarius.

[2903] It is supposed that the Burgundiones were a Gothic people dwelling in the country between the rivers Viadus and Vistula, though Ammianus Marcellinus declares them to have been of pure Roman origin. How they came into the country of the Upper Maine in the south-west of Germany in A.D. 289, historians have found themselves at a loss to inform us. It is not improbable that the two peoples were not identical, and that the similarity of their name arose only from the circumstance that they both resided in “burgi” or burghs. See Gibbon, iii. 99. _Bohn’s Ed._ [2904] The Varini dwelt on the right bank of the Albis or Elbe, north of the Langobardi. Ptolemy however, who seems to mention them as the Avarini, speaks of them as dwelling near the sources of the Vistula, on the site of the present Cracow. See Gibbon, iv. 225. _Bohn’s Ed._ [2905] Nothing whatever is known of the locality of this people. [2906] They are also called in history Gothi, Gothones, Gotones and Gutæ. According to Pytheas of Marseilles (as mentioned by Pliny, B. xxxvii. c. 2), they dwelt on the coasts of the Baltic, in the vicinity of what is now called the Fritsch-Haff. Tacitus also refers to the same district, though he does not speak of them as inhabiting the coast. Ptolemy again speaks of them as dwelling on the east of the Vistula, and to the south of the Venedi. The later form of their name, _Gothi_, does not occur till the time of Caracalla. Their native name was Gutthinda. They are first spoken of as a powerful nation at the beginning of the third century, when we find them mentioned as ‘Getæ,’ from the circumstance of their having occupied the countries formerly inhabited by the Sarmatian Getæ. The formidable attacks made by this people, divided into the nations of the Ostrogoths and Visigoths, upon the Roman power during its decline, are too well known to every reader of Gibbon to require further notice. [2907] The inhabitants of Chersonesus Cimbrica, the modern peninsula of Jutland. It seems doubtful whether these Cimbri were a Germanic nation or a Celtic tribe, as also whether they were the same race whose numerous hordes successively defeated six Roman armies, and were finally conquered by C. Marius, B.C. 101, in the Campi Raudii. The more general impression, however, entertained by historians, is that they were a Celtic or Gallic and not a Germanic nation. The name is said to have signified “robbers.” See Gibbon, i. 273, iii. 365. _Bohn’s Ed._ [2908] The Teutoni or Teutones dwelt on the coasts of the Baltic, adjacent to the territory of the Cimbri. Their name, though belonging originally to a single nation or tribe, came to be afterwards applied collectively to the whole people of Germany. See Gibbon, iii. 139. _Bohn’s Ed._ [2909] Also called Cauchi, Cauci, and Cayci, a German tribe to the east of the Frisians, between the rivers Ems and Elbe. The modern Oldenburg and Hanover are supposed to pretty nearly represent the country of the Chauci. In B. xvi. c. 1. 2, will be found a further account of them by Pliny, who had visited their country, at least that part of it which lay on the sea-coast. They are mentioned for the last time in the third century, when they had extended so far south and west that they are spoken of as living on the banks of the Rhine. [2910] Mentioned by Tacitus as dwelling in the east and south of Germany. [2911] It has been suggested by Titzius that the words “quorum Cimbri,” “to whom the Cimbri belong,” are an interpolation; which is not improbable, or at least that the word “Cimbri” has been substituted for some other name. [2912] This appears to be properly the collective name of a great number of the German tribes, who were of a migratory mode of life, and spoken of in opposition to the more settled tribes, who went under the general name of Ingævones. Cæsar speaks of them as dwelling east of the Ubii and Sygambri, and west of the Cherusci. Strabo makes them extend in an easterly direction beyond the Albis or Elbe, and southerly as far as the sources of the Danube. Tacitus gives the name of Suevia to the whole of the east of Germany, from the Danube to the Baltic. The name of the modern Suabia is derived from a body of adventurers from various German tribes, who assumed the name of Suevi in consequence of their not possessing any other appellation. [2913] A large and powerful tribe of Germany, which occupied the extensive tract of country between the mountains in the north-west of Bohemia and the Roman Wall in the south-west, which formed the boundary of the Agri Decumates. On the east they bordered on the Narisci, on the north-east on the Cherusci, and on the north-west on the Chatti. There is little doubt that they originally formed part of the Suevi. At a later period they spread in a north-easterly direction, taking possession of the north-western part of Bohemia and the country about the sources of the Maine and Saale, that is, the part of Franconia as far as Kissingen and the south-western part of the kingdom of Saxony. The name Hermunduri is thought by some to signify highlanders, and to be a compound of _Her_ or _Ar_, “high,” and _Mund_, “man.” [2914] One of the great tribes of Germany, which rose to importance after the decay of the power of the Cherusci. It is thought by ethnographers that their name is still preserved in the word “Hessen.” They formed the chief tribe of the Hermiones here mentioned, and are described by Cæsar as belonging to the Suevi, though Tacitus distinguishes them, and no German tribe in fact occupied more permanently its original locality than the Chatti. Their original abode seems to have extended from the Westerwald in the west to the Saale in Franconia, and from the river Maine in the south as far as the sources of the Elison and the Weser, so that they occupied exactly the modern country of Hessen, including perhaps a portion of the north-west of Bavaria. See Gibbon, vol. iii. 99. _Bohn’s Ed._ [2915] The Cherusci were the most celebrated of all the German tribes, and are mentioned by Cæsar as of the same importance as the Suevi, from whom they were separated by the Silva Bacensis. There is some difficulty in stating their exact locality, but it is generally supposed that their country extended from the Visurgis or Weser in the west to the Albis or Elbe in the east, and from Melibocus in the north to the neighbourhood of the Sudeti in the south, so that the Chamavi and Langobardi were their northern neighbours, the Chatti the western, the Hermunduri the southern, and the Silingi and Semnones their eastern neighbours. This tribe, under their chief Arminius or Hermann, forming a confederation with many smaller tribes in A.D. 9, completely defeated the Romans in the famous battle of the Teutoburg Forest. In later times they were conquered by the Chatti, so that Ptolemy speaks of them only as a small tribe on the south of the Hartz mountain. Their name afterwards appears, in the beginning of the fourth century, in the confederation of the Franks. [2916] The Peucini are mentioned here, as also by Tacitus, as identical with the Basternæ. As already mentioned, supposing them to be names for distinct nations, they must be taken as only names of individual tribes, and not of groups of tribes. It is generally supposed that their first settlements in Sarmatia were in the highlands between the Theiss and the March, whence they passed onward to the lower Danube, as far as its mouth, where a portion of them, settling in the island of Peuce, obtained the name of Peucini. In the later geographers we find them settled between the Tyrus or Dniester, and the Borysthenes or Dnieper, the Peucini remaining at the mouth of the Danube. [2917] According to Parisot, the Guttalus is the same as the Alle, a tributary of the Pregel. Cluver thinks that it is the same as the Oder. Other writers again consider it the same as the Pregel. [2918] Or Elbe. [2919] Now the Weser. [2920] The modern Ems. [2921] The Meuse. [2922] The ‘Hercynia Silva,’ Hercynian Forest or Range, is very differently described by the writers of various ages. The earliest mention of it is by Aristotle. Judging from the accounts given by Cæsar, Pomponius Mela, and Strabo, the ‘Hercynia Silva’ appears to have been a general name for almost all the mountains of Southern and Central Germany, that is, from the sources of the Danube to Transylvania, comprising the Schwarzwald, Odenwald, Spessart, Rhön, Thuringer Wald, the Hartz mountain (which seems in a great measure to have retained the ancient name), Raube Alp, Steigerwald, Fichtelgebirge, Erzgebirge, and Riesengebirge. At a later period when the mountains of Germany had become better known, the name was applied to the more limited range extending around Bohemia, and through Moravia into Hungary. [2923] This island appears to have been formed by the bifurcation of the Rhine, the northern branch of which enters the sea at Katwyck, a few miles north of Leyden, by the Waal and the course of the Maas, after it has received the Waal, and by the sea. The Waal or Vahalis seems to have undergone considerable changes, and the place of its junction with the Maas may have varied. Pliny makes the island nearly 100 miles in length, which is about the distance from the fort of Schenkenschanz, where the first separation of the Rhine takes place, to the mouth of the Maas. The name of Batavia was no doubt the genuine name, which is still preserved in Betuwe, the name of a district at the bifurcation of the Rhine and the Waal. The Canninefates, a people of the same race as the Batavi, also occupied the island, and as the Batavi seem to have been in the eastern part, it is supposed that the Canninefates occupied the western. They were subdued by Tiberius in the reign of Augustus. [2924] The Frisii or Frisones were one of the great tribes of north-western Germany, properly belonging to the group of the Ingævones. They inhabited the country about Lake Flevo and other lakes, between the Rhine and the Ems, so as to be bounded on the south by the Bructeri, and on the east by the Chauci. Tacitus distinguishes between the Frisii Majores and Minores, and it is supposed that the latter dwelt on the east of the canal of Drusus in the north of Holland, and the former between the rivers Flevus and Amisia, that is, in the country which still bears the name of Friesland. The Chauci have been previously mentioned. [2925] The Frisiabones or Frisævones are again mentioned in C. 31 of the present Book as a people of Gaul. In what locality they dwelt has not been ascertained by historians. [2926] The Sturii are supposed to have inhabited the modern South Holland, while the Marsacii probably inhabited the island which the Meuse forms at its junction with the Rhine, at the modern Dortrecht in Zealand. [2927] Supposed to be the site of the modern fortress of Briel, situate at the mouth of the Meuse. [2928] Probably the same as the modern Vlieland (thus partly retaining its ancient name), an island north of the Texel. The more ancient writers speak of two main arms, into which the Rhine was divided on entering the territory of the Batavi, of which the one on the east continued to bear the name of Rhenus, while that on the west into which the Masa, Maas or Meuse, flowed, was called Vahalis or Waal. After Drusus, B.C. 12, had connected the Flevo Lacus or Zuyder-Zee with the Rhine by means of a canal, in forming which he probably made use of the bed of the Yssel, we find mention made of three mouths of the Rhine. Of these the names, as given by Pliny, are, on the west, Helium (the Vahalis of other writers), in the centre Rhenus, and at the north Flevum; but at a later period we again find mention made of only two mouths. [2929] Britain was spoken of by some of the Greek writers as superior to all other islands in the world. Dionysius, in his Periegesis, says, “that no other islands whatsoever can claim equality with those of Britain.” [2930] Said to have been so called from the whiteness of its cliffs opposite the coast of Gaul. [2931] Afterwards called Bononia, the modern Boulogne. As D’Anville remarks, the distance here given by Pliny is far too great, whether we measure to Dover or to Hythe; our author’s measurement however is probably made to Rutupiæ (the modern Richborough), near Sandwich, where the Romans had a fortified post, which was their landing-place when crossing over from Gaul. This would make the distance given by Pliny nearer the truth, though still too much. [2932] Probably the Grampian range is here referred to. [2933] The people of South Wales. [2934] The Orkney islands were included under this name. Pomponius Mela and Ptolemy make them but thirty in number, while Solinus fixes their number at three only. [2935] Also called Æmodæ or Hæmodæ, most probably the islands now known as the Shetlands. Camden however and the older antiquarians refer the Hæmodæ to the Baltic sea, considering them different from the Acmodæ here mentioned, while Salmasius on the other hand considers the Acmodæ or Hæmodæ and the Hebrides as identical. Parisot remarks that off the West Cape of the Isle of Skye and the Isle of North Uist, the nearest of the Hebrides to the Shetland islands, there is a vast gulf filled with islands, which still bears the name of Mamaddy or Maddy, from which the Greeks may have easily derived the words Αἱ Μαδδαὶ, whence the Latin Hæmodæ. [2936] The Isle of Anglesea. [2937] Most probably the Isle of Man. [2938] Camden and Gosselin (_Rech. sur la Géogr. des Anciens_) consider that under this name is meant the island of Racklin, situate near the north-eastern extremity of Ireland. A Ricina is spoken of by Ptolemy, but that island is one of the Hebrides. [2939] This Vectis is considered by Gosselin to be the same as the small island of White-Horn, situate at the entrance of the Bay of Wigtown in Scotland. It must not be confounded with the more southern Vectis, or Isle of Wight. [2940] According to Gosselin this is the island of Dalkey, at the entrance of Dublin Bay. [2941] Camden thinks that this is the same as Bardsey Island, at the south of the island of Anglesea, while Mannert and Gosselin think that it is the island of Lambay. [2942] According to Brotier these islands belong to the coast of Britanny, being the modern isles of Sian and Ushant. [2943] As already mentioned, he probably speaks of the islands of Œland and Gothland, and Ameland, called Austeravia or Actania, in which _glæsum_ or amber was found by the Roman soldiers. See p. 344. [2944] The opinions as to the identity of ancient Thule have been numerous in the extreme. We may here mention six:—1. The common, and apparently the best founded opinion, that Thule is the island of Iceland. 2. That it is either the Ferroe group, or one of those islands. 3. The notion of Ortelius, Farnaby, and Schœnning, that it is identical with Thylemark in Norway. 4. The opinion of Malte Brun, that the continental portion of Denmark is meant thereby, a part of which is to the present day called Thy or Thyland. 5. The opinion of Rudbeck and of Calstron, borrowed originally from Procopius, that this is a general name for the whole of Scandinavia. 6. That of Gosselin, who thinks that under this name Mainland, the principal of the Shetland Islands, is meant. It is by no means impossible that under the name of Thule two or more of these localities may have been meant, by different authors writing at distant periods and under different states of geographical knowledge. It is also pretty generally acknowledged, as Parisot remarks, that the Thule mentioned by Ptolemy is identical with Thylemark in Norway. [2945] B. ii. c. 77. [2946] Brotier thinks that under this name a part of Cornwall is meant, and that it was erroneously supposed to be an island. Parisot is of opinion that the copyists, or more probably Pliny himself, has made an error in transcribing Mictis for Vectis, the name of the Isle of Wight. It is not improbable however that the island of Mictis had only an imaginary existence. [2947] “White lead”: not, however, the metallic substance which we understand by that name, but tin. [2948] Commonly known as “coracles,” and used by the Welch in modern times. See B. vii. c. 57 of this work, and the Note. [2949] Brotier, with many other writers, takes these names to refer to various parts of the coast of Norway. Scandia he considers to be the same as Scania, Bergos the modern Bergen, and Nerigos the northern part of Norway. On the other hand, Gosselin is of opinion that under the name of Bergos the Scottish island of Barra is meant, and under that of Nerigos, the island of Lewis, the northern promontory of which is in the old maps designated by the name of Nary or Nery. Ptolemy makes mention of an island called Doumna in the vicinity of the Orcades. [2950] Transalpine Gaul, with the exception of that part of it called Narbonensis, was called Gallia Comata, from the custom of the people allowing their hair to grow to a great length. [2951] From the Scheldt to the Seine. [2952] From the Seine to the Garonne. [2953] Lyonese Gaul, from Lugdunum, the ancient name of the city of Lyons. [2954] Said by Camden to be derived from the Celtic words _Ar - mor_, “by the Sea.” [2955] The provinces of Antwerp and North Brabant. [2956] Inhabiting Western Flanders. [2957] So called, it is supposed, from the Celtic word _Mor_, which means “the sea.” Térouane and Boulogne are supposed to occupy the site of their towns, situate in the modern Pas de Calais. [2958] D’Anville places them between Calais and Gravellines, in the Pas de Calais, and on the spot now known as the Terre de Marck or Merk. [2959] Boulogne, previously mentioned. [2960] Cluver thinks that “Brianni” would be the correct reading here; but D’Anville places the Britanni on the southern bank of the stream called La Canche in the Pas de Calais. [2961] According to Parisot and Ansart they occupied the department of the Somme, with places on the site of Amiens (derived from their name) and Abbeville for their chief towns. [2962] They dwelt in the modern department of the Oise, with Beauvais (which still retains their name) for their chief town. [2963] D’Anville is of opinion that the place called Haiz or Hez in the diocese of Beauvais, received its name from this people, of whom nothing else is known. The name is omitted in several of the editions. [2964] D’Anville is of opinion that their chief town was situate at the modern Chaours, at the passage of the river Serre, not far from Vervins in the department of the Aisne. [2965] According to Ptolemy their chief town would be on the site of the modern Orchies in the department du Nord, but Cæsar makes it to be Nemetacum, the modern Arras, the capital of the department of the Pas de Calais. [2966] According to Ansart their chief town was Bavai, in the department du Nord. They are called “Liberi,” or free, because they were left at liberty to enjoy their own laws and institutions. [2967] Their capital was Augusta Veromanduorum, and it has been suggested that the place called Vermand, in the department de l’Aisne, denotes its site; but according to Bellay and D’Anville the city of St. Quentin, which was formerly called Aouste, marks the spot. [2968] Nothing whatever is known of them, and it is suggested by the commentators that this is a corrupted form of the name of the Suessiones, which follows. [2969] They gave name to Soissons in the southern part of the department de l’Aisne. [2970] It has been suggested that these are the same as the Silvanectes, the inhabitants of Senlis in the department de l’Oise. [2971] The people of Tongres, in the provinces of Namur, Liège, and Limbourg. [2972] They are supposed to have dwelt in the eastern part of the province of Limbourg. [2973] They probably dwelt between the Sunuci and the Betasi. [2974] They are supposed to have dwelt in the western part of the province of Limbourg, on the confines of that province and South Brabant, in the vicinity probably of the place which still bears the name of Beetz, upon the river Gette, between Leau and Haclen, seven miles to the east of Louvain. [2975] According to Ptolemy the Leuci dwelt on the sites of Toul in the department of the Meurthe, and of Nais or Nays in that of the Meuse. [2976] From them Trèves or Trier, in the Grand Duchy of the Lower Rhine, takes its name. [2977] Their chief town was on the site of Langres, in the department of the Haute Marne. [2978] They gave name to the city of Rheims in the department of the Marne. [2979] Their chief town stood on the site of the modern Metz, in the department of the Moselle. [2980] Besançon stands on the site of their chief town, in the department of the Doubs, extending as far as Bâle. [2981] The inhabitants of the district called the Haut Rhin or Higher Rhine. [2982] The inhabitants of the west of Switzerland. [2983] Or the “Equestrian Colony,” probably founded by the Roman Equites. It is not known where this colony was situate, but it is suggested by Cluver and Monetus that it may have been on the lake of Geneva, in the vicinity of the modern town of Nyon. [2984] Littré, in a note, remarks that Rauriaca is a barbarism, and that the reading properly is “Raurica.” [2985] Spire was their chief city, in the province of the Rhine. [2986] They are supposed to have occupied Strasbourg, and the greater part of the department of the Lower Rhine. [2987] They dwelt in the modern Grand Duchy of Hesse Darmstadt; Worms was their chief city. [2988] That is, nearer the mouths of the Rhine. [2989] They originally dwelt on the right bank of the Rhine, but were transported across the river by Agrippa in B.C. 37, at their own request, from a wish to escape the attacks of the Suevi. [2990] Now known as the city of Cologne. It took its name from Agrippina, the wife of Claudius and the mother of Nero, who was born there, and who, as Tacitus says, to show off her power to the allied nations, planted a colony of veteran soldiers in her native city, and gave to it her own name. [2991] Their district was in the modern circle of Clèves, in the province of Juliers-Berg-Clèves. [2992] Dwelling in the Insula Batavorum, mentioned in C. 29 of the present Book. [2993] He first speaks of the nations on the coast, and then of those more in the interior. [2994] Dwelling in the west of the department of Calvados, and the east of the department of the Eure. From them Lisieux takes its name. [2995] They occupied the department of the Lower Seine. [2996] They are supposed to have dwelt in the vicinity of Lillebonne, in the department of the Lower Seine. [2997] They gave name to the town of Vannes in the department of Morbihan. [2998] From them the city of Avranches, in the department of La Manche, derives its name. [2999] They occupied the modern department of Finisterre. [3000] The Loire. [3001] This spot is placed by D’Anville near the modern city of Saint Brieuc. He refers here to the peninsula of Brittany, which ends in Finisterre. [3002] Ansart remarks that the circuit of the peninsula from Saint Brieuc to the mouth of the river Vilaine is only 450 miles, but that if taken from the city of Avranches to the mouth of the Loire, it is 650. [3003] Ansart states that from Avranches to the mouth of the Loire, in a straight line, is twenty miles less than the distance here given by Pliny. [3004] Inhabitants of the department of the Lower Loire or Loire Inférieure. [3005] This extensive people inhabited the present departments of the Saone et Loire, Allier, Nievre, Rhone nord, and Loire nord. Autun and Chalons-sur-Marne stand on the site of their ancient towns. [3006] They inhabited the departments of the Eure et Loire, and portions of those of the Seine et Oise, of the Loire et Cher, and of the Loiret. Chartres occupies the site of their town. [3007] They occupied a part of the department of the Allier. Moulins stands on the site of their chief town. [3008] Sens, in the department of the Yonne, stands on the site of their chief town. [3009] The chief town of the Aulerci Eburovices was on the site of the present Passy-sur-Eure, called by the inhabitants Old Evreux, in the department of the Eure. [3010] They dwelt in the vicinity of the city of Le Mans, in the department of the Sarthe. [3011] Meaux, in the department of the Seine et Marne, denotes the site of their principal town. [3012] Paris, anciently Lutetia, denotes their locality. [3013] The city of Troyes, in the department of the Aube, denotes their locality. [3014] Their chief town stood on the site of Angers, in the department of the Maine et Loire. [3015] D’Anville says that their chief town stood on the spot now known as Vieux, two leagues from Caen, in the department of Calvados. [3016] The reading here is not improbably “Vadicasses.” If so, they were a people situate at a great distance from the other tribes here mentioned by Pliny. They dwelt in the department De l’Oise, in the district formerly known as Valois, their chief town or city occupying the site of Vez, not far from Villers Cotterets. [3017] D’Anville assigns to the Venelli, or Unelli, as some readings have it, the former district of Cotantin, now called the department of La Manche. [3018] According to D’Anville, Corseuil, two leagues from Dinan, in the department of the Côtes du Nord, denotes the site of their chief town. Hardouin takes Quimper to mark the locality. [3019] They are supposed by Ansart to have occupied that part of the department of La Mayenne where we find the village of Jublains, two leagues from the city of Mayenne. [3020] D’Anville assigns to them the greater part of the department of the Ile et Vilaine, and is of opinion that the city of Rennes occupies the site of Condate, their chief town. [3021] Tours, in the department of the Indre et Loire, marks the site of their chief town. [3022] They are supposed to have occupied a portion of the department of the Loire. [3023] They probably occupied a part of the department of the Loire, as also of that of the Rhone. Their town, Forum Secusianorum, stood on the site of the present Feurs, in the department of the Loire. [3024] The city of Lyons occupies the site of ancient Lugdunum. It is suggested by Hardouin, that the name Lugdunum is a corruption of “Lucudunum,” a compound of the Latin word _lucus_, “a grove,” and the Celtic _dun_, “a hill” or “mountain.” [3025] They are mentioned by Cæsar (B. C. iii. 9), in conjunction with the Nannetes, Morini, and others, but nothing can be inferred as to the precise position they occupied. [3026] Their locality also is unknown, but it is supposed that they dwelt in the vicinity of the department of La Vendée. [3027] From them ancient Poitou received its name. They are supposed to have occupied the department of the Haute-Vienne, and portions of the departments of La Vendée, the Loire Inférieure, the Maine et Loire, the Deux-Sèvres, and La Vienne. [3028] They gave name to the former Saintonge, now the department of Charente and Charente Inférieure. The town of Saintes occupies the site of their chief town. [3029] They occupied the modern department of the Gironde. The city of Bordeaux occupies the site of their chief town. [3030] They gave name to Aquitaine, which became corrupted into Guyenne. Pliny is the only author that makes the Aquitani a distinct people of the province of Aquitanica. The Tarusates are supposed to have afterwards occupied the site here referred to by him, with Atures for their chief town, afterwards called Aire, in the department of the Landes. [3031] Their locality is unknown, but it has been suggested that they occupied the departments of the Basses Pyrénées, or Lower Pyrenees. [3032] So called from the Latin verb _convenire_, “to assemble” or “meet together.” They are said to have received this name from the circumstance that Ptolemy, after the close of the Sertorian war, finding a pastoral people of predatory habits inhabiting the range of the Pyrenees, ordered them to unite together and form a community in a town or city. From them the present town of Saint Bertrand de Comminges, in the S.W. of the department of the Haute Garonne, derives its Latin name “Lugdunum Convenarum.” [3033] By Cæsar called the Bigerriones. Their name was preserved in that of the district of Bigorre, now the department of the Hautes-Pyrénées. Their chief town was Turba, now Tarbes. [3034] By calling the Tarbelli _Quatuorsignani_, he seems to imply that their chief town was a place garrisoned by four maniples of soldiers, each with a _signum_ or standard. Aquæ Tarbellicæ was their chief town, the modern Acqs or Dax, in the S.W. of the department of the Landes. [3035] Their chief town was probably garrisoned by six _signa_ or maniples. Cocosa, or Coequosa, as it is written in the Antonine Itinerary, is the first place on a road from Aquæ Tarbellicæ or Dax to Burdegala or Bordeaux, now called Marensin. Their locality was in the southern part of the department of the Landes, the inhabitants of which are still divided into two classes, the Bouges, those of the north, or of the Tête de Buch; and the Cousiots, those of the south. [3036] Their locality is unknown. [3037] D’Anville would read “Onobusates,” and thinks that they dwelt in the district called Nébousan, in the department of the Hautes Pyrénées. He is also of opinion that their town stood on the site of the modern Cioutat, between the rivers Adour and Neste. [3038] They occupied the southern part of the department of the Gironde. [3039] From them Hardouin suggests that Moneins, in the department of the Basses Pyrénées, takes its name. [3040] D’Anville is of opinion that they inhabited and gave name to the Vallée d’Ossun, between the Pyrenees and the city of Oléron in the department of the Basses Pyrénées. [3041] D’Anville places them in the Vallée de Soule, in the department of the Basses Pyrénées. [3042] From them Campon, a place in the department of the Hautes Pyrénées, is supposed to have received its name. [3043] Biscarosse, not far from Tête de Buch in the department of the Landes, is supposed to derive its name from this tribe. [3044] Nothing whatever is known of them. [3045] The more general reading is “Sassumini.” Ansart suggests that the town of Sarrum, between Cognac and Périgueux, in the department of the Dordogne, may have received its name from them. [3046] Ansart suggests that Rieumes, in the department of the Haute Garonne, occupies the site of Ryesium, their chief town, mentioned by Ptolemy. [3047] They are supposed to have given name to Tournay, in the department of the Hautes Pyrénées. [3048] Supposed to be the same as the Consuarini, mentioned in B. iii. c. 5. [3049] They probably gave name to Auch, in the department of Gers. [3050] Their chief town occupied the site of Euse or Eause, in the department of Gers. [3051] Their locality is marked by Soz, in the department of the Lot-et-Garonne. [3052] Or “Oscidates of the Plains.” They probably gave name to Ossun, two miles from Tarbes, in the department of the Hautes Pyrénées. [3053] From them the village of Cestas, three leagues from Bordeaux, in the department of the Gironde, is supposed to derive its name. [3054] The village of Tursan, in the department of the Landes, probably derived its name from this tribe. [3055] Their town was Cossio, afterwards Vasates, now Bazas, in the department of the Gironde. [3056] The site of the Vassei and the Sennates appears to be unknown. [3057] D’Anville is of opinion that this tribe gave name to Aisenay or Azenay, a village four leagues distant from Bourbon-Vendée, in the department of La Vendée. [3058] They occupied the district formerly known as Berry, but now the departments of the Indre, the Cher, and the west of the department of the Allier. Their chief town was Avaricum, now Bourges. [3059] They inhabited the district formerly known as the Limosin, now the departments of the Creuse, the Haute Vienne, and the Corrèze. Their chief town was Augustoritum, afterwards Lemovices, now Limoges. [3060] They occupied the district formerly known as Auvergne, forming the present department of the Allier, and the southern part of the Puy de Dôme and the Cantal. Augustonemetum was their chief town, now Clermont. [3061] Situate in the district formerly known as Gevaudan, now the department of La Lozère. Their chief town stood on the site of the present small town of Javoulx, four leagues from Mende. [3062] They are supposed to have occupied the former district of Rouergue, now known as the department of Aveyron. Their chief town was Segodunum, afterwards Ruteni, now known as Rhodez. [3063] They occupied the former district of Querci, the present department of Lot and Lot-et-Garonne. Divona, afterwards Cadurci, now Cahors, was their principal town. [3064] According to Ptolemy their town was Aginnum, probably the modern Agen, in the present department of Lot-et-Garonne. “Antobroges,” however, is the more common reading. [3065] They occupied the district formerly known as Périgord, in the department of the Dordogne; their town was Vesanna, afterwards Petrocori, now Périgueux. [3066] Ansart says they are about 200 in number, consisting of Belle Isle, Groaix, Houat, Hoedic, and others. Also probably Morbihan. [3067] The Isle of Oleron, the fountain-head of the maritime laws of Europe. [3068] He means to say that it gradually increases in breadth after leaving the narrow neck of the Pyrenees and approaching the confines of Lusitania. [3069] B. iii. c. 3. [3070] From Ruscino to Gades. [3071] In the province now known as Guipuzcoa. [3072] Supposed to be the present Cabo de la Higuera. [3073] Probably inhabiting the eastern part of the provinces of Biscay and Alava, the eastern portion of Navarre, and, perhaps, a part of the province of Guipuzcoa. [3074] According to Hardouin the modern San Sebastian occupies the site of their town. [3075] On the same site as the modern Bermeo, according to Mannert. Hardouin thinks, however, and with greater probability, that it was situate at the mouth of the river Orio. [3076] D’Anville considers this to be the site of the city of Bermeo. [3077] Poinsinet thinks that this is Flavio in Bilbao, D’Anville calls it Portugalette, and Mannert thinks that it is the same as Santander, with which opinion Ansart agrees. [3078] According to Ptolemy, the Cantabri possessed the western part of the province of La Montana, and the northern parts of the provinces of Palencia and Toro. [3079] Most probably the present Rio de Suancès, by Mannert called the Saya, into which the Besanga flows. Hardouin however calls it the Nervio. [3080] Ansart suggests that this is the modern San Vicente de la Barquera. If the river Sauga is the same with the Suancès, this cannot be the port of Santander, as has been suggested. [3081] Or Ebro. [3082] According to Ansart, this is either the modern Ensenada de Ballota or else the Puerta de Pô. [3083] According to Ansart, the Orgenomesci occupied the same territory which Ptolemy has assigned to the Cantabri in general. See Note [3078] above. [3084] Hardouin takes this to be Villaviciosa. Ansart thinks that Ria de Cella occupies its site. [3085] They are supposed to have occupied the greater part of the principality of the Asturias and the province of Leon. [3086] Hardouin and Mannert consider this to be identical with Navia or Nava, six miles to the east of Oviedo, an obscure place in the interior. Ansart however would identify it with Villaviciosa. [3087] No doubt the headland now known as the Cabo de Penas. [3088] Now Lugo in Gallicia. [3089] Supposed by Ansart to be the Rio Caneiro, into which the Rio Labio discharges itself. [3090] Supposed by Ansart to have dwelt in the vicinity of the Celtic promontory, now Cabo de Finisterra or Cape Finisterre. Of the Egovarri and Iadoni nothing whatever is known. [3091] Their towns are mentioned by Ptolemy as being situate on a bay near Nerium or the promontory of Cape Finisterre. [3092] Mannert thinks that the Nelo is the same as the Rio Allones; the Florius seems not to have been identified. [3093] The inhabitants of Cape Finisterre. [3094] Dwelling on the banks of the river which from them takes its modern name of Tambre. [3095] Mannert and Ansart are of opinion that this peninsula was probably the modern Cabo Taurinan or Cabo Villano, most probably the latter. [3096] On the occasion probably of his expedition against the Cantabri. [3097] Their towns, Iria Flavia and Lacus Augusti, lay in the interior, on the sites of the present Santiago de Compostella and Lugo. [3098] Probably the modern Noya. [3099] They are supposed to have occupied the district in which the warm springs are found, which are known as Caldas de Contis and Caldas de Rey. [3100] It is suggested by Ansart that the islands here meant are those called Carreira, at the mouth of the river Ulla, and the Islas de Ons, at the mouth of the Tenario. [3101] See B. iii. c. 4. [3102] Inhabiting the vicinity of the modern Pontevedra. [3103] According to Ptolemy also their town was Tudæ, the modern Tuy. [3104] The modern Islas de Seyas or of Bayona. [3105] The town of Bayona, about six leagues from the mouth of the river Minho. [3106] The Minho. [3107] They occupied the tract of country lying between the rivers, and known as Entre Douro y Minho. [3108] Now Braga on the Cavado. [3109] The Lima. [3110] The river Douro. [3111] See B. iii. c. 3. [3112] Both lead, properly so called, and tin. [3113] In a great degree corresponding with modern Portugal, except that the latter includes the tract of country between the Minho and Douro. [3114] To distinguish them from the nation of the same name sprung from them, and occupying the Farther Spain. (B. iii. c. 3.) The Pæsuri occupied the site of the present towns of Lamego and Arouca. [3115] The modern Vouga, which runs below the town of Aveiro, raised from the ruins of ancient Talabrica. [3116] Agueda, which, according to Hardouin, is the name of both the river and the town. [3117] Coimbra, formerly Condeja la Veja. [3118] Leiria is supposed to occupy its site. [3119] According to Hardouin, the modern Ebora de Alcobaza, ten leagues from Leiria. [3120] The modern Cabo de la Roca, seven leagues from Lisbon. [3121] Pliny, in C. 34, places the Arrotrebæ, belonging to the Conventus of Lucus Augusti, about the Promontorium Celticum, which, if not the same as the Nerium (or Cape Finisterre) of the others, is evidently in its immediate neighbourhood; but he confuses the whole matter by a very curious error. He mentions a promontory called Artabrum as the headland _at the N.W. extremity of Spain_; the coast on the one side of it looking to the north and the Gallic Ocean, on the other to the west and the Atlantic Ocean. But he considers this promontory to be the west _headland of the estuary of the Tagus_, and adds, that some called it _Magnum Promontorium_, or the “Great Promontory,” and others Olisiponense, from the city of Olisipo, or Lisbon. He assigns, in fact, all the west coast of Spain, down to the mouth of the Tagus, to the north coast, and, instead of being led to detect his error by the resemblance of name between his Artabrum Promontorium and his Arrotrebæ (the Artabri of his predecessors, Strabo and Mela), he perversely finds fault with those who had placed above the promontory Artabrum, a people of the same name who never were there. [3122] On the site of which the present city of Lisbon stands. [3123] See note [3121] in the preceding page. [3124] See note [3121]. [3125] See note [3116] in the preceding page. [3126] Among these is Pomponius Mela, who confounds the river Limia, mentioned in the last chapter, with the Æminius, or Agueda. [3127] Now the river Mondego. [3128] See B. xxxiii. c. 21. [3129] Now Cape St. Vincent. [3130] Pliny continues his error here, in taking part of the western side of Spain for the north, and part of the southern coast for the western. [3131] B. iii. c. 2. [3132] With the Vettones, situate in the province of the Alentejo. See B. iii. c. 3. [3133] In the present province of Algarve. [3134] Now Lisbon. Both Strabo, Solinus, and Martianus Capella make mention of a story that Ulysses came to Spain and founded this city. [3135] See B. viii. c. 67 of the present work. [3136] According to Hardouin, followed by D’Anville and Uckert, this place gives name to Alcazar do Sal, nearly midway between Evora and the sea-shore. Mannert says Setuval, which D’Anville however supposes to be the ancient Cetobriga. [3137] On its site stands Santiago de Cacem, nearly midway between Lisbon and Cape St. Vincent. [3138] Or the “Wedge,” generally supposed to be Cabo de Santa Maria. Ansart however thinks that it is the Punta de Sagres, near Cape St. Vincent. Pliny’s words indeed seem to imply a closer proximity than that of Capes St. Vincent and Santa Maria. [3139] According to Hardouin, the modern Estombar; according to D’Anville, in the vicinity of Faro; but ten leagues from that place, according to Mannert. [3140] Hardouin and D’Anville are of opinion that Tavira occupies its site. [3141] Now Mertola, on the river Guadiana. [3142] Now Merida, on the Guadiana. A colony of veterans (Emeriti) was planted there by Augustus. [3143] Now Medellin, in the province of Estremadura. [3144] Pax Julia, or Pax Augusta, in the country of the Turduli, or Turdetani; now Beja, in the province of the Alentejo. [3145] Now Alcantara, in the province of Estremadura. [3146] Now Truxillo, so called from Turris Julia. [3147] Now Caceres. [3148] Now called Santarem, from Saint Irene, the Virgin. [3149] “The Garrison of Julius.” [3150] “The Success of Julius.” [3151] Evora, between the Guadiana and the Tagus. [3152] “The Liberality of Julius.” [3153] B. iii. c. 3. [3154] Hardouin takes Augustobriga to have stood on the site of Villar del Pedroso on the Tagus. Other writers think that it is represented by the present Ponte del Arcobispo. [3155] From Ammia, now Portalegre, on the frontier of Portugal. The sites of Arabrica and Balsa do not appear to have been ascertained. [3156] Capera stood on the site now called Las Ventas de Capara, between Alcantara and Coria. The site of Cæsarobrica has not been ascertained. [3157] Coria, in Estremadura, probably occupies the site of Caura. [3158] Hardouin suggests that the modern Tomar occupies the site of Concordia. [3159] Mannert is of opinion that the city of Lancia was situate in the north of Lusitania, on the river Durius, or Douro, near the modern Zamora. [3160] To distinguish them from the Mirobrigenses, surnamed Turduli, mentioned in B. iii. c. 3. Some writers think that this Mirobriga is the present Ciudad Rodrigo; but Ambrose Morales takes it to be the place called Malabriga, in the vicinity of that city. [3161] The name of Medubriga was afterwards Aramenha, of which Hardouin says the ruins only were to be seen. They were probably called _Plumbarii_, from lead mines in their vicinity. [3162] According to Hardouin, Ocelum was in the vicinity of the modern Capara. [3163] From Cape de Creuz to the Promontory between the cities of Fontarabia and Saint Sebastian. [3164] From the Greek κασσίτερος, “tin.” It is generally supposed that the “Tin Islands” were the Scilly Isles, in the vicinity of Cornwall. At the same time the Greek and Roman geographers, borrowing their knowledge from the accounts probably of the Phœnician merchants, seem to have had a very indistinct notion of their precise locality, and to have thought them to be nearer to Spain than to Britain. Thus we find Strabo, in B. iii., saying, that “the Cassiterides are ten in number, lying near each other in the ocean, towards the north _from the haven of the Artabri_.” From a comparison of the accounts, it would almost appear that the ancient geographers confused the Scilly Islands with the Azores, as those, who enter into any detail, attribute to the Cassiterides the characteristics almost as much of the Azores and the sea in their vicinity, as of the Scilly Islands. [3165] Cape Finisterre. [3166] Or the “Islands of the Blest.” We cannot do better than quote a portion of the article on this subject in Dr. Smith’s “Dictionary of Ancient Geography.” “‘Fortunatæ Insulæ’ is one of those geographical names whose origin is lost in mythic darkness, but which afterwards came to have a specific application, so closely resembling the old mythical notion, as to make it almost impossible to doubt that that notion was based, in part at least, on some vague knowledge of the regions afterwards discovered. The earliest Greek poetry places the abode of the happy departed spirits far beyond the entrance of the Mediterranean, at the extremity of the earth, and upon the shores of the river Oceanus, or in islands in its midst; and Homer’s poetical description of the place may be applied almost word for word to those islands in the Atlantic, off the west coast of Africa, to which the name was given in the historical period. (Od. iv. l. 563, _seq._) ‘There the life of mortals is most easy; there is no snow, nor winter, nor much rain, but Ocean is ever sending up the shrill breathing breezes of Zephyrus to refresh men.’ Their delicious climate, and their supposed identity of situation, marked out the Canary Islands, the Madeira group, and the Azores, as worthy to represent the Islands of the Blest. In the more specific sense, however, the name was applied to the two former groups; while, in its widest application, it may have even included the Cape de Verde Islands, its extension being in fact adapted to that of maritime discovery.” Pliny gives a further description of them in B. vi. c. 37. [3167] The strait between the island and the mainland is now called the River of Saint Peter. The circuit of the island, as stated by Pliny, varies in the MSS. from fifteen to twenty-five miles, and this last is probably correct. [3168] Julius Cæsar, on his visit to the city of Gades, during the Civil War in Spain, B.C. 49, conferred the citizenship of Rome on all the citizens of Gades. Under Augustus it became a _municipium_, with the title of ‘Augusta urbs Julia Gaditana.’ The modern city of Cadiz is built upon its site. [3169] Or the Island of Venus. [3170] From the Greek word κότινος, “an olive-tree.” [3171] If Gades was not the same as Tartessus (probably the Tarshish of Scripture), its exact locality is a question in dispute. Most ancient writers place it at the mouth of the river Bætis, while others identify it, and perhaps with more probability, with the city of Carteia, on Mount Calpe, the Rock of Gibraltar. The whole country west of Gibraltar was called Tartessis. See B. iii. c. 3. [3172] Or more properly ‘Agadir,’ or ‘Hagadir.’ It probably received this name, meaning a ‘hedge,’ or ‘bulwark,’ from the fact of its being the chief Phœnician colony outside of the Pillars of Hercules. [3173] Of Erythræa, or Erytheia. The monster Geryon, or Geryones, fabled to have had three bodies, lived in the fabulous Island of Erytheia, or the “Red Isle,” so called because it lay under the rays of the setting sun in the west. It was originally said to be situate off the coast of Epirus, but was afterwards identified either with Gades or the Balearic islands, and was at all times believed to be in the distant west. Geryon was said to have been the son of Chrysaor, the wealthy king of Iberia. [3174] Alluding to B. iii. c. 6. From Rhegium to the Alps. But _there_ the reading is 1020. [3175] Meaning Gessoriacum, the present Boulogne. He probably calls it _Britannicum_, from the circumstance that the Romans usually embarked there for the purpose of crossing over to Britain. [3176] The present Santen in the Duchy of Cleves. [3177] See end of B. iii. [3178] See end of B. ii. [3179] See end of B. iii. [3180] See end of B. iii. [3181] See end of B. iii. [3182] See end of B. ii. [3183] See end of B. iii. [3184] See end of B. iii. [3185] See end of B. iii. [3186] See end of B. ii. [3187] See end of B. iii. [3188] See end of B. iii. [3189] Ateius, surnamed _Prætextatus_, and also Philologus, which last name he assumed to indicate his learning, was born at Athens, and was one of the most celebrated grammarians of Rome, in the latter part of the first century B.C. He was originally a freedman of the jurist Ateius Capito, by whom he was described as “a rhetorician among grammarians, and a grammarian among rhetoricians.” He was on terms of intimacy with Sallust the historian, and Asinius Pollio. It is supposed that he assisted Sallust in the compilation of his history; but to what extent is not known. But few of his numerous commentaries were extant even in the time of Suetonius. [3190] A native of Megalopolis in Arcadia, born about B.C. 204. He was trained probably in political knowledge and the military art under Philopœmen, and was sent, as a prisoner to Rome, with others, to answer the charge of not aiding the Romans in their war against Perseus. Here, by great good fortune, he secured the friendship of Scipio Africanus, with whom he was present at the destruction of Carthage. His history is one of the most valuable works that has come down to us from antiquity. [3191] Of Miletus, one of the earliest and most distinguished Greek historians and geographers. He lived about the 65th Olympiad, or B.C. 520. A few fragments, quoted, are all that are left of his historical and geographical works. There is little doubt that Herodotus extensively availed himself of this writer’s works, though it is equally untrue that he has transcribed whole passages from him, as Porphyrius has ventured to assert. [3192] Of Mitylene, supposed to have flourished about B.C. 450. He appears to have written numerous geographical and historical works, which, with the exception of a considerable number of fragments, are lost. [3193] Of Sigæum, a Greek historian, contemporary with Herodotus. He wrote a history of Greece, and several other works, all of which, with a few unimportant exceptions, are lost. [3194] See end of B. ii. [3195] See end of B. ii. [3196] A Rhodian by birth. He was admiral of the fleet of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who reigned from B.C. 285 to 247. He wrote a work “On Harbours,” in ten books, which was copied by Eratosthenes, and is frequently quoted by ancient writers. Strabo also says that he composed poetry. [3197] See end of B. ii. [3198] Of Cumæ, or Cymæ, in Ionia. He flourished about B.C. 408. He studied under Isocrates, and gained considerable fame as a historian. Though anxious to disclose the truth, he has been accused of sometimes forcing his authorities to suit his own views. Of his history of Greece, and his essays on various subjects, a few fragments only survive. [3199] A grammarian of Mallus, in Cilicia. He lived in the time of Ptolemy Philopater, and resided at Pergamus, under the patronage of Eumenes II. and Attalus II. In his grammatical system he made a strong distinction between _criticism_ and _grammar_, the latter of which sciences he regarded as quite subordinate to the former. Of his learned commentaries on the Iliad and the Odyssey, only a few fragments have come down to us. [3200] See end of B. ii. [3201] Of Cyrene, an Alexandrian grammarian and poet. He flourished at Alexandria, whither Ptolemy Philadelphus had invited him to a place in the Museum. Of his Hymns and Epigrams many are still extant. His Elegies, which were of considerable poetical merit, with the exception of a few fragments, have all perished. Of his numerous other works in prose, not one is extant in an entire state. [3202] See end of B. ii. [3203] Probably Apollodorus of Artemita, in Mesopotamia. It is probably to him that a Treatise on Islands and Cities has been ascribed by Tzetzes, as also a History of the Parthians, and a History of Pontus. [3204] Probably the author of that name, who wrote the History of Cyzicus, is the person here referred to. He is called by Athenæus both a Babylonian and a Cyzican. His work is entirely lost; but it appears to have been extensively read, and is referred to by Cicero and other ancient writers. [3205] Of Neapolis. He wrote a History of Hannibal, and to him has been ascribed a Description of the Universe, of which a fragment still survives. [3206] Of Tauromenium, in Sicily; a celebrated historian, who flourished about the year B.C. 300. He was banished from Sicily by Agathocles, and passed his exile at Athens. He composed a History of Sicily, from the earliest times to the year B.C. 264. The value of his history has been gravely attacked by Polybius; but there is little doubt that it possessed very considerable merit. Of this, and other works of Timæus, only a few fragments survive. [3207] A Greek historian; a native of Lesbos. When he lived is unknown. Dionysius, of Halicarnassus, has borrowed from him a portion of his account of the Pelasgians. He is said to have been the author of the notion that the Tyrrhenians, in consequence of their wanderings after they left their original settlement, got the name of πελαργοὶ, or “storks.” He is supposed to have written a History of Lesbos, as also a work called “Historical Paradoxes.” [3208] See end of B. iii. [3209] See end of B. iii. [3210] Of this author nothing whatever seems to be known. [3211] Of Miletus, born B.C. 610. One of the earliest philosophers of the Ionian school, and said to be a pupil of Thales. Unless Pherecydes of Scyros be an exception, he was the first author of a philosophical treatise in Greek prose. Other writings are ascribed to him by Suidas; but, no doubt, on insufficient grounds. Of his treatise, which seems to have contained summary statements of his opinions, no remains exist. [3212] Of this writer nothing whatever is known, beyond the fact that, from his name, he seems to have been a native of Mallus, in Cilicia. [3213] It seems impossible to say which, out of the vast number of the authors who bore this name, is the one here referred to. It is not improbable that Dionysius of Chalcis, a Greek historian who lived before the Christian era, is meant. He wrote a work on the Foundation of Towns, in five books, which is frequently referred to by the ancients. It is not probable that the author of the Periegesis, or “Description of the World,” is referred to, as that book bears internal marks of having been compiled in the third or fourth century of the Christian era. [3214] Of Miletus. He was the author of the “Milesiaca,” a romance of licentious character, which was translated into Latin by L. Cornelius Sisenna. He is looked upon as the inventor of the Greek romance, and the title of his work is supposed to have given rise to the term _Milesian_, as applied to works of fiction. [3215] A Greek author, of whom nothing is known, except that Pliny, and after him Solinus, refer to him as the authority for the statement that Eubœa was originally called Chalcis, from the fact of (χαλκὸς) copper being first discovered there. [3216] Probably Menæchmus of Sicyon, who wrote a book on Actors, a History of Alexander the Great, and a book on Sicyon. Suidas says that he flourished in the time of the successors of Alexander. [3217] When he flourished is unknown. He is said by Hyginus to have written a History of the Island of Naxos. [3218] He lived after the time of Alexander the Great; but his age is unknown. He wrote a book, περὶ νόστων, on the returns of the Greeks from their various expeditions, an account of Delos, a History of Alexander the Great, and other works, all of which have perished. [3219] Of Heraclæa, in Pontus. He was a pupil of Plato, and, after him, of Aristotle. His works upon philosophy, history, mathematics, and other subjects, were very numerous; but, unfortunately, they are nearly all of them lost. He wrote a Treatise upon Islands, and another upon the Origin of Cities. [3220] A geographical writer, of whom nothing further is known. [3221] The Greek historian, the disciple of Socrates, deservedly styled the “Attic Bee.” His principal works are the Anabasis, or the History of the Expedition of the younger Cyrus and the Retreat of the Ten Thousand; the Hellenica, or History of Greece, from the time when that of Thucydides ends to the battle of Mantinea, B.C. 362; and the Cyropædia, or Education of Cyrus. The greater portion of his works is now lost. [3222] See end of B. ii. [3223] See end of B. ii. [3224] There were two physicians of this name, one of Catana, in Sicily, the other of Dyrrhachium, in Illyricum, who, like his namesake, was the author of numerous works. It is doubtful, however, whether Pliny here refers to either of those authors. [3225] A Greek historian, quoted by Dionysius of Halicarnassus. If the same person as the father of the historian Nymphis, he must have lived in the early part of the second century B.C. He wrote a work on Islands, and another entitled Χρόνοι, or Chronicles. [3226] A Greek geographer, who seems to have written an account of Cyprus. [3227] He is quoted by Strabo, Athenæus, and the Scholiasts; but all that is known of him is, that he wrote a work on Thessaly, Æolia, Attica, and Arcadia. [3228] He wrote a work relative to Miletus; but nothing further is known of him. [3229] See end of B. ii. [3230] Probably a writer on geography, of whom no particulars are known. [3231] See end of B. ii. [3232] Not reckoning under that appellation the country of Egypt, which was more generally looked upon as forming part of Asia. Josephus informs us that Africa received its name from Ophir, great-grandson of Abraham and his second wife, Keturah. [3233] ‘Castella,’ fortified places, erected for the purpose of defence; not towns formed for the reception of social communities. [3234] The Emperor Caligula, who, in the year 41 A.D., reduced the two Mauritanias to Roman provinces, and had King Ptolemy, the son of Juba, put to death. [3235] Now Cape Spartel. By Scylax it is called Hermæum, and by Ptolemy and Strabo Cote, or Coteis. Pliny means “extreme,” with reference to the sea-line of the Mediterranean, in a direction due west. [3236] Mentioned again by Pliny in B. xxxii. c. 6. Lissa was so called, according to Bochart, from the Hebrew or Phœnician word _liss_, ‘a lion.’ At the present day there is in this vicinity a headland called the ‘Cape of the Lion.’ Bochart thinks that the name ‘Cotta,’ or ‘Cotte,’ was derived from the Hebrew _quothef_, a ‘vine-dresser.’ [3237] The modern Tangier occupies its site. It was said to have derived its name from Tinge, the wife of Antæus, the giant, who was slain by Hercules. His tomb, which formed a hill, in the shape of a man stretched out at full length, was shown near the town of Tingis to a late period. It was also believed, that whenever a portion of the earth covering the body was taken away, it rained until the hole was filled up again. Sertorius is said to have dug away a portion of the hill; but, on discovering a skeleton sixty cubits in length, he was struck with horror, and had it immediately covered again. Procopius says, that the fortress of this place was built by the Canaanites, who were driven by the Jews out of Palestine. [3238] It has been supposed by Salmasius and others of the learned, that Pliny by mistake here attributes to Claudius the formation of a colony which was really established by either Julius Cæsar or Augustus. It is more probable, however, that Claudius, at a later period, ordered it to be called “Traducta Julia,” or “the removed Colony of Julia,” in remembrance of a colony having proceeded thence to Spain in the time of Julius Cæsar. Claudius himself, as stated in the text, established a colony here. [3239] Its ruins are to be seen at Belonia, or Bolonia, three Spanish miles west of the modern Tarifa. [3240] At this point Pliny begins his description of the western side of Africa. [3241] Now Arzilla, in the territory of Fez. Ptolemy places it at the mouth of the river Zileia. It is also mentioned by Strabo and Antoninus. [3242] Now El Araiche, or Larache, on the river Lucos. [3243] Mentioned again in B. ix. c. 4 and c. 5 of the present Book, where Pliny speaks of them as situate elsewhere. The story of Antæus is further enlarged upon by Solinus, B. xxiv.; Lucan, B. iv. l. 589, _et seq._; and Martianus Capella, B. vi. [3244] Now the Lucos. [3245] Hardouin is of opinion, that he here has a hit at Gabinius, a Roman author, who, in his Annals of Mauritania, as we learn from Strabo (B. xvii.), inserted numerous marvellous and incredible stories. [3246] When we find Pliny accusing other writers of credulity, we are strongly reminded of the proverb, ‘Clodius accusat mœchos.’ [3247] Or the “Julian Colony on the Plains.” Marcus suggests that the word _Babba_ may possibly have been derived from the Hebrew or Phœnician word _beab_ or _beaba_, “situate in a thick forest.” Poinsinet takes Babba to be the Beni-Tuedi of modern times. D’Anville thinks that it is Naranja. [3248] There is considerable difficulty about the site of Banasa. Moletius thinks that it is the modern Fanfara, or Pefenfia as Marmol calls it. D’Anville suggests that it may be Old Mahmora, on the coast; but, on the other hand, Ptolemy places it among the _inland_ cities, assigning to it a longitude at some distance from the sea. Pliny also appears to make it inland, and makes its distance from Lixos seventy-five miles, while he makes the mouth of the Subur to be fifty miles from the same place. [3249] From both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean. According to Poinsinet, Volubilis was the synonym of the African name _Fez_, signifying a ‘band,’ or ‘swathe.’ Mannert conjectures that it is the same as the modern Walili, or Qualili. D’Anville calls it Guulili, and says that there are some remains of antiquity there. [3250] The modern Subu, or Sebou. D’Anville is of opinion that this river has changed a part of its course since the time of Pliny. [3251] Most probably the modern Sallee stands on its site. [3252] Not in reference to the fact of its existence, but the wonderful stories which were told respecting it. [3253] Like others of the ancient writers, Pliny falls into the error of considering Atlas, not as an extensive chain of mountains, but as an isolated mountain, surrounded by sands. With reference to its height, the whole range declines considerably from west to east; the highest summits in Morocco reaching near 13,000 feet, in Tunis not 5000. [3254] Or “Goat-Pans;” probably another name for the Fauni, or Fauns. More usually, there is but one Ægipan mentioned,—the son, according to Hyginus, of Zeus or Jupiter, and a goat,—or of Zeus and Æga, the wife of Pan. As a foundation for one part of the stories here mentioned, Brotier suggests the fact, that as the Kabyles, or mountain tribes, are in the habit of retiring to their dwellings and reposing during the heat of the day, it would not, consequently, be improbable that they would devote the night to their amusements, lighting up fires, and dancing to the music of drums and cymbals. [3255] Under his name we still possess a “Periplus,” or account of a voyage round a part of Libya. The work was originally written in Punic, but what has come down to us is a Greek translation. We fail, however, to discover any means by which to identify him with any one of the many Carthaginians of the same name. Some writers call him king, and others _dux_, or _imperator_ of the Carthaginians; from which we may infer, that he held the office of _suffetes_. This expedition has by some been placed as far back as the time of the Trojan war, or of Hesiod, while others again place it as late as the reign of Agathocles. Falconer, Bougainville, and Gail, place the time of Hanno at about B.C. 570, while other critics identify him with Hanno, the father or son of Hamilcar, who was killed at Himera, B.C. 480. Pliny often makes mention of him; more particularly see B. viii. c. 21. [3256] M. Gosselin thinks that the spot here indicated was at the south-western extremity of the Atlas range, and upon the northern frontier of the Desert of Zahara. [3257] Supposed by some geographers to be the same as that now called the Ommirabih, or the Om-Rabya. This is also thought by some to have been the same river as is called by Pliny, in p. 381, by the name of Asana; but the distances do not agree. [3258] Supposed by Gosselin to be the present bay of Al-cazar, on the African coast, in the Straits of Cadiz; though Hardouin takes it to be the κόλπος ἐμπορικὸς, or “Gulf of Commerce,” of Strabo and Ptolemy. By first quoting from one, and then at a tangent from another, Pliny involves this subject in almost inextricable confusion. [3259] Probably the place called Thymiaterion in the Periplus of Hanno. [3260] The present Subu, and the river probably of Sallce, previously mentioned. [3261] The modern Mazagan, according to Gosselin. [3262] Cape Cantin, according to Gosselin; Cape Blanco, according to Marcus. [3263] Probably the Safi, Asafi, or Saffee of the present day. [3264] The river Tensift, which runs close to the city of Morocco, in the interior. [3265] The river Mogador of the present day. [3266] The modern river Sus, or Sous. [3267] The learned Gosselin has aptly remarked, that this cannot be other than an error, and that “ninety-six” is the correct reading, the Gulf of Sainte-Croix being evidently the one here referred to. [3268] Mount Barce seems to be here a name for the Atlas, or Daran chain. [3269] Supposed by Gosselin to be the present Cape Ger. [3270] The river Assa, according to Gosselin. There is also a river Suse placed here in the maps. [3271] These two tribes probably dwelt between the modern Capes Ger and Non. [3272] Marcus believes these to have been the ancestors of the present race of the Touaricks, while the Melanogætuli were the progenitors of the Tibbos, of a darker complexion, and more nearly resembling the negroes in bodily conformation. [3273] Supposed by Gosselin to be the present river Nun, or Non. According to Bochart, this river received its name from the Hebrew or Phœnician word _behemoth_ or _bamoth_, the name by which Job (xl. 15) calls the crocodile [or rather the hippopotamus]. Bochart, however, with Mannert, Bougainville, De Rennet, and De Heeren, is of opinion, that by this name the modern river Senegal is meant. Marcus is of opinion that it is either the Non or the modern Sobi. [3274] Marcus here observes, that from Cape Alfach, below Cape Non, there are no mountains, but continual wastes of sand, bordering on the sea-shore. Indeed there is no headland, of any considerable height, between Cape Sobi and Cape Bajador. [3275] “The Chariot of the Gods.” Marcus is of opinion that it is the modern Cape Verde; while, on the other hand, Gosselin takes it to be Cape Non. Brotier calls it Cape Ledo. [3276] In B. vi. c. 36, Pliny speaks of this promontory as the “Hesperian Horn,” and says that it is but four days’ sail from the Theon Ochema. Brotier identifies this promontory with the modern Cape Roxo. Marcus is of opinion that it was the same as Cape Non; but there is considerable difficulty in determining its identity. [3277] Alluding to Polybius; though, according to the reading which Sillig has adopted a few lines previously, Agrippa is the last author mentioned. Pliny has here mistaken the meaning of Polybius, who has placed Atlas midway between Carthage, from which he had set out, and the Promontory of Theon Ochema, which he reached. [3278] Ptolemy the son of Juba II. and Cleopatra, was summoned to Rome in the year A.D. 40, by Caligula, and shortly after put to death by him, his riches having excited the emperor’s cupidity. Previously to this, he had been on terms of strict alliance with the Roman people, who had decreed him a _toga picta_ and a sceptre, as a mark of their friendship. [3279] Ivory and citron-wood, or cedar, were used for the making and inlaying of the tables used by the Roman nobility. See B. xiii. c. 23. [3280] Supposed by some geographers to be the modern Wadi-Tensift. It has been also confounded with the Anatis (see note [3171], p. 369); while others again identify it with the Anidus. It is more commonly spelt ‘Asama.’ [3281] Or Phuth. It does not appear to have been identified. [3282] The range is still called by the name of Daran. [3283] The same general who afterwards conquered the Britons under Boadicea or Bonduca. While Proprætor in Mauritania under the Emperor Claudius, in the year A.D. 42, he defeated the Mauri who had risen in revolt, and advanced, as Pliny here states, as far as Mount Atlas. It is not known from what point Paulinus made his advance towards the Atlas range. Mannert and Marcus are of opinion that he set out from Sala, the modern Sallee, while Latreille, Malte Brun, and Walkenaer think that his point of departure was the mouth of the river Lixos. Sala was the most southerly town on the western coast of Africa that in the time of Pliny had submitted to the Roman arms. [3284] Some of the editions read ‘Niger’ here. Marcus suggests that that river may have been called ‘Niger’ by the Phœnician or Punic colonists of the western Mauritania, and ‘Ger’ or ‘Gar’ in another quarter. The same writer also suggests that the Sigilmessa was the river to which Paulinus penetrated on his march beyond Atlas. [3285] The Sigilmessa, according to Marmol, flows between several mountains which appear to be of a blackish hue. [3286] Bocchus however, the kinsman of Massinissa, had previously for some time reigned over both the Mauritanias, consisting of Mauritania Tingitana and Mauritania Cæsariana. [3287] See B. xxv. c. 7. 12, and B. xxvi. c. 8. [3288] Extending from the sea to the river Moluga, now called the Molucha and Molochath, or Malva and Malvana. [3289] From whom the Moors of the present day take their name. Marcus observes here, that though Pliny distinguishes the Mauri from the Gætuli, they essentially belonged to the same race and spoke the same language, the so-called Berber, and its dialects, the Schellou and the Schoviah. [3290] ‘Maurusii’ was the Greek name, ‘Mauri’ the Latin, for this people. Marcus suggests that Mauri was a synonym only for the Greek word _nomades_, ‘wanderers.’ [3291] As Marcus observes, Pliny is here greatly in error. On the inroads of Paulinus, the Mauri had retreated into the interior and taken refuge in the deserts of Zahara, whence they had again emerged in the time of the geographer Ptolemy. [3292] From the time of the second Punic War this people had remained in undisputed possession of the country situate between the rivers Molochath or Moluga and Ampsaga, which formed the Cæsarian Mauritania. Ptolemy speaks of finding some remains of them at Siga, a town situate on a river of the same name, and at which King Syphax had formerly resided. [3293] While Pomponius Mela does not make any difference between the Mauri and the Gætuli, Pliny here speaks of them as being essentially different. [3294] Derived, according to Marcus, from the Arabic compound _bani-our_, ‘child of nakedness,’ as equivalent to the Greek word _gymnetes_, by which name Pliny and other ancient writers designate the wandering naked races of Western Africa. [3295] The Autololes or, as Ptolemy calls them, the Autololæ, dwelt, it is supposed, on the western coast of Africa, between Cape Cantin and Cape Ger. Their city of Autolala or Autolalæ is one of Ptolemy’s points of astronomical observation, having the longest day thirteen hours and a half, being distant three hours and a half west of Alexandria, and having the sun vertical once a year, at the time of the winter solstice. Reichard takes it for the modern Agulon or Aquilon. [3296] The Æthiopian Daratitæ, Marcus says. [3297] The present Ceuta. [3298] They were so called from the circumstance, Marcus says, of their peaks being so numerous, and so strongly resembling each other. They are now called, according to D’Anville, ‘Gebel Mousa,’ which means “the Mountain of Apes,” an animal by which they are now much frequented, instead of by elephants as in Pliny’s time. [3299] Or Mediterranean. [3300] The modern Bedia, according to Olivarius, the Tasanel, according to Dupinet, and the Alamos or Kerkal, according to Ansart. Marcus says that it is called the Setuan, and is the largest stream on the northern shores of Western Africa. [3301] The modern Gomera according to Hardouin, the Nocor according to Mannert. [3302] The modern Melilla most probably. [3303] The modern Maluia. Antoninus calls it Malva, and Ptolemy Maloua. [3304] Its site is occupied by the modern Aresgol, according to Mariana, Guardia or Sereni according to Dupinet, Ned-Roma according to Mannert and D’Anville, and Tachumbrit according to Shaw. Marcus is inclined to be of the same opinion as the last-mentioned geographer. [3305] Now the city of Malaga. [3306] Mauritania Cæsariensis, or Cæsarian Mauritania, now forming the French province of Algiers. [3307] “Bogudiana;” from Bogud or Bogoas. The last king Bogud was deprived of his kingdom by Bocchus, king of Mauritania Cæsariensis, a warm partisan of Cæsar. [3308] Or the “Great Harbour,” now Arzeu according to D’Anville, and Mars-el-Kebir according to Marcus. [3309] The same river probably as the Malva or Malvana previously mentioned, the word _mulucha_ or _malacha_ coming from the Greek μολόχη, “a marsh mallow,” which _malva_, as a Latin word, also signifies. See p. 383. [3310] From the Greek word ξένος, “a stranger.” Pomponius Mela and Antoninus call this place Guiza, and Ptolemy Quisa. D’Anville places it on the right side of the river Malvana or Mulucha, and Shaw says that it was situate in the vicinity of the modern town of Oran. [3311] Now Marz-Agolet, or situate in its vicinity, according to Hardouin and Ansart, and the present Arzen, according to Marcus, where numerous remains of antiquity are found. [3312] Now Tenez, according to D’Anville, and Mesgraïm, according to Mannert; with which last opinion Marcus agrees. [3313] Ptolemy and Antoninus place this colony to the east of the Promontory of Apollo, and not the west as Pliny does. [3314] The present Cape Mestagan. [3315] According to Dupinet and Mannert, the modern Tenez occupies its site, Zershell according to Hardouin and Shaw, Vacur according to D’Anville and Ansart, and Algiers according to others. It is suggested by Marcus that the name Iol is derived from the Arabic verb _galla_, “to be noble” or “famous.” There is no doubt that the magnificent ruins at Zershell are those of Iol, and that its name is an abbreviation of Cæsarea Iol. [3316] Or New Town. [3317] Scylax calls it Thapsus; Ammianus Marcellinus, Tiposa. According to Mannert it was situate in the vicinity of the modern Damas. [3318] Or Icosium. It has been identified by inscriptions discovered by the French as standing on the same site as the modern Algiers. D’Anville, Mannert and others identify it with Scherchell or Zershell, thus placing it too far west. Mannert was evidently misled by an error in the Antonine Itinerary, whereby all the places along this coast are, for a considerable distance, thrown too far to the west; the researches however which followed the French conquest of the country have revealed inscriptions which completely set the question at rest. [3319] According to Mannert, this was situate on the modern Cape Arbatel. Marcus thinks that the Hebrew _ros_, or Arab _ras_, “a rock,” enters into the composition of the word. [3320] Now Hur according to D’Anville, Colcah according to Mannert. [3321] The modern Acor, according to Marcus. [3322] The modern Pedeles or Delys, according to Ortellius and Mannert, Tedles according to D’Anville. [3323] The modern Jigeli or Gigeri. It was probably in ancient times the emporium of the surrounding country. [3324] Destroyed, according to Hardouin, and probably by the incursions of the sea. At the mouth of the Ampsaga (now called the Wad-El-Kebir or Sufjimar, and higher up the Wadi Roumel) there is situate a small sea-port called Marsa Zeitoun. [3325] Near the present Mazuaa, according to Mannert. [3326] The modern Burgh, according to D’Anville and Mannert, but more probably considerably to the east of that place. [3327] The modern El-Herba, according to Mannert. [3328] Marcus suggests that this is the Chinalaph of Ptolemy, and probably the modern Schellif. [3329] The same that is called Savis by Ptolemy, who places Icosium on its banks. [3330] By Mela called the Vabar. Marcus supposes it to be the same as the modern Giffer. [3331] By Ptolemy called the Sisar; the Ajebbi of modern geographers, which falls into the Mediterranean, near the city of Budja. [3332] Brotier says that this reading is incorrect, and that 222 is the proper one, that being the true distance between the river Ampsaga or Wad-el-Kebir and the city of Cæsarea, the modern Zershell. [3333] It was not only Numidia that bore this name, but all the northern coast of Africa from the frontiers of the kingdom of Carthage near Hippo Regius to the Columns of Hercules. It was thus called from the Greek _metagonos_, a “descendant” or “successor;” as the Carthaginians established a number of small towns and villages on the coast, which were thus posterior in their origin to the large cities already founded there. [3334] Hardouin says that the Moors in the interior still follow the same usage, carrying their houses from pasture to pasture on waggons. [3335] Now Chollum or Collo. [3336] The modern Sgigada or Stora, according to Mannert, D’Anville, and Shaw. [3337] The modern Constantina occupies its site. Numerous remains of the ancient town are still discovered. Sitius was an officer who served under Cæsar, and obtained a grant of this place after the defeat of Juba. [3338] Called Urbs, or Kaff, according to D’Anville and Shaw; the latter of whom found an inscription there with the words _Ordo Siccensium_. [3339] Or ‘Royal Bulla’; which epithet shows that it was either a residence or a foundation of the kings of Numidia, and distinguishes it from a small place called Bulla Mensa, south of Carthage. Bulla Regia was four days’ journey south-west of Carthage, on a tributary of the river Bagrada, the valley of which is still called Wad-el-Boul. This place was one of the points of Ptolemy’s recorded astronomical observations, having its longest day fourteen hours and one-eighth, and being distant from Alexandria two hours to the west. [3340] The modern Tamseh, according to Shaw and Mannert, and Tagodet, according to D’Anville. [3341] Its ruins are south of the modern Bona. It received the name of _Regius_ or ‘Royal’ from being the residence of the Numidian kings. It was also famed as being the see of St. Augustine. It was a colony of Tyre, and stood on the bay now forming the Gulf of Bona. It was one of the most flourishing cities of Africa till it was destroyed by the Vandals A.D. 430. [3342] Now the Mafragg, according to Mannert. [3343] Still called Tabarca, according to Hardouin. [3344] Now the Zaina, according to Marcus. [3345] For the character of the Numidian marble, see Pliny, B. xxxvi. c. 7. [3346] Extending from the river Tusca, or Zaina, to the northern frontiers of Byzacium. It corresponds with the Turkish province or beylik of Tunis. [3347] He says this not only to distinguish it from Africa, considered as one-third of the globe, but also in contradistinction to the proconsular province of the Roman empire of the same name, which contained not only the province of Zeugitana, but also those of Numidia, Byzacium, and Tripolis. [3348] Candidum: now Ras-el-Abiad. [3349] The references to this headland identify it with Cape Farina, or Ras Sidi Ali-al-Mekhi, and not, as some have thought, the more westerly Cape Zibeeb or Ras Sidi Bou-Shoushe. Shaw however applies the name of Zibeeb to the former. [3350] Now Cape Bon, or Ras-Addar. [3351] More properly called Hippo Diarrhytus or Zaritus, a Tyrian colony, situate on a large lake which communicated with the sea, and received the waters of another lake. Its situation exposed it to frequent inundations, whence, as the Greeks used to state, the epithet διάῤῥυτος. It seems more probable however that this is the remnant of some Phœnician title, as the ancients were not agreed on the true form of the name, and of this uncertainty we have a further proof in the _Hippo Dirutus_ of our author. [3352] This is placed by Ptolemy to the south-east of Hippo, and near the southern extremity of Lake Sisar. [3353] This important city stood on the north part of the Carthaginian Gulf, west of the mouth of the Bagrada, and twenty-seven Roman miles N.W. of Carthage; but the site of its ruins at the modern Bou-Shater is now inland, in consequence of the changes made by the Bagrada in the coast-line. In the Third Punic war Utica took part with the Romans against Carthage, and was rewarded with the greater part of the Carthaginian territory. [3354] Now called the Mejerdah, and though of very inconsiderable size, the chief river of the Carthaginian territory. The main stream is formed by the union of two branches, the southern of which, the ancient Bagrada, is now called the Mellig, and in its upper course the Meskianah. The other branch is called the Hamiz. [3355] Or the “Cornelian Camp.” The spot where Cornelius Scipio Africanus the Elder first encamped, on landing in Africa, B.C. 204. Cæsar describes this spot, in his description of Curio’s operations against Utica, B. C. b. ii. c. 24, 25. This spot is now called Ghellah. [3356] This colony was first established by Caius Gracchus, who sent 6000 settlers to found on the site of Carthage the new city of Junonia. The Roman senate afterwards annulled this with the other acts of Gracchus. Under Augustus however the new city of Carthage was founded, which, when Strabo wrote, was as prosperous as any city in Africa. It was made, in place of Utica, which had favoured the Pompeian party, the seat of the proconsul of Old Africa. It stood on the peninsula terminated by Ras-Sidi-Bou-Said, Cape Carthage or Carthagena. As Gibbon has remarked, “The place might be unknown if some broken arches of an aqueduct did not guide the footsteps of the inquisitive traveller.” [3357] The original city of Carthage was called ‘Carthago Magna’ to distinguish it from New Carthage and Old Carthage, colonies in Spain. [3358] Now Rhades, according to Marcus. [3359] Marcus identifies it with the modern Gurtos. [3360] By the Greeks called ‘Aspis.’ It derived its Greek and Roman names from its site on a hill of a shield-like shape. It was built by Agathocles, the Sicilian, B.C. 310. In the first Punic war it was the landing-place of Manlius and Regulus, whose first action was to take it, B.C. 256. Its site is still known as Kalebiah, and its ruins are peculiarly interesting. The site of Misua is occupied by Sidi-Doud, according to Shaw and D’Anville. [3361] Shaw informs us that an inscription found on the spot designates this place as a colony, not a free city or town. Its present name is Kurbah. [3362] The present Nabal, according to D’Anville. [3363] Zeugitana extended from the river Tusca to Horrea-Cælia, and Byzacium from this last place to Thenæ. [3364] As sprung partly from the Phœnician immigrants, and partly from the native Libyans or Africans. [3365] Pliny says, B. xvii. c. 3, “A hundred and fifty fold.” From Shaw we learn that this fertility no longer exists, the fields producing not more than eight- or at most twelve-fold. [3366] The modern Lempta occupies its site. [3367] Originally a Phœnician colony, older than Carthage. It was the capital of Byzacium, and stood within the southern extremity of the Sinus Neapolitanus or Gulf of Hammamet. Trajan made it a colony, under the high-sounding name, as we gather from inscriptions, of _Colonia Concordia Ulpia Trajana Augusta Frugifera Hadrumetana_, or, as set forth on coins, _Colonia Concordia Julia Hadrumetana Pia_. The epithet _Frugifera_ refers to the fact that it was one of the chief sea-ports for the corn-producing country of Byzacium. It was destroyed by the Vandals, but restored by the Emperor Justinian under the name of Justiniana or Justinianopolis. The modern Sousa stands on its site; and but slight traces of the ancient city are to be found. [3368] Situate in the vicinity of the modern Monastir. [3369] Shaw discovered its ruins at the modern town of Demas. [3370] Now Taineh, according to D’Anville. This place formed the boundary between the proconsular province of Africa and the territory of the Numidian king Masinissa and his descendants. [3371] The present Mahometa, according to Marcus, El Mahres according to D’Anville. [3372] Now Cabès, according to D’Anville, giving name to the Gulf of Cabès. Marcus calls it Gaps. [3373] Now Tripoli Vecchio; also called Sabart according to D’Anville. [3374] Scipio Æmilianus, the son-in-law of Æmilius Paulus. [3375] Micipsa, the son of Masinissa, and his two legitimate brethren. Scipio having been left by Masinissa executor of his will, the sovereign power was divided by him between Micipsa and his two brethren Gulussa and Mastanabal. On this occasion also he separated Numidia from Zeugitana and Byzacium, by a long dyke drawn from Thenæ, due south, to the borders of the Great Desert, and thence in a north-westerly direction to the river Tusca. [3376] The Syrtes or ‘Quicksands’ are now called, the Lesser Syrtes the Gulf of Cabès, and the Greater the Gulf of Sydra. The country situate between the two Syrtes is called Tripoli, formerly Tripolis, a name which, according to Solinus, it owed to its three cities, Sabrata, Leptis, and Œa. [3377] Marcus observes with reference to this passage, that both Hardouin and Poinsinet have mistaken its meaning. They evidently think that Pliny is speaking here of a route to the Syrtes leading from the interior of Africa, whereas it is pretty clear that he is speaking of the dangers which attend those who approach it by the line of the sea-coast, as Cato did, on his march to Utica, so beautifully described by Lucan in his Ninth Book. This is no doubt the same route which was taken by the caravans on their passage from Lebida, the ancient Leptis, to Berenice in Cyrenaica. [3378] Those which we find at the middle of the coast bordering upon the Greater Syrtis, and which separate the mountains of Fezzan and Atlas from Cyrenaica and Barca. [3379] In its widest sense this name is applied to all the Libyan tribes inhabiting the Oases on the eastern part of the Great Desert, as the Gætulians inhabited its western part, the boundary between the two nations being drawn at the sources of the Bagrada and the mountain Usargala. In the stricter sense however, and in which the term must be here understood, the name ‘Garamantes’ denoted the people of Phazania, the modern Fezzan, which forms by far the largest oasis in the Grand Desert of Zahara. [3380] Augylæ, now Aujelah, was an oasis in the desert of Barca, in the region of Cyrenaica, about 3-1/2° south of Cyrene. It has been remarked that Pliny, here and in the Eighth Chapter of the present Book, in abridging the account given by Herodotus of the tribes of Northern Africa, has transferred to the Augylæ what that author really says of the Nasamones. This oasis forms one of the chief stations on the caravan route from Cairo to Fezzan. It is placed by Rennell in 30° 3′ North Lat. and 22° 46′ East Long., 180 miles south-east of Barca, 180 west by north of Siwah, the ancient Ammonium, and 426 east by north of Mourzouk. Later authorities, however, place the village of Aujelah in 29° 15′ North Lat. and 21° 55′ East Long. [3381] For an account of the Psylli see B. vii. c. 2. They probably dwelt in the vicinity of the modern Cape Mesurata. [3382] Now Lake Lynxama, according to Marcus. [3383] Marcus observes that in order properly to understand this passage we must remember that the ancients considered Africa as terminating north of the Equator, and imagined that from the Straits of Hercules the western coast of Africa ran, not towards the south-west, but slanted in a south-easterly direction to the Straits of Babelmandel. [3384] The modern Tripoli. [3385] A flourishing city with a mixed population of Libyans and Sicilians. It was at this place that Apuleius made his eloquent and ingenious defence against the charge of sorcery brought against him by his step-sons. According to some writers the modern Tripoli is built on its site, while other accounts make it to have been situate six leagues from that city. [3386] Now called the Wady-el-Quaham. [3387] Mannert is of opinion that this was only another name for the city of Leptis Magna or the “Greater Leptis” here mentioned by Pliny. There is little doubt that his supposition is correct. [3388] The more common reading is Taphra or Taphara. D’Anville identifies it with the town of Sfakes. [3389] Scylax identifies it with Neapolis or Leptis, and it is generally looked upon as being the same place as Sabrata or Old Tripoli. [3390] Now called Lebida. It was the birth-place of the Emperor Septimius Severus. It was almost destroyed by an attack from a Libyan tribe A.D. 366, and its ruin was completed by the invasion of the Arabs. Its ruins are considerable. [3391] “Men of sea complexion,” is the meaning of this Greek name. According to Marcus they dwelt between the Greater Leptis and the Lake Tritonis, at the present day called Schibkah-el-Loudeah. For a further account of the Lotophagi, see B. xiii. c. 32. [3392] Two brothers, citizens of Carthage, who in a dispute as to their respective territories with the people of Cyrene, submitted to be buried alive in the sand, at the boundary-line between the two countries. Sallust (Jugurthine War) is the main authority for the story. It is also related by Pomponius Mela, B. i. c. 7, and Valerius Maximus, B. v. c. 6, but from the Greek name of the brothers, meaning “lovers of praise,” it is doubtful whether the story is not of spurious origin. [3393] The Lake Tritonis mentioned in note [3391], p. 393. [3394] Now called El Hammah, according to Shaw. [3395] According to some accounts the goddess Pallas or Minerva was born on the banks of Lake Tritonis. [3396] The modern Cape of Tajuni. [3397] Now called Udina, according to Marcus. [3398] Now called Tabersole, according to Marcus. [3399] In the north of Byzacium, near the Bagrada and the confines of Numidia. It was the station of a Roman garrison, and considerable remains of it are still visible near the modern Zanfour. [3400] Called Cannopissæ by Ptolemy, who places it to the east of Tabraca. [3401] There is great doubt as to the correct orthography of these places, most of which can be no longer identified. [3402] According to Marcus the present Porto Tarina. [3403] Also called Achilla and Achulla, the ruins of which are to be seen at the modern El Aliah. It stood on the sea-coast of Byzacium, a little above the northern extremity of the Lesser Syrtis. It was a colony from the island of Melita, now Malta. [3404] Now called El-Jemma, according to Marcus. [3405] From it modern Tunis takes its name. [3406] The birth-place of St. Augustin. It was to the north-west of Hippo Regius. [3407] In the vicinity of this place, if it is the same as the Tigisis mentioned by Procopius, there were two columns to be seen in his day, upon which was written in the Phœnician language, “We fled from before the robber, Joshua the son of Nun.” [3408] There were two towns of this name in the proconsular province of Africa. The first was situate in the country of Zeugitana, five days’ journey west of Carthage, and it was here that Scipio defeated Hannibal. The other bore the surname of _Regia_ or Royal, from being the frequent residence of the Numidian kings. It lay in the interior, and at the present day its site bears the name of ‘Zowarin’ or ‘Zewarin.’ [3409] The ruins of Capsa still bear the name of Cafsa or Ghafsah. It was an important city in the extreme south of Numidia, situate in an oasis, in the midst of an arid desert abounding in serpents. In the Jugurthine war it was the treasury of Jugurtha, and was taken and destroyed by Marius; but was afterwards rebuilt and made a colony. [3410] They dwelt between the river Ampsaga or Wady-El-Kebir and the Tusca or Wady-Zain, the western boundary of the Carthaginian territory. [3411] Dwelling to the east of the mountain Zalycus, now known as the Wanashrise, according to Shaw. [3412] The ancients called by the name of ‘Gætulians’ all the people of Africa who dwelt south of the Mauritanias and Numidia, as far as the line which, according to their ideas, separated Africa from Æthiopia. [3413] The Quorra most probably of modern geographers. [3414] So called, as mentioned below, from its five principal cities. [3415] Where Jupiter Ammon or Hammon was worshiped under the form of a ram, the form he was said to have assumed when the deities were dispersed in the war with the Giants. Ancient Ammonium is the present oasis of Siwah in the Libyan Desert. [3416] The same that has been already mentioned in B. ii. c. 106. It is mentioned by Herodotus and Pomponius Mela. [3417] Previously called Hesperis or Hesperides. It was the most westerly city of Cyrenaica, and stood just beyond the eastern extremity of the Greater Syrtis, on a promontory called Pseudopenias, and near the river Lethon. Its historical importance only dates from the times of the Ptolemies, when it was named Berenice, after the wife of Ptolemy III. or Euergetes. Having been greatly reduced, it was fortified anew by the Emperor Justinian. Its ruins are to be seen at the modern Ben Ghazi. [3418] So called from Arsinoë, the sister of Ptolemy Philadelphus. Its earlier name was Taucheira or Teucheira, which name, according to Marcus, it still retains. [3419] Its ruins may still be seen at Tolmeita or Tolometa. It was situate on the N.W. coast of Cyrenaica, and originally bore the name of Barca. From which of the Ptolemies it took its name is not known. Its splendid ruins are not less than four miles in circumference. [3420] Its ruins are still to be seen, bespeaking its former splendour, at the modern Marsa Sousah. It was originally only the port of Cyrene, but under the Ptolemies it flourished to such an extent as to eclipse that city. It is pretty certain that it was the Sozusa of the later Greek writers. Eratosthenes was a native of this place. [3421] The chief city of Cyrenaica, and the most important Hellenic colony in Africa, the early settlers having extensively intermarried with wives of Libyan parentage. In its most prosperous times it maintained an extensive commerce with Greece and Egypt, especially in silphium or assafœtida, the plantations of which, as mentioned in the present chapter, extended for miles in its vicinity. Great quantities of this plant were also exported to Capua in Southern Italy, where it was extensively employed in the manufacture of perfumes. The scene of the ‘Rudens,’ the most picturesque (if we may use the term) of the plays of Plautus, is laid in the vicinity of Cyrene, and frequent reference is made in it to the extensive cultivation of silphium; a head of which plant also appears on the coins of the place. The philosophers Aristippus and Carneades were born here, as also the poet Callimachus. Its ruins, at the modern Ghrennah, are very extensive, and are indicative of its former splendour. [3422] In C. 1 of the present Book. It was only the poetical fancy of the Greeks that found the fabled gardens of the Hesperides in the fertile regions of Cyrenaica. Scylax distinctly mentions the gardens and the lake of the Hesperides in this vicinity, where we also find a people called Hesperidæ, or, as Herodotus names them, Euesperidæ. It was probably in consequence of this similarity of name, in a great degree, that the gardens of the Hesperides were assigned to this locality. [3423] Now called Ras-Sem or Ras-El-Kazat. It is situate a little to the west of Apollonia and N.W. of Cyrene. [3424] According to Ansart, 264 miles is the real distance between Capes Ras-Sem and Tænarum or Matapan [3425] As already mentioned, Apollonia formed the harbour of Cyrene. [3426] This was called the Chersonesus Magna, being so named in contradistinction to the Chersonesus Parva, on the coast of Egypt, about thirty-five miles west of Alexandria. It is now called Ras-El-Tin, or more commonly Raxatin. [3427] So called from the peculiar features of the locality, the Greek word καταβαθμὸς, signifying “a descent.” A deep valley, bounded east and west by ranges of high hills, runs from this spot to the frontiers of Egypt. It is again mentioned by Pliny at the end of the present Chapter. The spot is still known by a similar name, being called Marsa Sollern, or the “Port of the Ladder.” In earlier times the Egyptian territory ended at the Gulf of Plinthinethes, now Lago Segio, and did not extend so far as Catabathmos. [3428] This name was unknown to Herodotus. As Marcus observes, it was probably of Phœnician origin, signifying “leading a wandering life,” like the term “nomad,” derived from the Greek. [3429] Now called El Bareton or Marsa-Labeit. This city was of considerable importance, and belonged properly to Marmaria, but was included politically in the Nomos Libya of Egypt. It stood near the promontory of Artos or Pythis, now Ras-El-Hazeit. [3430] So called from the words _Matâ-Ammon_, “the tribe of Ammon,” according to Bochart. The Nasamones were a powerful but savage people of Libya, who dwelt originally on the shores of the Greater Syrtis, but were driven inland by the Greek settlers of Cyrenaica, and afterwards by the Romans. [3431] From μεσὸς “the middle,” and ἄμμος “sand.” [3432] See note [3421] in p. 396. [3433] Herodotus places this nation to the west of the Nasamones and on the river Cinyps, now called the Wadi-Quaham. [3434] In most of the editions they are called ‘Hammanientes.’ It has been suggested that they were so called from the Greek word ἄμμος “sand.” [3435] This story he borrows from Herodotus, B. iv. c. 158. [3436] From the Greek word τρωγλοδύται, “dwellers in caves.” Pliny has used the term already (B. iv. c. 25) in reference to the nations on the banks of the Danube. It was a general name applied by the Greek geographers to various uncivilized races who had no abodes but caves, and more especially to the inhabitants of the western coasts of the Red Sea, along the shores of Upper Egypt and Æthiopia. [3437] At the beginning of C. 4. [3438] Which gives name to the modern Fezzan. [3439] Now called Tanet-Mellulen, or the station of Mellulen, on the route from Gadamez to Oserona. [3440] Zaouila or Zala, half way between Augyla and Mourzouk. [3441] Now Gadamez, which, according to Marcus, is situate almost under the same meridian as Old Tripoli, the ancient Sabrata. [3442] According to Marcus this range still bears the name of Gibel-Assoud, which in the Arabic language means the “Black Mountain.” [3443] In a southerly direction. He alludes probably to the Desert of Bildulgerid. [3444] This spring is also mentioned by Pliny in B. ii. c. 106. Marcus suggests that the Debris of Pliny is the same as the Bedir of Ptolemy. He also remarks that the English traveller Oudney discovered caverns hewn out of the sides of the hills, evidently for the purposes of habitation, but of which the use is not known by the present people. These he considers to have been the abodes of the ancient Troglodytæ or “cave-dwellers.” In the Tibesti range of mountains, however, we find a race called the Rock Tibboos, from the circumstance of their dwelling in caves. [3445] Cornelius Balbus Gaditanus the Younger, who, upon his victories over the Garamantes, obtained a triumph in the year B.C. 19. [3446] L. Cornelius Balbus the Elder, also a native of Gades. He obtained the consulship in B.C. 40, the first instance, as we find mentioned by Pliny, B. vii. c. 44, in which this honour had been conferred upon one who was not a Roman citizen. [3447] On the occasion of a triumph by a Roman general, boards were carried aloft on “fercula,” on which were painted in large letters the names of vanquished nations and countries. Here too models were exhibited in ivory or wood of the cities and forts captured, and pictures of the mountains, rivers, and other great natural features of the subjugated region, with appropriate inscriptions. Marcus is of opinion that the names of the places here mentioned do not succeed in any geographical order, but solely according to their presumed importance as forming part of the conquest of Balbus. He also thinks that Balbus did not penetrate beyond the fifteenth degree of north latitude, and that his conquests did not extend so far south as the banks of Lake Tchad. [3448] The site of Garama still bears the name of ‘Gherma,’ and presents very considerable remains of antiquity. It is four days’ journey north of Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan. [3449] Now Tibesti, according to Marcus. [3450] Marcus suggests that this is probably the Febabo of modern geographers, to the N.E. of Belma and Tibesti. [3451] Discera was the Im-Zerah of modern travellers, on the road from Sockna to Mourzouk, according to Marcus, who is of opinion that the places which follow were situate at the east and north-east of Thuben and the Black Mountain. [3452] Om-El-Abid, to the N.W. of Garama or Gherma, according to Marcus, and Oudney the traveller. [3453] The same, Marcus thinks, as the modern Tessava in Fezzan. [3454] Marcus suggests that this may be the modern Sana. [3455] The town of Winega mentioned by Oudney, was probably the ancient Pega, according to Marcus. [3456] The modern Missolat, according to Marcus, on the route from Tripoli to Murmuck. [3457] According to Marcus, this was the Mount Goriano of the English travellers Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney, where, confirming the statement here made by Pliny, they found quartz, jasper, onyx, agates, and cornelians. [3458] Mentioned by Tacitus, B. iv. c. 50. The town of Œa has been alluded to by Pliny in C. 4. [3459] “Past the head of the rock.” Marcus suggests that this is the Gibel-Gelat or Rock of Gelat spoken of by the English travellers Denham, Clapperton, and Oudney, forming a portion of the chain of Guriano or Gyr. He says, that at the foot of this mountain travellers have to pass from Old and New Tripoli on their road to Missolat, the Maxala of Pliny, and thence to Gerama or Gherma, the ancient capital of Fezzan. [3460] As Marcus observes, this would not make it to extend so far south as the sixteenth degree of north latitude. [3461] The Mareotis of the time of the Ptolemies extended from Alexandria to the Gulf of Plinthinethes; and Libya was properly that portion of territory which extended from that Gulf to Catabathmos. Pliny is in error here in confounding the two appellations, or rather, blending them into one. It includes the eastern portion of the modern Barca, and the western division of Lower Egypt. It most probably received its name from the Lake Mareotis, and not the lake from it. [3462] This was a seaport town on the northern coast of Africa, probably about eleven or twelve miles west of Parætonium, sometimes spoken of as belonging to Egypt, sometimes to Marmorica. Scylax places it at the western boundary of Egypt, on the frontier of the Marmaridæ. Ptolemy, like Pliny, speaks of it as being in the Libyan Nomos. The distances given in the MSS. of Pliny of this place from Parætonium are seventy-two, sixty-two, and twelve miles; the latter is probably the correct reading, as Strabo, B. xvii., makes the distance 100 stadia. It is extremely doubtful whether the Apis mentioned by Herodotus, B. ii. c. 18, can be the same place: but there is little doubt, from the words of Pliny here, that it was dedicated to the worship of the Egyptian god Apis, who was represented under the form of a bull. [3463] Now called Zerbi and Jerba, derived from the name of Girba, which even in the time of Aurelius Victor, had supplanted that of Meninx. It is situate in the Gulf of Cabes. According to Solinus, C. Marius lay in concealment here for some time. It was famous for its purple. See B. ix. c. 60. [3464] Now called Kerkéni, Karkenah, or Ramlah. [3465] Now Gherba. It was reckoned as a mere appendage to Cercina, to which it was joined by a mole, and which is found often mentioned in history. [3466] Still called Lampedusa, off the coast of Tunis. This island, with Gaulos and Galata, has been already mentioned among the islands off Sicily; see B. iii. c. 14. [3467] Now Pantellaria. See B. iii. c. 14. [3468] A lofty island surrounded by dangerous cliffs, now called Zowamour or Zembra. [3469] In the former editions the word “Aræ” is taken to refer to the Ægimuri, as meaning the same islands. Sillig is however of opinion that totally distinct groups are meant, and punctuates accordingly. The “Aræ” were probably mere rocks lying out at sea, which received their name from their fancied resemblance to altars. They are mentioned by Virgil in the Æneid, B. i. l. 113, upon which lines Servius says, that they were so called because there the Romans and the people of Africa on one occasion made a treaty. [3470] The greater portion of this Chapter is extracted almost verbatim from the account given by Mela. Ptolemy seems to place the Liby-Egyptians to the south of the Greater and Lesser Oasis, on the route thence to Darfour. [3471] Or “White Æthiopians,” men though of dark complexion, not negroes. Marcus is of opinion that the words “intervenientibus desertis” refer to the tract of desert country lying between the Leucæthiopians and the Liby-Egyptians, and not to that between the Gætulians on the one hand and the Liby-Egyptians and the Leucæthiopians on the other. [3472] Meaning to the south and the south-east of these three nations, according to Marcus. Rennel takes the Leucæthiopians to be the present Mandingos of higher Senegambia: Marcus however thinks that they are the Azanaghis, who dwell on the edge of the Great Desert, and are not of so black a complexion as the Mandingos. [3473] Probably the people of the present Nigritia or Soudan. [3474] Marcus is of opinion that Pliny does not here refer to the Joliba of Park and other travellers, as other commentators have supposed; but that he speaks of the river called Zis by the modern geographers, and which Jackson speaks of as flowing from the south-east towards north-west. The whole subject of the Niger is however enwrapped in almost impenetrable obscurity, and as the most recent inquirers have not come to any conclusion on the subject, it would be little more than a waste of time and space to enter upon an investigation of the notions which Pliny and Mela entertained on the subject. [3475] From γυμνὸς, “naked.” [3476] Mentioned in C. 1 of the present Book. [3477] He refers to the words in the Odyssey, B. i. l. 23, 24.— Αἰθίοπας τοὶ δίχθα δεδαιάται, ἔσχατοι ἄνδρων· Οἱ μὲν δυσομένου Ὑπερίονος, οἱ δ’ ἀνιόντος. “The Æthiopians, the most remote of mankind, are divided into two parts, the one at the setting of Hyperion, the other at his rising.” [3478] A tribe of Æthiopia, whose position varied considerably at different epochs of history. Their predatory and savage habits caused the most extraordinary reports to be spread of their appearance and ferocity. The more ancient geographers bring them as far westward as the region beyond the Libyan Desert, and into the vicinity of the Oases. In the time however of the Antonines, when Ptolemy was composing his description of Africa, they appear to the south and east of Egypt, in the wide and almost unknown tract which lay between the rivers Astapus and Astobores. [3479] Mela speaks of this race as situate farthest to the west. The description of them here given is from Herodotus, B. iv. c. 183-185, who speaks of them under the name of “Atarantes.” [3480] The people who are visited by no dreams, are called Atlantes by Herodotus, the same name by which Pliny calls them. He says that their territory is ten days’ journey from that of the Atarantes. [3481] This also is borrowed from Herodotus. As some confirmation of this account, it is worthy of remark, that the Rock Tibboos of the present day, who, like the ancient Troglodytæ, dwell in caves, have so peculiar a kind of speech, that it is compared by the people of Aujelah to nothing but the whistling of birds. The Troglodytæ of Fezzan are here referred to, not those of the coasts of the Red Sea. [3482] Mela says that they look upon the Manes or spirits of the departed as their only deities. [3483] This is said, in almost the same words, of the Garamantes, by Herodotus. The mistake was probably made by Mela in copying from Herodotus, and continued by Pliny when borrowing from him. [3484] So called from their supposed resemblance in form to the Satyrs of the ancient mythology, who were represented as little hairy men with horns, long ears, and tails. They were probably monkeys, which had been mistaken for men. [3485] Half goat, half man. See the Note [3254] relative to Ægipan, in C. 1 of the present Book, p. 378. [3486] Evidently intended to be derived from the Greek ἱμὰς “a thong,” and πόδες “the feet.” It is most probable that the name of a savage people in the interior bore a fancied resemblance to this word, upon which the marvellous story here stated was coined for the purpose of tallying with the name. From a statement in the Æthiopica of Heliodorus, B. x., Marcus suggests that the story as to the Blemmyæ having no heads arose from the circumstance, that on the invasion of the Persians they were in the habit of falling on one knee and bowing the head to the breast, by which means, without injury to themselves, they afforded a passage to the horses of the enemy. [3487] It must be remembered, as already mentioned, that the ancients looked upon Egypt as forming part of Asia, not of Africa. It seems impossible to say how this supposition arose, when the Red Sea and the Isthmus of Suez form so natural and so palpable a frontier between Asia and Africa. [3488] It is not improbable that these numbers are incorrectly stated in the MSS. of our author. [3489] Parisot remarks that Pliny is in error in this statement. A considerable part of Lower Egypt lay both on the right and left of the Delta or island formed by the branches of the Nile. It must be remembered, however, that our author has already included a portion of what was strictly Egypt, in his description of Libya Mareotis. [3490] By reason of its triangular form, Δ. [3491] The Ombite nome worshipped the crocodile as the emblem of Sebak. Its capital was Ombos. [3492] This nome destroyed the crocodile and worshipped the sun. Its capital was Apollinopolis Magna. [3493] It worshipped Osiris and his son Orus. The chief town was Thermonthis. [3494] Probably the original kingdom of Menes of This, the founder of the Egyptian monarchy. It worshipped Osiris. Its capital was This, afterwards called Abydos. [3495] The nome of Thebes, which was its chief town. [3496] Its capital was Coptos. [3497] Its chief town was Tentyra. This nome worshipped Athor or Venus, Isis, and Typhon. It destroyed the crocodile. [3498] Perhaps the same as the Panopolite or Chemmite nome, which had for its chief town Chemmis or Panopolis. It paid divine honours to a deified hero. [3499] It probably worshipped Typhon. Its capital was Antæopolis. [3500] Probably an offshoot from a nome in the Heptanomis of similar name. [3501] Dedicated to the worship of the wolf. Its chief town was Lycopolis. It should be remarked that these names do not appear to be given by Pliny in their proper geographical order. [3502] Some of these nomes were inconsiderable and of little importance. The Bubastite nome worshipped Bubastis, Artemis, or Diana, of whom it contained a fine temple. [3503] Its chief town was Tanis. In this nome, according to tradition, Moses was born. [3504] Its capital was Athribis, where the shrew-mouse and crocodile were worshipped. [3505] The seat of the worship of the dog-headed deity Anubis. Its capital was Cynopolis; which is to be distinguished from the Deltic city and other places of that name, as this was a nome of the Heptanomis or Middle Egypt, to which also the Hammonian nome belonged. [3506] The border nome of Upper and Middle Egypt. [3507] Its capital was Pachnamunis. It worshipped a goddess corresponding to the Greek Leto, or the Latona of the Romans. [3508] Its capital was Busiris. It worshipped Isis, and at one period was said to have sacrificed the nomad tribes of Syria and Arabia. [3509] Its chief town was Onuphis. [3510] Its chief city was Sais, and it worshipped Neith or Athene, and contained the tomb and a sanctuary of Osiris. [3511] Its capital was Tava. [3512] Its chief town was Naucratis on the coast, the birth-place of Athenæus, the Deipnosophist. By some authors it is made part of the Saitic nome. The names given by Pliny vary very considerably from those found in others of the ancient writers. [3513] The capital of this nome was Heracleopolis, ‘The city of Hercules,’ as Pliny calls it, situate, as he says, on an island, at the entrance of the nome of Arsinoïtes, formed by the Nile and a canal. After Memphis and Heliopolis, it was probably the most important city south of the Thebaid. Its ruins are inconsiderable; a portion of them are to be seen at the modern hamlet of Amasieh. [3514] He probably means Arsinoë or Arsinoïtis, the chief town of the nome of that name, and the city so called at the northern extremity of the Heroöpolite Gulf in the Red Sea. The former is denoted by the modern district of El-Fayoom, the most fertile of ancient Egypt. At this place the crocodile was worshipped. The Labyrinth and Lake Mœris were in this nome. Extensive ruins at Medinet-el-Fayoom, or El-Fares, represent its site. The modern Ardscherud, a village near Suez, corresponds to Arsinoë on the Red Sea. There is some little doubt however whether this last Arsinoë is the one here meant by Pliny. [3515] Memphis was the chief city of this nome, which was situate in Middle Egypt, and was the capital of the whole country, and the residence of the Pharaohs, who succeeded Psammetichus, B.C. 616. This nome rose in importance on the decline of the kingdom of Thebais, but was afterwards eclipsed by the progress of Alexandria under the successors of Alexander the Great. [3516] At which Middle Egypt terminates. [3517] They are more generally looked upon as forming one nome only, and included under the name of Hammonium. [3518] Its chief town was Heroöpolis, a principal seat of the worship of Typhon, the evil or destroying genius. [3519] The same as the nome of Arsinoïtes, the capital of which, Arsinoë, was originally called Crocodilopolis. [3520] Now known as Birket-el-Keroum. This was a vast lake on the western side of the Nile in Middle Egypt, used for the reception and subsequent distribution of a part of the overflow of the Nile. The supposition that it was formed by artificial means is now pretty generally exploded, and it is regarded as of natural formation. It was situate in the nome of Arsinoïtes or Crocodilopolites. Its length seems to be overstated by our author, as at the present day it is only thirty miles in length and five in breadth at the widest part. [3521] And it is generally supposed that they are so up to the present day. The ethnographer Jablonski is of opinion that this river derives its name from the Coptish word _tneialei_ “to rise at stated times.” Servius, the commentator on Virgil, says that it is derived from the two Greek words νέα ἰλὺς “fresh mud,” in allusion to the fresh mud or slime which it leaves after each inundation. Singularly enough, Champollion prefers this silly etymology to that suggested by Jablonski. [3522] An interesting disquisition on the probable sources of the Nile, as viewed by the ancients, is to be found in the Ninth Book of Lucan’s Pharsalia. The Indian word “_nilas_,” “black,” has also been suggested as its possible origin. [3523] What spot is meant under this name, if indeed it is anything more than the creation of fancy, it is impossible to ascertain with any degree of precision. It is possible however that the ancients may have had some knowledge of Lake Tchad, and the Mountains of the Moon, or Djebel-Kumri, though at the same time it is more than doubtful that the Nile has its source in either of those localities, the former especially. [3524] Perhaps a kind of river lamprey. As to the Coracinus, see B. ix. c. 24, 32, and B. xxxii. c. 19, 24, 34, 44, and 53; and as to the Silurus, B. ix. c. 17, 25, and B. xxxii. c. 31, 36, 40, 43, 44, &c. [3525] The modern Vacur in Northern Africa. [3526] A district which in reality was at least 1200 or 1500 miles distant from any part of the Nile, and probably near 3000 from its real source. [3527] “Spargit.” It is doubtful whether this word means here “waters,” or “divides.” Probably however the latter is its meaning. [3528] This is the third or eastern branch of the river, now known as the Tacazze. It rises in the highlands of Abyssinia, in about 11° 40′ north lat. and 39° 40′ east long., and joins the main stream of the Nile, formed by the union of the Abiad and the Azrek, in 17° 45′ north lat. and about 34° 5′ east long.; the point of junction being the apex of the island of Meroë, here mentioned by Pliny. [3529] Possibly by this name he designates the Bahr-el-Abied, or White River, the main stream of the Nile, the sources of which have not been hitherto satisfactorily ascertained. The Astapus is supposed to have been really the name of the Bahr-el-Azrek, or Blue River, the third branch of the Nile, the sources of which are in the highlands of Abyssinia, in about 11° 40′ north lat. and 39° 40′ east long. [3530] Or “side of the water that issues from the shades.” As Hardouin says, this does not appear to be a very satisfactory explanation. [3531] Said by Tzetzes to have been derived from the Greek τρίτος, “the third,” because it had three times changed its name: having been called, first, the Ocean; secondly, Aëtus, or the Eagle; and thirdly, Ægyptus. [3532] Or the “Cataracts,” for which it is the Greek name. The most northerly of these cataracts, called the First Cataract, is, and always has been, the southern boundary of Egypt. According to the most recent accounts, these Cataracts are devoid of any stupendous features, such as characterize the Falls of Niagara. [3533] The one now called the First Cataract. [3534] Seven mouths in ancient times, which have now dwindled down to two of any importance, the Damietta mouth on the east, and the Rosetta on the west. [3535] The Etesians are periodical winds, which blow steadily from one quarter for forty days each year, during the season of the Dog-days. The opinion here stated was that promulgated by Thales the philosopher. Seneca refutes it in B. iv. c. 2. of his Quæst. Nat. [3536] This was the opinion of Democritus of Abdera, and of Agatharchidas of Cnidos. It is combated by Diodorus Siculus, B. i., but it is the opinion most generally received at the present day. See the disquisition on the subject introduced in the Ninth book of Lucan’s Pharsalia. [3537] And that the high tide or inundation would be consequently continuous as well. [3538] The principal well for this purpose was called the “Nilometer,” or “Gauge for the Nile.” [3539] On this subject see Pliny, B. xviii. c. 47, and B. xxxvi. c. 11. [3540] Seneca says that the Nile did not rise as usual in the tenth and eleventh years of the reign of Cleopatra, and that the circumstance was said to bode ruin to her and Antony.—Nat. Quæst. B. iv. c. 2. [3541] He means dense clouds, productive of rain, not thin mists. See what is said of the Borysthenes by our author, B. xxxi. c. 30. [3542] Syene was a city of Upper Egypt, on the eastern bank of the Nile just below the First Cataract, and was looked upon as the southern frontier city of Egypt against Æthiopia. It was an important point in the geography and astronomy of the ancients; for, lying just under the tropic of Cancer, it was chosen as the place through which they drew their chief parallel of latitude. The sun was vertical to Syene at the time of the summer solstice, and a well was shown there where the face of the sun was seen at noon at that time. Its present name is Assouan or Ossouan. [3543] If this word means the “Camp,” it does not appear to be known what camp is meant. Most editions have “Cerastæ,” in which case it would mean that at Syene the Cerastes or horned serpent is found. [3544] One of these (if indeed Philæ did consist of more than a single island, which seems doubtful) is now known as Djeziret-el-Birbe, the “Island of the Temple.” [3545] This island was seated just below the Lesser Cataract, opposite Syene, and near the western bank of the Nile. At this point the river becomes navigable downward to its mouths, and the traveller from Meroë or Æthiopia enters Egypt Proper. The original name of this island was “Ebo,” Eb being in the language of hieroglyphics the symbol of the elephant and ivory. It was remarkable for its fertility and verdure, and the Arabs of the present day designate the island as Djesiret-el-Sag, or “the Blooming.” [3546] This is a mistake of Pliny’s, for it was opposite to Syene. Brotier thinks that Pliny intended to write ‘Philæ,’ but by mistake inserted Syene. [3547] Artemidorus, Juba, and Aristocreon. [3548] They were probably made of papyrus, or else of hides, like the British coracles. [3549] The last king of the line of Psammetichus, B.C. 569. He succeeded Apries, whom the Egyptians put to death. He died just before the invasion by Cambyses, having displayed great abilities as a ruler. [3550] There was the Greater Apollinopolis, the modern Edfoo, in the Thebaid, on the western bank of the Nile, in lat. 25° north, about thirteen miles below the lesser Cataract: its inhabitants were enemies of the crocodile and its worshippers. The remains of two temples there are considered second only to the temple of Denderah as specimens of the sacred structures of Egypt. A Lesser Apollinopolis was in Upper Egypt, on the western bank of the Nile, in lat. 27° north. Another Lesser Apollinopolis was a town of the Thebaid in the Coptite Nome, in lat. 26° north, situate between Thebes and Coptos. It was situate at the present Kuss. [3551] Its site is unknown. Hardouin suggests that it is the Eilethuia of Ptolemy, the modern El-Kab. [3552] “City of Jupiter,” the Greek name for Thebes, the No or No Ammon of Scripture. It stood in the centre of the Thebaid, on both banks of the Nile, above Coptos, and in the Nomos Coptites. Its ruins, which are the most magnificent in the world, enclose within their site the four villages of Carnac, Luxor, Medinet Abou, and Gournou. [3553] Its hieroglyphical name was Kobto, and its site is now occupied by the modern town of Kouft or Keft. It was situate in lat. 26° north, on the right bank of the Nile, about a mile from its banks. As a halting place or rather watering-place for the caravans, it was enriched by the commerce between Libya and Egypt on the one hand, and Arabia and India and Egypt on the other, the latter being carried on through the port of Berenice on the Red Sea, founded by Ptolemy Philadelphus, B.C. 266. In the seventh century of the Christian era, it bore for some time the name of Justinianopolis. There are a few remains of Roman buildings to be seen on its site. [3554] Also called Aphrodite or Aphroditopolis. Of this name there were several towns or cities in ancient Egypt. In Lower Egypt there was Atarbechis, thus named, and a town mentioned by Strabo in the nome of Leontopolites. In the Heptanomis or Middle Egypt there was the place, the ruins of which are called Aftyeh, on the east side of the Nile, and the capital of the nome of Aphroditopolites. In Upper Egypt or the Thebais there was the present Tachta, on the west side of the Nile, between Ptolemais and Panopolis, capital of another nome of Aphroditopolites, and that one the ruins of which are now called Deir, on the west bank of the Nile, higher up than the former, and, like it, some distance from the river. It was situate in the nome Hermonthites. [3555] Another Diospolis. Great Diospolis is mentioned in the preceding page. [3556] Or Tentyra. The modern Dendera of the Arabs, called Dendôri or Hidendôri by the ancient Egyptians. [3557] In ancient times called This, and in Coptic Ebôt, the ruins of which are now known as Arábat-el-Matfoon. It was the chief town of the Nomos Thinites, and was situate in lat. 26° 10′ north and long. 32° 3′ east. In the Thebaid it ranked next to Thebes itself. Here according to general belief was the burial-place of Osiris. In the time of Strabo it had sunk into a mere village. Its ruins, though nearly buried in the sand, are very extensive. There is, however, some uncertainty as to the exact identity of This with Abydus. [3558] The ruins of these places are still to be seen at Abydus. [3559] He calls the whole of the country on the western bank of the Nile by this name. [3560] Called Absou or Absaï by the Arabs, and Psoë by the ancient Egyptians. It has been suggested that it was the same place as This, more generally identified with Abydus. [3561] Its site is now called Ekhmin or Akhmin by the Arabs, Khmim being its ancient Egyptian name. It was the chief town of the nome of Panopolites, and the deity Phthah was worshipped there under the form of Priapus. [3562] Another Aphroditopolis, the present Tachta, mentioned above, in Note[3554] in the last page. Pliny distinguishes it from that now called Deir, mentioned above. [3563] Now known as Es-Siout. [3564] Or Hermopolis—the modern Esh-moon or Ash-mounion, on the eastern bank of the Nile, in lat. 27° 54′ north. It was the capital of the Hermopolite nome in the Heptanomis. It was a place of great opulence and densely populated. The deities Typhon and Thoth were principally worshipped at this place. The latter, the inventor of the pen and letters, nearly corresponded with the Hermes of the Greeks (the Mercury of the Romans), from which the Hellenized name of the place. Its ruins are very extensive. [3565] This town was no doubt connected with the alabaster quarries of Mount Alabasternus, now Mount St. Anthony, and the hill of Alabastrites, now the Côteau Hessan. [3566] Or Cynopolis, the chief place of the Cynopolite nome. The Dog-headed deity Anubis was worshipped here. The modern Samallus occupies its site. This place was in the Heptanomis, but there were several other towns of the same name, one of which was situate in the Delta or Lower Egypt. [3567] In C. 9, when speaking of the nome of Heracleopolites; of which nome, this place, called Heracleopolis, was the capital. It was situate at the entrance of the valley of the Fayoum, on an island formed by the Nile and a canal. After Memphis and Heliopolis it was probably the most important city north of the Thebaid. It furnished two dynasties of kings to Egypt. The ichneumon was worshipped here, from which it may be inferred that the people were hostile to the crocodile. Its ruins are inconsiderable; the village of Anasieh covers part of them. [3568] The capital of the nome of Arsinoïtes, seated on the western bank of the Nile, between the river and Lake Mœris, south-west of Memphis, in lat. 29° north. It was called under the Pharaohs, “the City of Crocodiles,” from the reverence paid by the people to that animal. Its ruins are to be seen at Medinet-el-Fayoom or El-Fares. [3569] Its magnificent ruins, known by the name of Menf and Metrabenny, are to be seen about ten miles above the pyramids of Gizeh. [3570] This lay beyond Lake Mœris, or Birket-el-Keroun, at a short distance from the city of Arsinoë. It had 3000 apartments, 1500 of which were underground. The accounts given by modern travellers of its supposed ruins do not agree with what we have learned from the ancients respecting its architecture and site. The purposes for which it was built are unknown. Its supposed site is called Havara. [3571] If this is not an abbreviation or corruption for Crocodilon, as Hardouin suggests, it may probably mean the “town of Rams,” from the worship perhaps of that animal there. [3572] Heliopolis or Rameses. In Scripture it is called by the names of On and No—Gen. xli. 45 and Ezek. xxx. 15. It stood on the eastern side of the Pelusiac arm of the Nile, near the right bank of the Great Canal which connected the river with the Red Sea, and close adjoining to the present overland route for travellers to India. It was one of the most ancient of the Egyptian cities; here the father-in-law of Joseph exercised the office of high-priest, and here the prophet Jeremiah is supposed to have written his Book of Lamentations. Its priests were the great depositaries of the theological and historical learning of Egypt. Solon, Thales, and Plato were reputed each to have visited its schools. According to Macrobius, Baalbec, the Syrian City of the Sun, was a colony from this place. It was the capital of the nome Heliopolites, and paid worship to the sun and the bull Mnevis, the rival of Apis. From Josephus we learn that after the dispersion and fall of the tribes of Judah and Israel, great numbers of the Jews took refuge at this place, forming almost one-half of its population. The ruins, which were extremely magnificent, occupied in the twelfth century an area nearly three miles in extent. Pliny speaks of the great obelisk there, which is still standing. (See B. xxxvi. c. 9.) The village of Matarieh occupies a part of its site, and besides the obelisk of red granite, there are a few remains of the Temple of the Sun. [3573] Now called Birk-el-Mariout. [3574] Or Dinocrates. He was the architect of the new temple of Diana at Ephesus, which was built after the destruction of the former one by Herostratus. It was this architect who formed a design for cutting Mount Athos into a statue of Alexander, with a city in the right hand and a reservoir of the mountain streams in the left. [3575] Holland seems to think that the word “laxitate” applies to chlamys. [3576] The _chlamys_ was a scarf or cloak worn over the shoulders, and especially used by military persons of high rank. It did not reach lower than the knees, and was open in front, covering only the neck, back, and shoulders. [3577] Its real dimensions were something less than 300 stadia, or thirty geographical miles long, and rather more than 150 stadia wide. [3578] Or “Pseudostomata.” These were crossed in small boats, as they were not navigable for ships of burden. [3579] In the Pharaonic times Canopus was the capital of the nome of Menelaïtes, and the principal harbour of the Delta. It probably owed its name to the god Canobus, a pitcher full of holes, with a human head, which was worshipped here with peculiar pomp. It was remarkable for the number of its festivals and the general dissoluteness of its morals. Traces of its ruins are to be seen about three miles from the modern Aboukir. [3580] Corresponding to the modern Raschid or Rosetta. It is supposed that this place was noted for its manufactory of chariots. [3581] The town of Sebennys or Sebennytum, now Samannoud, gave name to one of the nomes, and the Sebennytic Mouth of the Nile. [3582] Or the Pathinetic or Bucolic Mouth, said to be the same as the modern Damietta Mouth. [3583] The capital of the Mendesian nome, called by the Arabs Ochmoun. This mouth is now known as the Deibeh Mouth. [3584] Now called Szan or Tzan. The Tanitic Mouth, which is sometimes called the Saitic, is at the present day called Omm-Faredjé. [3585] Its ruins are to be seen at the modern Tineh. This city in early times had the name of Abaris. It was situate on the eastern side of the most easterly mouth of the Nile, which, after it, was called the Pelusiac Mouth, about two miles from the sea, in the midst of morasses. Being the frontier city towards Syria and Arabia it was strongly fortified. It was the birth-place of Ptolemy the geographer. [3586] Butos or Buto stood on the Sebennytic arm of the Nile near its mouth, on the southern shores of the Butic Lake. It was the chief seat of the worship of the goddess Buto, whom the Greeks identified with Leto or Latona. The modern Kem Kasir occupies its site. [3587] Called Harbait by the Arabs, and Farbait by the ancient Egyptians. [3588] In the Delta. It was the capital of the nome of Leontopolites, and probably of late foundation, as no writer previous to Pliny mentions it. Its site is uncertain, but Thall-Essabouah, the “Hill of the Lion,” has been suggested. [3589] The chief town of the Athribitic nome in Lower Egypt. It stood on the eastern bank of the Tanitic branch of the Nile. This nome and town derived their name from the goddess Thriphis, whom the inscriptions there and at Panopolis designate as the “most great goddess.” The ruins at Atrieb or Trieb, at the spot where the modern canal of Moueys turns off from the Nile, represent the ancient Athribis. They are very extensive, and among them are considerable remains of the Roman era. [3590] This was situate near the city or town of Busiris in the Delta. The modern village of Bahbeyt is supposed to cover the ruins of the temple of Isis. [3591] The modern Busyr or Abousir, where considerable ruins of the ancient city are still to be seen. It was the chief town of the nome of Busirites, and stood south of Sais, near the Phatnitic mouth, on the western bank of the Nile. This was also the name of a town in Middle Egypt, in the neighbourhood of Memphis, and represented by another village of the name of Abousir. Pliny, B. xxxvi. c. 16, speaks of the Catacombs in its vicinity. [3592] The place of that name in the Delta is here meant. [3593] Probably the town of that name, otherwise called Aphroditopolis, in the nome of Leontopolites. [3594] The ruins of which are now called Sa-el-Hajjar. It was situate in the Delta, on the east side of the Canopic branch of the Nile. It was the ancient capital of Lower Egypt and contained the palace and burial-place of the Pharaohs. It was the chief seat of the worship of the Egyptian goddess Neith, also known as Sais. It gave its name to the nome of Saïtes. [3595] It was situate in the Delta of Egypt and in the nome of Saïtes, on the eastern bank of the Canopic branch of the Nile. It was a colony of the Milesians, founded probably in the reign of Amasis, about B.C. 550, and remained a pure Greek city. It was the only place in Egypt in which, in the time of the later Pharaohs, foreigners were permitted to settle and trade. In later times it was famous for the worship of Aphrodite or Venus, and rivalled Canopus in the dissoluteness of its manners. [3596] Ptolemy the geographer does this. [3597] Arabia Petræa; that part of Arabia which immediately joins up to Egypt. [3598] Called Arabia Felix to the present day. [3599] The part of Arabia which joins up to Egypt, Arabia Petræa namely. [3600] Strabo places this people as far south as the mouth of the Red Sea, _i. e._ on the east of the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. Forster (in his ‘Arabia,’ vol. ii.) takes this name to be merely an inversion of Beni Kahtan, the great tribe which mainly peoples, at the present day, central and southern Arabia. [3601] Probably the people of Esebon, the Heshbon of Scripture, spoken of by Jerome as being the city of Sihon, king of the Amorites. [3602] The “tent-people,” from the Greek σκηνὴ, “a tent.” This seems to have been a name common to the nomadic tribes of Arabia. Ammianus Marcellinus speaks of them as being the same as the Saraceni or Saracens. [3603] The modern El Katieh or El Kas; which is the summit of a lofty range of sandstone hills on the borders of Egypt and Arabia Petræa, immediately south of the Sirbonian Lake and the Mediterranean Sea. On its western side was the tomb of Pompey the Great. [3604] The same as the Amalekites of Scripture, according to Hardouin. Bochart thinks that they are the same as the Chavilæi, who are mentioned as dwelling in the vicinity of Babylon. [3605] The position which Pliny assigns to this nation would correspond with the northern part of the modern district of the Hedjaz. Forster identifies them with the Cauraitæ, or Cadraitæ of Arrian, and the Darræ of Ptolemy, tracing their origin to the Cedar or Kedar, the son of Ishmael, mentioned in Genesis xxv. 13, and represented by the modern Harb nation and the modern town of Kedeyre. See Psalm cxx. 5: “Woe is me, that I sojourn in Mesech, that I dwell in the tents of Kedar!” [3606] An Arabian people, said to have descended from the eldest son of Ishmael, who had their original abodes in the north-western part of the Arabian peninsula, east and south-east of the Moabites and Edomites. Extending their territory, we find the Nabatæi of Greek and Roman history occupying nearly the whole of Arabia Petræa, along the north-east coast of the Red Sea, on both sides of the Ælanitic Gulf, and on the Idumæan mountains, where they had their capital, Petra, hewn out of the rock. [3607] Now the Bahr-el-Soueys, or Gulf of Suez. [3608] The Bahr-el-Akabah, or Gulf of Akabah. [3609] Now Akabah, an Idumæan town of Arabia Petræa, situate at the head of the eastern gulf of the Red Sea, which was called after this town “Ælaniticus Sinus.” It was annexed to the kingdom of Judah, with the other cities of Idumæa, by David, 2 Sam. viii. 14, and was one of the harbours on the Red Sea from which the ships of Solomon sailed for Ophir. See 1 Kings ix. 26 and 2 Chron. viii. 17. It was a place of commercial importance under the Romans and the head-quarters of the Tenth Legion. A fortress now occupies its site. [3610] Its site is now known as Guzzah. It was the last city on the south-west frontier of Palestine, and from the earliest times was a strongly fortified place. It was taken from the Philistines by the Jews more than once, but as often retaken. It was also taken by Cyrus the Great and Alexander, and afterwards by Ptolemy Lagus, who destroyed it. It afterwards recovered, and was again destroyed by Alexander Jannæus, B.C. 96, after which, it was rebuilt by Gabinius and ultimately united to the Roman province of Syria. In A.D. 65 it was again destroyed, but was rebuilt, and finally fell into the hands of the Arabs, in A.D. 634. [3611] Meaning the Mediterranean. [3612] The present Suez. See B. vi. c. 33. [3613] Or the “Hollow” Syria. This was properly the name given, after the Macedonian conquest, to the great valley between the two great ranges of Mount Lebanon, in the south of Syria, bordering upon Phœnicia on the west, and Palestine on the south. In the wars between the Ptolemies and the Seleucidæ, the name was applied to the whole of the southern portion of Syria, which became subject for some time to the kings of Egypt; but under the Romans, it was confined to Cœlesyria proper with the district east of Anti-Libanus, about Damascus, and a portion of Palestine east of Jordan. [3614] Or Ostracine, the northern point of Arabia. [3615] This was a great fortress of Syria founded by Seleucus B.C. 300, at the foot of Mount Pieria and overhanging the Mediterranean, four miles north of the Orontes and twelve miles west of Antioch. It had fallen entirely to decay in the sixth century of our era. There are considerable ruins of its harbour and mole, its walls and necropolis. They bear the name of Seleukeh or Kepse. [3616] From the Greek ζεῦγμα, “a junction;” built by Seleucus Nicator on the borders of Commagene and Cyrrhestice, on the west bank of the Euphrates, where the river had been crossed by a bridge of boats constructed by Alexander the Great. The modern Rumkaleh is supposed to occupy its site. [3617] On this subject see B. vii. c. 57. The invention of letters and the first cultivation of the science of astronomy have been claimed for the Egyptians and other nations. The Tyrians were probably the first who applied the science of astronomy to the purposes of navigation. There is little doubt that warfare must have been studied as an art long before the existence of the Phœnician nation. [3618] Strabo places this between Mount Casius and Pelusium. [3619] See C. 12 of the present Book. Chabrias the Athenian aided Nectanebus II. against his revolted subjects. [3620] Its ruins are to be seen on the present Ras Straki. [3621] Now called the Sabakat Bardowal. It lay on the coast of Egypt, east of Mount Casius, and it is not improbable that the boundary-line between Egypt and Palæstina or Idumæa ran through the middle of its waters. It was strongly impregnated with asphaltus. A connection formerly existed between it and the Mediterranean, but this being stopped up, it gradually grew smaller by evaporation and is now nearly dry. [3622] The present Kulat-el-Arich or El Arish, situate at the mouth of the brook El-Arish, called by the Scriptures the “river of Egypt.” Its name signifies in Greek, “cutting off of noses,” and is probably derived from the fact of its having been the place of exile for criminals who had been so mutilated, under the Æthiopian kings of Egypt. Poinsinet suggests however that the name means the “town of the circumcised.” [3623] The place on its site is still called Refah, but it was really situate on the coast. Gaza has been already mentioned in a Note [3610] to C. 12, p. 423. [3624] Anthedon was on the coast of Palestine, although Pliny says to the contrary. It was situate about three miles to the south-west of Gaza, and was destroyed by Alexander Jannæus. In the time of Julian it was addicted to the worship of Astarte, the Syrian Venus. According to Dupinet the present name of its site is Daron. [3625] Brotier says that this is the same as the Mount Gerizim of Scripture, but that was situate in Samaria, a considerable distance from the southern coast of Palæstina. Pliny is the only author that mentions it. [3626] The Ascalon of Scripture, one of the five cities of the Philistines, situate on the coast of the Mediterranean, between Gaza and Jamnia. In early times it was the seat of the worship of Derceto, a fish with a woman’s head. The ruins, which still bear the name of Askulân, are very extensive, and indicative of great strength. The shalot or scallion was originally a native of this place, and thence derived its name. [3627] The Ashdod of Scripture. It was one of the five cities of the Philistines and the chief seat of the worship of Dagon. Herodotus states that it stood a siege of twenty-nine years from Psammetichus, king of Egypt. It was afterwards taken and retaken several times. It was situate between Ascalon and Jamnia, and its site is indicated by the modern village of Esdad, but no ruins of the ancient city are visible. [3628] One of these was a city of the Philistines, assigned to the tribe of Judah in the fifteenth Chapter of Joshua, 45, according to the Septuagint version, but omitted in the Hebrew, which only mentions it in 2 Chron. xxvi. 6 (where it is called Jabneh in the English version), as one of the cities of the Philistines taken and destroyed by King Uzziah. The place of this name that lay in the interior, is probably the one spoken of by Josephus as in that part of the tribe of Judah occupied by the children of Dan, as also in the 1 Maccabees, x. 69-71. The one was probably the port of the other. The ruins of the port still retain the name of Yebora, and are situate on an eminence about an hour’s distance from the sea, on the banks of the river Rûbin. [3629] Or Joppa of Scripture, now called Yâfa or Jaffa. The timber from Lebanon intended for both the first and second Temples was landed here. It was taken and retaken more than once during the wars of the Maccabees, and was finally annexed by Pompey to the Roman province of Syria. It is mentioned several times in the New Testament in connection with Saint Peter. In the Jewish war, having become a refuge for pirates, it was taken by Cestius and destroyed, and even the very ruins were demolished by Vespasian. It was afterwards rebuilt, and in the time of the Crusades was alternately in the hands of the Christians and the Moslems. [3630] To be devoured by the sea monster, from which she was delivered by Perseus, who had borrowed for the occasion the _talaria_ or winged shoes of Mercury. In B. ix. c. 4, Pliny states that the skeleton of the monster was exhibited at Rome by M. Æmilius Scaurus, when he was Curule Ædile. [3631] Probably the same as Derceto or Atargatis, the fish-goddess with a woman’s head, of the Syrians. [3632] Situate between Cæsarea and Joppa. It is probable that it owed its name to the Macedonian kings of either Egypt or Syria. Arsûf, a deserted village, but which itself was of considerable importance in the time of the Crusades, represents the ancient Apollonia. [3633] The site of the Turris Stratonis was afterwards occupied by Cæsarea, a city on the coast, founded by Herod the Great, and named Cæsarea in honour of Augustus Cæsar. It was renowned for the extent and magnificence of its harbour, which was secured by a breakwater of stupendous construction. For some time it was considered the principal city of Palestine and the chief seat of the Roman government. Although it again changed its name, as Pliny states, it still retained its name of Cæsarea as the Metropolitan See of the First Palestine. It was also of considerable importance during the occupation of the Holy Land by the Crusaders. Its ruins are still visible, but have served as a quarry for many generations, and Jaffa, Sidon, Acre and Beyrout have been supplied with stones from this site. Massive remains of its mole or breakwater and its towers still exist. [3634] Or Phœnicia. [3635] By some regarded as the Scriptural town of Sichem, but by others as a distinct place, though in its immediate vicinity. Its present name is Naplous or Nabolos, situate between Mounts Ebal and Gerizim. Its proper name under the Romans was Flavia Neapolis. It was the birth-place of Justin Martyr. [3636] The city of Samaria, so called from Shemer, the owner of the hill which Omri, King of Israel, purchased, about B.C. 922, for its site. Herod greatly renovated this city, which he called Sebaste, in honour of his patron Augustus, in Greek “Sebastos.” Its site is now occupied by a poor village, which bears the name of Sebustieh. [3637] A town of Palæstina, frequently mentioned by Josephus as remarkable for the strength of its fortifications, and situate on the Lake Tiberias, opposite to Tarichæa. After a spirited defence, it was taken by Vespasian, who slaughtered 4000 of the survivors, upon which 5000 threw themselves from the walls, and were dashed to pieces below. The site had been forgotten for nearly eighteen centuries, when Lord Lindsay discovered it on a lofty hill on the east of Lake Tiberias, and nearly opposite the town of that name. It is now called El-Hossn, and the ruins of the fortifications are very extensive. [3638] Antiochian Syria. [3639] Peræa was the general name of that part of Palæstina which lay east of the river Jordan; but more usually, in a restricted sense, it signified a part only of that region, namely the district between the rivers Hieromax on the north, and Arnon on the south. [3640] Jericho, so often mentioned in Scripture. It was celebrated for its palm-grove, which was presented by Antony to Cleopatra. A Bedouin encampment called Riha is all that now occupies its site. [3641] A city eight or ten miles from the village Emmaüs of the New Testament. It was called Nicopolis, in commemoration, it has been suggested, of the destruction of Jerusalem. Its site is still marked by a village called Ammious, on the road from Jerusalem to Jaffa. [3642] So often mentioned in the New Testament. This town lay to the S.E. of Joppa, and N.W. of Jerusalem, at the junction of several roads which lead from the sea-coast. It was destroyed by the Romans in the Jewish war, but was soon after rebuilt, and called Diospolis. A village called Lud occupies its site. [3643] So called from Acrabbim, its chief town, situate nine miles from Nicopolis. The toparchy of Acrabbim, which formerly formed part of Samaria, was the most northerly of those of Judæa. [3644] Situate in the country of Benjamin. Josephus reckons it second in importance only to Jerusalem, from which, according to Eusebius, it was distant fifteen miles, on the road to the modern Nablous. That author also identifies it with the Eshcol of Scripture. Its site is marked by a small Christian village, called by the natives Jufna. [3645] Like the two preceding ones, this toparchy for a long time belonged to Samaria. Thamna, or Thamnis, was the Timnath-Serah in Mount Ephraim, mentioned in Joshua xix. 50, and xxiv. 30, as the place where Joshua was buried. [3646] The toparchy of Bethleptepha of other authors. It appears to have been situate in the south of Judæa, and in that part which is by Josephus commonly called Idumæa. Reland has remarked, that the name resembles Beth-lebaoth, a city of the tribe of Simeon, mentioned in Joshua xix. 6. [3647] From the Greek, meaning the “mountain district,” or the “hill country,” as mentioned in Luke i. 39. [3648] Or “Sacred Solyma.” [3649] A fortress of Palæstina, erected by Herod the Great, at a distance of about sixty stadia from Jerusalem, and not far from Tekoa. Its site has been identified by modern travellers with El-Furedis, or the Paradise; probably the same as the spot called the “Frank Mountain,” on the top of which the ruined walls of the fortress are still to be seen. [3650] Called by the Arabs Bahr-el-Arden. [3651] Situate on Mount Panias, or Paneas, on the range of Anti-Libanus. [3652] In C. 16 of the present Book. [3653] On the contrary, as Parisot observes, the Jordan runs in a straight line almost into the Dead Sea. [3654] The Lake of Sodom, or the Dead Sea, in which the Cities of the Plain were swallowed up. [3655] In Scripture also called the Lake Tiberias, and the Sea of Gennesareth, or Chinnereth. It is now called the Sea of Tabariah, or Tabarieh. [3656] The one of the two Bethsaidas, which was situate on the north of the Sea of Tiberias. It was enlarged by Philip the Tetrarch, who greatly beautified it, and changed its name to Julias, in honour of the daughter of Augustus, the wife of Tiberius. It is generally supposed by the learned world, that this was not the Bethsaida mentioned so often in the New Testament. Its ruins are probably those now seen on a hill called Et-Tell, on the north-western extremity of the lake. [3657] On the east of the lake. From it the district of Hippene took its name. [3658] Its ruins are to be seen at El-Kereh, on the south side of the lake. It was strongly fortified, and made a vigorous resistance against the Romans in the Jewish War. It received its name from the great quantities of fish which were salted there, τάριχοι. [3659] Now Tabariah, or Tabarieh, a miserable village. It was built by Herod Antipas, in honour of the Emperor Tiberius. After the destruction of Jerusalem, it became the seat of the Jewish Sanhedrin. [3660] These hot springs are by Josephus called Emmaüs, probably a form of the Hebrew name Hammath. Dr. Robinson, in his Biblical Researches, identifies this with the town of Hammath, of the tribe of Naphthali, mentioned in Joshua xix. 35. [3661] From the Greek ἄσφαλτος. [3662] This is an exaggeration, though it is the fact that many heavy substances, which in ordinary water would sink immediately, will float on the surface of this lake. It has been suggested, that the story here mentioned arose from the circumstance of the name of ‘bulls,’ or ‘cows,’ having been applied by the ancient Nabatæi to the large masses of asphaltum which floated on its surface. [3663] The country of the Arabian Scenitæ, or “tent people.” [3664] It lay on the east of the Dead Sea, and not the south, as here mentioned by Pliny, being a border fortress in the south of Peræa, and on the confines of the Nabatæi. There was a tradition that it was at this place that John the Baptist was beheaded. The city now bears the name of Mascra. [3665] A Greek name, signifying the “Fine Stream.” These were warm springs, situate on the eastern side of Jordan, to which Herod the Great resorted during his last illness, by the advice of his physicians. The valley of Callirhoë was visited by Captains Irby and Mangles in 1818, and an interesting account of it is to be found in their ‘Travels,’ pp. 467-469. The waters are sulphureous to the taste. [3666] The Essenes, or Hessenes. These properly formed one of the great sects into which the Jews were divided in the time of Christ. They are not mentioned by name in the New Testament, but it has been conjectured that they are alluded to in Matt. xix. 12, and Col. ii. 18, 23. As stated here by Pliny, they generally lived at a distance from large towns, in communities which bore a great resemblance to the monkish societies of later times. They sent gifts to the Temple at Jerusalem, but never offered sacrifices there. They were divided into four classes, according to the time of their initiation. Their origin is uncertain. Some writers look upon them as the same as the Assidians, or Chasidim, mentioned in 1 Maccabees, ii. 42, vii. 13. Their principal society was probably the one mentioned by Pliny, and from this other smaller ones proceeded, and spread over Palestine, Syria, and Egypt. The Essenes of Egypt were divided into two sects; the _practical_ Essenes, whose mode of life was the same as those of Palestine; and the _contemplative_ Essenes, who were called _Therapeutæ_. Both sects maintained the same doctrines; but the latter were distinguished by a more rigid mode of life. It has been suggested by Taylor, the editor of ‘Calmet’s Dictionary of the Bible,’ that John the Baptist belonged to this sect. [3667] Or Engedi. Its ancient name was Hazezon-Tamar, when it was inhabited by the Amorites. See Gen. xiv. 7; 2 Chron. xx. 2. According to Josephus, it gave name to one of the fifteen toparchies of Judæa. It still retains its name, Ain-Jedey, or “Fountain of the Goats,” and was so called from a spring which issued out of the limestone rock at the base of a lofty cliff. [3668] Its site is now known as Sebbeh, on the south-west of the Dead Sea. [3669] Δεκὰ πολεῖς, the “Ten Cities.” He alludes to the circumstance, that the number of cities varied from time to time in this district; one being destroyed in warfare, and others suddenly rising from its foundation. [3670] The capital city of Syria, both in ancient and modern times. It is now called Es-Sham. The only epithet given to it by the ancient poets is that of “ventosa,” or “windy,” found in the Pharsalia of Lucan, B. iii. l. 215, which, it has been remarked, is anything but appropriately chosen. [3671] Or the “Golden River.” It is uncertain whether this was the Abana or Pharpar, mentioned in 2 Kings v. 12. Strabo remarks, that the waters of the Chrysorroös “are almost entirely consumed in irrigation, as it waters a large extent of deep soil.” [3672] The ancient Rabbath Ammon, a city of the Ammonites. It was afterwards called Astarte, and then Philadelphia, in honour of Ptolemy Philadelphus. According to D’Anville, the present name of its site is Amman. [3673] Thirty-three miles from Apamea. Its ruins are probably those mentioned by Abulfeda under the name of Rafaniat. William of Tyre says, that it was taken in the year 1125 by the Count of Tripoli. [3674] Previously called Beth-shan. It was the next city of the Decapolis in magnitude after Damascus. It was situate in the land of the tribe of Issachar, though it belonged to the Manasites. At this place the bodies of Saul and his sons were hung up by the Philistines; see 1 Sam. xxxi. 10-12. Reland suggests that it received the name of Scythopolis, not from a Scythian colony, but from the Succoth of Gen. xxxiii. 17, which appears to have been in its vicinity. Its ruins, which still bear the name of Baisan, are very extensive. [3675] Called by Josephus the capital of Peræa, and the chief place of the district of the Gadarenes of the Evangelists. Its ruins, about six miles south-east of the Sea of Galilee, are very extensive. [3676] Still called the Yarmak, evidently from its ancient name. Hippo has been mentioned in the last Chapter. [3677] Or Dium, between Pella and Gadara. In later times, this place was included in Roman Arabia. [3678] Also called Butis. It was the most southerly of the ten cities which comprised the Decapolis, standing about five miles south of Scythopolis, or Beth-shan. Its exact site seems not to have been ascertained; but it has been suggested that it is the modern El-Bujeh. From the expression used by Pliny, it would appear to have had mineral waters in its vicinity. [3679] Of this place nothing is known; but it is most probable that the _Gerasa_ of Ptolemy and Josephus is meant. According to the former writer, it was thirty-five miles from Pella. Its site is marked by extensive ruins, thirty-five miles east of the Jordan, known by the name of Gerash, and on the borders of the Great Desert of the Hauvan. According to Dr. Keith, the ruins bear extensive marks of splendour. [3680] Ptolemy mentions a city of this name in Cœlesyria. [3681] So called from having been originally groups of four principalities, held by princes who were vassals to the Roman emperors, or the kings of Syria. [3682] Containing the northern district of Palestine, beyond the Jordan, between Antilibanus and the mountains of Arabia. It was bounded on the north by the territory of Damascus, on the east by Auranitis, on the south by Ituræa, and on the west by Gaulanitis. It was so called from its ranges of rocky mountains, or τραχῶνες, the caves in which gave refuge to numerous bands of robbers. [3683] So called from the mountain of that name. Cæsarea Philippi also bore the name of Panias. It was situate at the south of Mount Hermon, on the Jordan, just below its source. It was built by Philip the Tetrarch, B.C. 3. King Agrippa called it Neronias; but it soon lost that name. [3684] In C. xiv. of the present Book, as that in which the Jordan takes its rise. [3685] A place of great strength in Cœle-Syria, now known as Nebi Abel, situate between Heliopolis and Damascus. [3686] Situate between Tripolis and Antaradus, at the north-west foot of Mount Libanus. It lay within a short distance of the sea, and was famous for the worship paid by its inhabitants to Astarte, the Syrian Aphrodite. A temple was erected here to Alexander the Great, in which Alexander Severus, the Roman Emperor, was born, his parents having resorted thither to celebrate a festival, A.D. 205. From this circumstance, its name was changed to Cæsarea. Burckhardt fixes its site at a hill called Tel-Arka. [3687] Of this place, which probably took its name from its numerous vines, nothing whatever is known. [3688] Called by Pliny, in B. xii. c. 41, Gabba. It was situate at the foot of Mount Carmel between Cæsarea and Ptolemais, sixteen miles from the former. No remains of it are to be seen. It must not be confounded with Gabala, in Galilee, fortified by Herod the Great. [3689] The town was situate between Cæsarea and Ptolemais. The river has been identified with the modern Nahi-el-Zerka, in which, according to Pococke, crocodiles have been found. [3690] Called Dor, before the conquest of Canaan by the Israelites. See Joshua xvii. 11, and Judges i. 27. It afterwards belonged to the half-tribe of Manasseh. Its site is now called Tortura. [3691] Its site is now called Atlik, according to D’Anville. Parisot suggests that it is the modern Keufah; others that it is Hepha, near Mount Carmel. [3692] Insignificant in height and extent, but celebrated in Scripture history. It still bears the name of Cape Carmel. [3693] It is not improbable that he means the town of Porphyrium, now Khaifa, at the foot of the mountain. [3694] Probably the Gitta of Polybius. Of it and Jeba, nothing is known. [3695] The Nahr-Naman, or Abou, on which Ptolemais was situate. [3696] Employed in the extensive manufacture of that article at Tyre and Sidon, to the north of this district. [3697] A corruption of Acco, the native name; from which the English name Acre, and the French St. Jean d’Acre. The earliest mention of it is in the Book of Judges, i. 31. It is supposed that it was Ptolemy I., the son of Lagus, who enlarged it and gave it the name of Ptolemais. Its citadel, however, still retained the name of Ace. Under the Romans, Ptolemais, as mentioned by Pliny, was a colony, and belonged to Galilee. The modern city of Acre occupies its site. [3698] The Ach-Zib of Scripture, mentioned in Joshua xix. 29, and Judges i. 31. Its ruins are to be seen near the sea-shore, about three hours’ journey north of Acre. The spot is still called Es-Zib. [3699] Still called the Ras-el-Abiad, or White Promontory. [3700] A colony of the Sidonians: its scanty ruins are still to be seen at the poor village of Sur. The wars of the Crusades completed its downfall. The island is still joined to the mainland by the mole which was erected by Alexander the Great during the siege of the place; or, according to some, by the Syrians themselves. [3701] Carthage is supposed to have been colonized _immediately_ by the people of Utica. [3702] From which was made the famous Tyrian purple. [3703] Or “ancient Tyre,” which was built on the mainland. [3704] The Zarephath of 1 Kings xvii. 9, 10, whither Elijah was sent to the widow, whose son he afterwards raised from the dead. Its site is now known as Sarfand. [3705] Probably meaning “City of the Birds,” perhaps from the quantities of game in its vicinity. Its site now bears the name of Adlan. [3706] Its site is now called Saïda. In the time of David and Solomon, it was probably subject to the kings of Tyre. [3707] Cadmus, the founder of Thebes, was said to have been the son of its king Agenor. [3708] The Lebanon of Scripture. This intervening space, the ancient Cœle-Syria, is now inhabited by the Druses. [3709] Perhaps the modern Nahr-el-Damur. [3710] Now Beyrout. By some it has been identified with the Berotha, or Berothai, of the Hebrew Scriptures. Its full name as a Roman colony was, “Colonia Julia Augusta Felix Berytus.” It was colonized by the veterans of the Fifth, or Macedonian, and the Eighth, or Augustan, Legions. Beyrout, or Berut, is now, in a commercial point of view, the most important place in Syria. [3711] Nothing is known of this place. The name seems to mean, the “Town of the Lion.” [3712] Now the Nahr-el-Kelb, or “Dog’s River.” [3713] The site of this place seems not to be known. [3714] Now the Nahr-el-Ibrahim. [3715] The modern town which stands on its site is called Jebeil. It is situate at the foot of Lebanon. The ancient name seems to have been Gebal, and the Geblites are mentioned in Joshua, xiii. 5; 1 Kings, v. 18; and Ezek. xxvii. 9. The ruins of the ancient city are very extensive. Astarte and Isis seem to have been worshipped here. [3716] Now Batrun, a small town about twelve miles north of Byblus, said to have been founded by Ithobal, king of Tyre. [3717] Now Gazir, according to D’Anville. [3718] Twelve miles from Tripolis. Its name would seem to bear reference to a trireme, or galley. It has been said that this is the place referred to in the Book of Daniel, xi. 30. [3719] Polybius speaks of this place as being burnt by Antiochus. Its site still bears the name of Calamon, according to D’Anville. [3720] This properly consisted of three distinct cities, 600 feet apart, each with its own walls, but all connected in a common constitution; having one place of assembly, and forming in reality one city only. They were colonies, as here suggested by Pliny, of Tyre, Sidon, and Arados respectively. It is still a considerable place, called Tarabolos, or Tarablis, by the Turks. [3721] Its site is still known as Ortosa, or Tortosa. [3722] Probably the same as the Nahr-el-Kebir, or “Great River,” to the north of Tripolis. It may have derived its Greek name, which signifies “free,” from its similarity to that given to it by the people of the country. [3723] This was an important city, near Antarados. Its ruins are spoken of as very extensive. Simyra is still called Sumira. [3724] Now called Ruad; an island off the northern coast of Phœnicia, at a distance of twenty stadia from the mainland, Pliny falling short here in his measurement. The city of Arados was very populous, though built on a mere rock; and, contrary to Eastern custom, the houses contained many stories. It is spoken of by the prophet Ezekiel under the name of Arvad: see c. xxvii. 8, 11. In importance, it ranked next to the cities of Tyre and Sidon. [3725] Its modern name does not appear to be known. [3726] Also called Antarados, as lying nearly opposite to the city of Arados. According to Strabo, the port of Antarados was called Carne, or Carnos. In the time of the Crusades, it was known under the name of Tortosa. Its present name is Tartus. [3727] Now Banias. It was situate twenty-four miles north of Antarados. Its name is supposed to have originated in the baths in its vicinity. The site is deserted; but a few ruins of the ancient town are still to be seen. [3728] Eight miles from Balanea. Its ruins are known by the name of Boldo. [3729] Its site is now known as Djebeleh, a small village in the vicinity of Laodicea, or Latakia. The sun was probably worshipped here, and hence the Emperor Heliogabalus derived his name. [3730] About fifty miles south of Antioch, now called Ladikiyeh, or Latakia, noted for the excellence of its tobacco, which has an European reputation. It was built by Seleucus I., on the site of an earlier city, called Ramitha. It was afterwards greatly favoured by Julius Cæsar. Herod the Great built an aqueduct here, the ruins of which are still in existence. It is now a poor Turkish village; but there are considerable remains of the ancient city to be seen in its vicinity. [3731] It has been suggested, that Pliny means the city of Lydda, in the tribe of Benjamin, which of course would be very much to the south, and quite out of the order in which he is proceeding. If that is not the place meant, this Diospolis is utterly unknown. [3732] At some miles’ distance to the north of Laodicea. Pococke found some traces of its site at a spot called Minta Baurdeleh, or the Bay of the Tower. [3733] Pliny is in error here most probably, and is speaking of a place as being in Syria which in reality was in Cilicia, between Platanus and Cragus. The name implies its situation near a mountain torrent. [3734] On a small bay, some miles north of Heraclea. [3735] Or Antioch, the capital of the Greek kings of Syria, and the most famous of the sixteen cities built by Seleucus Nicator, and called after the name of his father, (or son, as some say,) Antiochus. It was built on the Orontes, and formed one of the most beautiful and pleasant cities of the ancient world. The modern Antakieh is a poor town, built on the north-western part of the site of the ancient city, by the river. The walls, built by Justinian, may still be traced for a circuit of four miles. Here the followers of our Saviour first obtained the name of “Christians.” [3736] That is, “Near Daphne,” there being a celebrated grove of that name, consecrated to Apollo, in its immediate vicinity. [3737] Now called the Nahr-el-Asy. [3738] Now Seleuca, or Kepse, at the foot of Mount Pieria. It has been referred to in a previous note. [3739] Now known as Djebel-el-Akra. [3740] In the extreme north-east of Egypt. See pp. 422 and 424. [3741] The beginning of the fourth watch was three o’clock in the morning. The height of this mountain does not in reality appear to be anything remarkable, and has been ascertained to be but 5318 feet. There is probably no foundation for the marvellous story here told by Pliny; nevertheless, we are told by Spartianus, that the Emperor Adrian passed a night upon the mountain, for the purpose of seeing this extraordinary sight; but a storm arising, it prevented the gratification of his curiosity. It lay near Nymphæum and Seleucia, and its base was washed by the waters of the Orontes. [3742] Or Baalbec, in the interior of Syria. [3743] According to Ansart, it still retains that name. [3744] Now called Bylan. This was the name of the narrow pass between a portion of Mount Taurus and the Rock of Rossicum. According to Ansart, the spot is called at the present day Saggal Doutan. [3745] This was a Phœnician colony, on the eastern side of the Gulf of Issus; it is said by Ansart still to retain its ancient name. [3746] Now called Alma-Dagh, a branch of Mount Taurus, running from the head of the Gulf of Issus, north-east, to the principal chain, and dividing Syria from Cilicia and Cappadocia. There were two passes in it, the Syrian Gates and the Amanian Gates. It is often spoken of by Cicero, who was the Roman governor of Cilicia. [3747] The locality of this place is unknown, as Pliny is the only author who mentions it. [3748] Now Kulat-el-Mudik, situate in the valley of the Orontes, and capital of the province of Apamene. It was fortified and enlarged by Seleucus Nicator, who gave it its name, after his wife Apama. It also bore the Macedonian name of Pella. It was situate on a hill, and was so far surrounded by the windings of the Orontes, as to become a peninsula, whence its name of Chersonesus. Very extensive ruins of this place still exist. [3749] It is suggested, that these are the Phylarchi Arabes of Strabo, now called the Nosairis, who were situate to the east of Apamea. The river Marsyas here mentioned was a small tributary of the Orontes, into which it falls on the east side, near Apamea. [3750] This was situate in Cyrrhestica, in Syria, on the high road from Antioch to Mesopotamia, twenty-four miles to the west of the Euphrates, and thirty-six to the south-west of Zeugma; two and a half days’ journey from Berœa, and five from Antioch. It obtained its Greek name of the “Sacred City” from Seleucus Nicator, owing to its being the chief seat of the worship of the Syrian goddess Astarte. Its ruins were first discovered by Maundrell. [3751] In the former editions it is “Magog;” but Sillig’s reading of “Mabog” is correct, and corresponds with the Oriental forms of Munbedj, Manbesja, Manbesjun, Menba, Manba, Manbegj, and the modern name, Kara Bambuche, or Buguk Munbedj. [3752] Astarte, the semi-fish goddess. [3753] This Chalcis is supposed to have been situate somewhere in the district of the Buckaa, probably south of Heliopolis, or Baalbec. It has been suggested, that its site may have been at, or near Zahle; in the vicinity of which, at the village of Heusn Nieba, are to be seen some remarkable remains. Or else, possibly, at Majdel Anjar, where Abulfeda speaks of great ruins of hewn stone. [3754] Ansart suggests, that Belus is here the name of a mountain, and that it may be the same that is now called Djebel-il-Semmaq. [3755] To the north of Chalcidene, a town of Syria, on the slopes of the Taurus, eighty miles to the north-cast of Antioch. In the Roman times, it was the head-quarters of the Tenth Legion. The ruins near the modern village of Corus represent the ancient Cyrrhus. Of the Gazatæ and Gindareni, nothing is known. [3756] Possibly meaning the “Burghers of Granum.” Nothing is known of these people. [3757] The people of Emesa, a city in the district of Apamene, on the right, or eastern bank of the Orontes, to which, in C. 26 of the present Book, Pliny assigns a desert district beyond Palmyra. It was celebrated in ancient times for its magnificent temple of the sun, and the appointment of its priest, Bassianus, or Heliogabalus, to the imperial dignity, in his fourteenth year. It was made a colony, with the _jus Italicum_, by Caracalla, and afterwards became the capital of Phœnicia Libanesia. The present name of its site is Hems. [3758] The Hylatæ are totally unknown. Ituræa was situate in the north-east of Palestine, and, with Trachonitis, belonged to the tetrarchy of Philip. Its boundaries cannot be precisely determined; but it may probably be traversed by a line drawn from the Lake of Tiberias to Damascus. [3759] According to Ptolemy, the people of Mariama, some miles to the west of Emesa. [3760] In the district of Laodicea, according to Ptolemy. [3761] Near the Portæ Amani, or “Passes of Amanus.” [3762] Pinara was near Pagræ, in Pieria, last mentioned. [3763] Probably Seleucia, in Mesopotamia, now called Bir, on the left bank of the Euphrates, opposite to the ford of Zeugma, a fortress of considerable importance. [3764] Its site is doubtful. Sebj d’Aboulgazi has been suggested. [3765] The people of Arethusa, a city of Syria, not far from Apamea, situate between Epiphania and Emesa. In later times, it took the name of Restan. [3766] The people of Berœa, a town of Syria, midway between Antioch and Hierapolis. Seleucus Nicator gave to it the Macedonian name of Berœa; but, in A.D. 638, it resumed its ancient name of Chaleb, or Chalybon. The modern Haleb, or Aleppo, occupies its site. Some excavations, on the eastern side of it, are the only vestiges of ancient remains in the neighbourhood. [3767] The people of Epiphanæa, placed by Ptolemy in the district of Cassiotis, in which also Antioch and Larissa were situate. The Itinerary of Antoninus places it sixteen miles from Larissa, thirty-two from Emesa, and 101 from Antioch of Syria. It is supposed to have been identical with the ancient Hamath, mentioned in 2 Sam. viii. 9; 1 Kings viii. 65; Isaiah x. 9, and called “Hamath the great” in Amos vi. 2, which name it also retained in the time of St. Jerome. [3768] The people of Laodicea ad Libanum, a city of Cœle-Syria, at the northern entrance to the narrow valley, between Libanus and Anti-Libanus. During the possession of Cœle-Syria by the Greek kings of Egypt, it was the south-west border fortress of Syria. It was the chief city of a district called Laodicene. [3769] Of Leucas, or Leucadia, nothing is known. Larissa, in Syria, was a city in the district of Apamene, on the western bank of the Orontes, about half-way between Apamea and Epiphania. The site is now called Kulat-Seijar. [3770] In the western branch of the plateau of Iran, a portion of the Taurus chain. Considerable changes in the course of the lower portion of the river have taken place since the time when Pliny wrote. Caranitis is the modern Arzrum, or Erzrúm, of the Turks. [3771] Now called Dujik Tagh, a mountain of Armenia. [3772] It has been suggested, that the proper reading here would be _Xerxene_. [3773] Probably the district where the goddess Anais was worshipped, who is mentioned by Pliny in B. xxxiii. c. 24. [3774] From the place of confluence where the two mountain streams forming the Euphrates unite. This spot is now known as Kebban Ma’den. [3775] A fortress upon the river Euphrates, in Lesser Armenia. It has been identified with the ferry and lead-mines of Kebban Ma’den, the points where the Kara Su is joined by the Myrad-Chaï, at a distance of 270 miles from its source; the two streams forming, by their confluence, the Euphrates. [3776] Other readings have “Pastona” here, said by D’Anville to be the modern Pastek. [3777] Called the metropolis of Lesser Armenia by Procopius. It was situate between Anti-Taurus and the Euphrates, and celebrated for its fertility, more especially in fruit-trees, oil, and wine. The site of the city Melitene is now called Malatiyah, on a tributary of the Euphrates, and near that river itself. [3778] It is generally supposed that “twenty-four” would be the correct reading here. [3779] There were two places of this name. The one here spoken of was a town of Lesser Armenia, on the right bank of the Euphrates, at the first, or principal curve, which takes place before the river enters Mount Taurus. It is represented by the modern Iz Oghlu. [3780] No other writer is found to make mention of the Lycus, which flows into the Euphrates, though there is a river formerly so called, which flows into the Tigris below Larissa, the modern Nimroud. D’Anville is of opinion, that it is formed from the numerous springs, called by the people of the district Bing-gheul, or the “Thousand Springs.” [3781] Now called the Myrad-Chaï. Ritter considers it to be the south arm of the Euphrates. The Arsanus is mentioned by no writer except Pliny. [3782] The defile at this place is now called the Cataract of Nachour, according to Parisot. [3783] The more general reading here is “Omira.” Hardouin is of opinion, that this is the district referred to in the Book of Judith, ii. 24. In the Vulgate, it appears to be twice called the river _Mambre_; but in our version it is called _Arbonaï_. [3784] Burnouf has concluded, from a cuneiform inscription which he deciphered, that the name of this people was Ayurâ, and that Hardouin is wrong in conjecturing that it was a name derived from the Greek ὄρος, “a mountain,” and designating the people as a mountain tribe. If Burnouf is right, the proper reading here would seem to be Arœi, or Arrhœi. [3785] The length of the _schœnus_ has been mentioned by our author in C. 11 of the present Book. M. Saigey makes the Persian parasang to be very nearly the same length as the schœnus of Pliny. [3786] Commagene was a district in the north of Syria, bounded by the Euphrates on the east, by Cilicia on the west, and by Amanus on the north. Its capital was Samosata. [3787] The place here spoken of by Pliny is probably the same mentioned by Ptolemy as in Cataonia, one of the provinces of Cappadocia. According to Parisot, the site of the place is called at the present day ‘Ra Claudie.’ [3788] Salmasius has confounded these cataracts with those of Nachour, or Elegia, previously mentioned. It is evident, however, that they are not the same. [3789] Now called Someisat. In literary history, it is celebrated as being the birth-place of the satirist Lucian. Nothing remains of it but a heap of ruins, on an artificial mound. [3790] In the district of Osrhoëne, in the northern part of Mesopotamia. It was situate on the Syrtus, now the Daisan, a small tributary of the Euphrates. Pliny speaks rather loosely when he places it in Arabia. It is supposed that it bore the name of Antiochia during the reign of the Syrian king, Antiochus IV. The modern town of Orfahor Unfah is supposed to represent its site. [3791] “The beautiful stream.” It is generally supposed that this was another name of Edessa. [3792] Supposed to be the Haran, or Charan, of the Old Testament. It was here, as alluded to by Pliny, that Crassus was defeated and slain by the Parthian general, Surena. It was situate in Osroëne, in Mesopotamia, and not far from Edessa. According to Stephanus, it had its name from Carrha, a river of Syria, and was celebrated in ancient times for its temple of Luna, or Lunus. [3793] According to Strabo, the Aborras, now the Khabur, flowed round this town. By Tacitus it is called Anthemusias. According to Isidorus of Charax, it lay between Edessa and the Euphrates. [3794] Now Rakkah, a fortified town of Mesopotamia, on the Euphrates, near the mouth of the river Bilecha. It was built by order of Alexander the Great, and completed probably by Seleucus. It is supposed to have been the same place as Callinicum, the fortifications of which were repaired by Justinian. Its name was changed in later times to Leontopolis by the Emperor Leo. [3795] Now called Sinjar, according to Brotier. Some writers imagine that this was the site of “the plain in the land of Shinar,” on which the Tower of Babel was built, mentioned in the Book of Genesis, xi. 2. [3796] Mentioned in C. 17 of the present Book. [3797] Probably not that in the district of Cassiotis, and on the western bank of the Orontes, mentioned in C. 19 of the present Book. Of this locality nothing seems to be known, except that Dupinet states that it is now called Adelphe by the Turks. [3798] Probably the “Antiochia ad Taurum” mentioned by the geographer Stephanus, and by Ptolemy. Some writers place it at the modern Aintab, seventy-five miles north-east of Aleppo. [3799] Now called Roum-Cala, or the “Roman Castle.” For Zeugma see p. 424. [3800] In the north-east of the district of Astropatene, originally called Rhaga. It was rebuilt by Seleucus Nicator, and by him called Europus. Colonel Rawlinson has identified it with the present Veramin, at no great distance from the ancient Rhages. [3801] Its ruins are to be seen at the ford of El Hamman, near the modern Rakkah. It stood on the banks of the Euphrates; and here was the usual, and, for a long time, the only ford of the Euphrates. It is supposed to have derived its name from the Aramean word “Thiphsach,” signifying “a ford.” [3802] Or “Dwellers in Tents.” See p. 422. [3803] According to Ortelius and Hardouin, this is the place called Sura by Pliny, in C. 26 of the present Book; but Parisot differs from that opinion. Bochart suggests, that “Ur, of the Chaldees,” is the place referred to under this name; but, as Hardouin observes, that place lay at a considerable distance to the south. [3804] So called from the circumstance that Palmyra stood in the midst of them. It was built by King Solomon, in an oasis of the Desert, in the midst of palm groves, from which it received its Greek name, which was a translation also of the Hebrew “Tadmor,” “the city of palm-trees.” It lay at a considerable distance from the Euphrates. Its site presents considerable ruins; but they are all of the Roman period, and greatly inferior to those of Baalbec or Heliopolis. [3805] The rock fortress of the Idumæans in Arabia Petræa, now called Wady-Musa, half-way between the head of the Gulf of Akabah and the Dead Sea. [3806] Which it continued to do until it was conquered under its queen, Zenobia, by the Emperor Aurelian, in A.D. 270. It was partially destroyed by him, but was afterwards fortified by Justinian; though it never recovered its former greatness. [3807] See B. vi. c. 30. [3808] Pliny is the only author that makes mention of Stelendene. [3809] In C. 19 of the present Book. [3810] Previously mentioned by Pliny. See p. 439. Of Elatium nothing is known. [3811] The same place that is also mentioned in history as Flavia Firma Sura. The site of Philiscum is totally unknown. [3812] Nothing is known of this place. [3813] Parisot remarks, that it is true that the Euphrates increases periodically, much in the same manner as the Nile; but that its increase does not arise from similar causes, nor are the same results produced by it, seeing that the river does not convey the same volume of water as the Nile, and that the country in the vicinity of its bed does not, like Egypt, form a valley pent up between two ranges of hills. [3814] So called probably from the Greek διαφανὴς, “transparent.” It has not been identified, but it was no doubt a small stream falling into the Gulf of Issus. [3815] Or “Passes.” As to Mount Amanus, see C. 18 of the present Book. [3816] Parisot suggests that this is the Chersos of Xenophon, the modern Kermes. [3817] The Deli-Su of modern times according to D’Anville, the Maher-Su according to Pococke. [3818] Pliny is the only writer that mentions this river Lycus. [3819] The Gulf of Issos is now called the Gulf of Scanderoon or Iskenderun, from the town of that name, the former Alexandria ad Issum, mentioned here by Pliny. In the vicinity of Issus, Alexander defeated the army of Darius. The exact site of the town appears not to have been ascertained. [3820] Which still preserves its name in Iskenderun, on the east side of the Gulf. It probably received its name in honour of Alexander the Great. [3821] Or the “Green” River. Its identity is unknown. [3822] Now called Ayas Kala or Kalassy. It was a place, in the Roman period, of some importance. [3823] The modern river Jihan. [3824] Or “Passes” of Cilicia, through the range of Taurus. [3825] Called Mallo in modern times, according to Hardouin and Dupinet. [3826] At the mouth of the Pyramus, according to Tzetzes. [3827] Famous as the birth-place of St. Paul, the Apostle of the Gentiles. Its ruins still bear the name of Tersus. During the civil war it took part with Julius Cæsar, and from him received the name of Juliopolis. [3828] They lie between the rivers Djihoun and Syhoun, according to Ansart. [3829] Now called Messis, according to D’Anville and Mannert. The site of Cassipolis, or Cassiopolis according to some readings, is unknown. [3830] The sites of Thynos and Zephyrium appear to be unknown. Anchiale was situate on the coast, upon the river Anchialeus, according to the geographer Stephanus. Aristobulus, quoted by Strabo, says that at this place was the tomb of Sardanapalus, and on it a relief in stone representing a man snapping the fingers of the right hand. He adds, “It is said that there is an Assyrian inscription also, recording that Sardanapalus built Anchiale and Tarsus in one day, and exhorting the reader to eat, drink, &c., as everything else is not worth That, the meaning of which was shown by the attitude of the figure.” Athenæus however cites Amyntas as his authority for stating that the tomb of Sardanapalus was at Nineveh. Leake is of opinion that a mound on the banks of the river beyond the modern villages of Kazalu and Karaduar forms the remains of Anchiale. [3831] The modern Syhou, according to Ansart. [3832] Now called the Tersoos Chai. It is remarkable for the coldness of its waters, and it was here that Alexander the Great nearly met with his death from bathing when heated, in the stream. [3833] Now Chelendreh. It was a strong place on the coast, situate on a high rock nearly surrounded by the sea. None of its ruins seem older than the early period of the Roman empire. The Turks call it Gulnare. [3834] Probably so called from a temple to the Sea Nymphs there. [3835] To distinguish it from Solæ or Soli of Cyprus. It was situate between the rivers Cydnus and Lamus, and was said to have been colonized by Argives and Lydians from Rhodes. Alexander mulcted its inhabitants of 200 talents, for their adhesion to the Persians. It was celebrated as the birth-place of the Stoic philosopher Chrysippus, the comic poet Philemon, and the poet and astronomer Aratus. Its name is perpetuated in the word _Solecism_, which is said to have been first applied to the corrupt dialect of Greek spoken by the inhabitants of this city, or as some say, of Soli in Cyprus. [3836] It still retains its ancient name, and is situate on the western side of the Sarus, now the Syhoun or Syhan. Pompey settled here some of the Cilician pirates whom he had conquered. [3837] Leake, in his ‘Asia Minor,’ p. 196, says, “The vestiges of Cibyra are probably those observed by Captain Beaufort upon a height which rises from the right bank of a considerable river about eight miles to the eastward of the Melas, about four miles to the west of Cape Karáburnu, and nearly two miles from the shore.” Ptolemy mentions Cibyra as an inland town of Cilicia Trachea, but Scylax places it on the coast. [3838] Its ruins are still called Pinara or Minara. It was an inland city of Lycia, some distance west of the river Xanthus, and at the foot of Mount Cragus. [3839] Or perhaps ‘Podalie.’ Of it nothing seems to be known. [3840] Or Selinuntum, now Selenti, on the coast of Cilicia. In consequence of the death here of the Emperor Trajan, it received the name of Trajanopolis. Of Ale, if that is the correct reading, nothing whatever is known. [3841] On the coast of Cilicia; mentioned by Strabo as having a port. Leake places it at or near the ruined castle called Sokhta Kalesi, below which is a port, and a peninsula on the east side of the harbour covered with ruins. [3842] In the district of Selenitis. It has been identified with the site of the modern fortress of Lambardo. It is also suggested that it may have been the same place as Laerte, the native city of Diogenes Laertius. Of Doron nothing seems to be known. [3843] Its ruins are supposed to be those seen by Leake near the island of Crambusa. Here the walls of an ancient city may still be traced, and a mole of unhewn rocks projects from one angle of the fortress about 100 yards across the bay. [3844] Strabo describes this cave as a vast hollow of circular form, surrounded by a margin of rock on all sides of considerable height; on descending it, the ground was found full of shrubs, both evergreens and cultivated, and in some parts the best saffron was grown. He also says that there was a cave which contained a large spring, from which arose a river of clear water which immediately afterwards sank into the earth and flowed underground into the sea. It was called the Bitter Water. This cave, so famed in ancient times, does not appear to have been examined by any modern traveller. It was said to have been the bed of the giant Typhon or Typhœus. [3845] Now known as the Ghiuk-Su. [3846] Supposed to be the same as the modern Lessan-el-Kahpeh. [3847] Or Holmi, on the coast of Cilicia Tracheia, a little to the south-west of Seleucia. Leake thinks that the modern town of Aghaliman occupies the site of Holmœ. [3848] Probably the same place as the Aphrodisias mentioned by Livy, Diodorus Siculus, and Ptolemy. [3849] On the headland now called Cape Anemour, the most southerly part of Asia Minor. Beaufort discovered on the point indications of a considerable ancient town. [3850] Its site is now called Alaya or Alanieh. This spot was Strabo’s boundary-line between Pamphylia and Cilicia. Some slight remains of the ancient town were seen here by Beaufort, but no inscriptions were found. [3851] Identified by Beaufort with the modern Manaugat-Su. [3852] So called, either from an adjacent mountain of that name, or its founder, Anazarbus. Its later name was Cæsarea ad Anazarbum. Its site is called Anawasy or Amnasy, and is said to display considerable remains of the ancient town. Of Augusta nothing is known: Ptolemy places it in a district called Bryelice. [3853] Identified by Ainsworth with the ruins seen at Kara Kaya in Cilicia. [3854] Pompey settled some of the Cilician pirates here after his defeat of them. It was thirty miles east of Anazarbus, but its site does not appear to have been identified. [3855] An island off the shore of Cilicia, also called Sebaste. [3856] Some of the MSS. read “Riconium” here. [3857] Its ruins are called Selefkeh. This was an important city of Seleucia Aspera, built by Seleucus I. on the western bank of the river Calycadnus. It had an oracle of Apollo, and annual games in honour of Zeus Olympius. It was a free city under the Romans. It was here that Frederick Barbarossa, the emperor of Germany, died. Its ruins are picturesque and extensive. [3858] Meaning that the inhabitants of Holmia were removed by Seleucus to his new city of Seleucia. [3859] Said by Vitruvius to have had the property of anointing those who bathed in its waters. If so, it probably had its name from the Greek word λιπαρὸς, “fat.” It flowed past the town of Soloë. Bombos and Paradisus are rivers which do not appear to have been identified. [3860] A branch of the Taurus range. [3861] It bordered in the east on Lycaonia, in the north on Phrygia, in the west on Pisidia, and in the south on Cilicia and Pamphylia. [3862] A well-fortified city at the foot of Mount Taurus. It was twice destroyed, first by its inhabitants when besieged by Perdiccas, and again by the Roman general Servilius Isauricus. Strabo says that Amyntas of Galatea built a new city in its vicinity out of the ruins of the old one. D’Anville and others have identified the site of Old Isauria with the modern Bei Sheher, and they are of opinion that Seidi Sheher occupies the site of New Isaura, but Hamilton thinks that the ruins on a hill near the village of Olou Bounar mark the site of New Isaura. Of the two next places nothing seems to be known at the present day. [3863] In the last Chapter. [3864] In Pisidia, at the southern extremity of Lake Caralitis. Tacitus, Annals, iii. 48, says that this people possessed forty-four fortresses: whereas Strabo speaks of them as the most barbarous of all the Pisidian tribes, dwelling only in caves. They were conquered by the consul Quirinius in the time of Augustus. [3865] Pisidia was a mountainous region formed by that part of the main chain of Mount Taurus which sweeps round in a semicircle parallel to the shore of the Pamphylian Gulf; the shore itself at the foot of the mountains forming the district of Pamphylia. On the south-east it was bounded by Cilicia, on the east and north-east by Lycaonia and Isauria, and by Phrygia Parorios on the north, where its boundaries greatly varied at different times. [3866] Generally called “Antioch of Pisidia,” was situate on the south side of the mountain boundary between Phrygia and Pisidia. The modern Yalobatch is supposed to occupy its site. The remains of the ancient town are numerous. Its title of Cæsarea was probably given to it on its becoming a Roman colony early in the imperial period. [3867] D’Anville suggests that the modern Haviran occupies its site, and that Sadjakla stands on that of Sagalessos. [3868] This country was bounded on the north by Galatia, on the east by Cappadocia, on the south by Cilicia Aspera, on the south-west by Isauria and Phrygia Parorios, and on the north-west by Great Phrygia. It was assigned under the Persian empire to the satrapy of Cappadocia, but considered by the Greek and Roman geographers the south-east part of Phrygia. [3869] Phrygia, or the western part of Asia, the first part of the Asiatic continent that received the name of Asia. Sec Chapters 28 & 29 of the present Book. [3870] D’Anville thinks that the place called Il-Goun occupies the site of Philomela. [3871] Hardouin suggests that the reading here is “Tibriani,” the people of Tibrias. Ansart is of opinion that Thymbrium is meant, the place at which Cyrus defeated the army of Crœsus. [3872] Its site is unknown. It was probably so called from the quarries of white stone or marble in its vicinity. Pelta and Tyrium are also equally unknown. [3873] Iconium was regarded in the time of Xenophon as the easternmost town of Phrygia, while all the later authorities described it as the principal city of Lycaonia. In the Acts of the Apostles it is described as a very populous city, inhabited by Greeks and Jews. Its site is now called Kunjah or Koniyeh. [3874] It has been suggested that this may be the Tarbassus of Artemidorus, quoted by Strabo. Hyde was in later times one of the episcopal cities of Lycaonia. [3875] Their district is called Melyas by Herodotus, B. i. c. 173. The city of Arycanda is unknown. [3876] United with Cilicia it now forms the province of Caramania or Kermanieh. It was a narrow strip of the southern coast of Asia Minor, extending in an arch along the Pamphylian Gulf between Lycia on the west, Cilicia on the east, and on the north bordering on Pisidia. [3877] Tradition ascribed the first Greek settlements in this country to Mopsus, son of Apollo (or of Rhacius), after the Trojan war. [3878] Now called the Gulf of Adalia, lying between Cape Khelidonia and Cape Anemour. [3879] Now called Candeloro, according to D’Anville and Beaufort. [3880] Or Aspendus, an Argeian colony on the river Eurymedon. The “mountain” of Pliny is nothing but a hill or piece of elevated ground. It is supposed that it still retains its ancient name. In B. xxxi. c. 7, Pliny mentions a salt lake in its vicinity. [3881] Hardouin suggests that the correct reading is ‘Petnelessum.’ [3882] A city of remarkable splendour, between the rivers Catarrhactes and Cestrus, sixty stadia from the mouth of the former. It was a celebrated seat of the worship of Artemis or Diana. In the later Roman empire it was the capital of Pamphylia Secunda. It was the first place visited by St. Paul in Asia Minor. See Acts, xiii. 13 and xiv. 25. Its splendid ruins are still to be seen at Murtana, sixteen miles north-east of Adalia. [3883] Now known as the Kapri-Su. [3884] Now called Duden-Su. It descends the mountains of Taurus in a great broken waterfall, whence its name. [3885] Probably occupying the site of the modern Atalieh or Satalieh. [3886] On the borders of Lycia and Pamphylia, at the foot of Mount Solyma. Its ruins now bear the name of Tekrova. [3887] It was inclosed by Caria and Pamphylia on the west and east, and on the north by the district of Cibyrates in Phrygia. [3888] The Gulf of Satalieh or Adalia. [3889] Still known as Cape Khelidonia or Cameroso. [3890] Parisot remarks here, “Pliny describes on this occasion, with an exactness very remarkable for his time, the chain of mountains which runs through the part of Asia known to the ancients, although it is evident that he confines the extent of them within much too small a compass.” [3891] The Caspian and the Hyrcanian Seas are generally looked upon as identical, but we find them again distinguished by Pliny in B. vi. c. 13, where he says that this inland sea commences to be called the _Caspian_ after you have passed the river Cyrus (or Kúr), and that the Caspii live near it; and in C. 16, that it is called the _Hyrcanian_ Sea, from the Hyrcani who live along its shores. The western side would therefore in strictness be called the _Caspian_, and the eastern the _Hyrcanian_ Sea. [3892] “The name of Imaüs was, in the first instance, applied by the Greek geographers to the Hindú-Kúsh and to the chain parallel to the equator, to which the name of Himâlaya is usually given at the present day. The name was gradually extended to the intersection running north and south, the meridian axis of Central Asia, or the _Bolor_ range. The divisions of Asia into ‘intra et extra Imaum,’ were unknown to Strabo and Pliny, though the latter describes the knot of mountains formed by the intersections of the Himâlaya, the Hindú-Kúsh, and Bolor, by the expression ‘quorum (Montes Emodi) promontorium Imaüs vocatur.’ The Bolor chain has been for ages, with one or two exceptions, the boundary between the empires of China and Turkestan.”—_Dr. Smith’s Dictionary of Ancient Geography._ [3893] The Gates of Armenia are spoken of in B. vi. c. 12, the Gates of the Caspian in C. 16 of the same Book, and the Gates of Cilicia in C. 22 of the present Book. [3894] See C. ix. of the next Book. [3895] “Strabo gives this name to only the eastern portion of the Caucasian chain which overhangs the Caspian Sea and forms the northern boundary of Albania, and in which he places the Amazons. Mela seems to apply the name to the whole chain which other writers call Caucasus, confining the latter term to a part of it. Pliny (B. v. c. 27 & B. vi. c. 11) gives precisely the same representation, with the additional error of making the Ceraunii (_i. e._ the Caucasus of others) part of the Great Taurus Chain. He seems to apply the name of Caucasus to the spurs which spread out both to the north-east and the south-east from the main chain near its eastern extremity, and which he regarded as a continuous range, bordering the western shores of the Caspian. See B. vi. c. 10.”—_Dr. Smith’s Dictionary of Ancient Geography._ [3896] Of Chelidonium, now Khelidonia, formed by the range of Taurus. [3897] See B. ii. c. 110. The flame which continually burned on this mountain has been examined by Beaufort, the modern traveller. The name of the mountain is now Yanar: it is formed of a mass of scaglia with serpentine. Spratt says that the flame is nothing more than a stream of inflammable gas issuing from a crevice, such as is seen in several places in the Apennines. By Homer it is represented as a fabulous monster, which is explained by Servius, the commentator of Virgil, in the following manner. He says that flames issue from the top of the mountain, and that there are lions in the vicinity; the middle part abounds in goats, and the lower part with serpents. Simena appears to be unknown. [3898] So called from Ἥφαιστος, the Greek name of Vulcan. Pliny mentions this spot also in B. ii. c. 110. The flame probably proceeded from an inflammable gas, or else was ignited by a stream of naphtha. [3899] More generally known as Phœnicus, a flourishing city on Mount Olympus; now Yanar Dagh, a volcano on the eastern coast of Lycia, with which it often exchanged names. Having become the head-quarters of the pirates, it was destroyed by the Roman general Servilius Isauricus. Its ruins are to be seen at a spot called Deliktash. [3900] Mentioned again in B. xxxvi. c. 34, as the spot whence the _gagates lapis_ or ‘agate’ took its name. The ruins at Aladja are regarded by Leake as marking the site of Gagæ; but Sir Charles Fellowes identifies the place with the modern village of Hascooe, the vicinity of which is covered with ruins. [3901] On the road from Phaselis in Lycia to Patara. Its site is a village called Hadgivella, about sixteen miles south-west of Phaselis. The remains are very considerable. [3902] The remains of Rhodiopolis were found by Spratt and Forbes in the vicinity of Corydalla. [3903] On the Limyrus, probably the modern Phineka; the ruins to the north of which are supposed to be those of Limyra. [3904] The modern Akhtar Dagh. [3905] Now Andraki. This was the port of Myra, next mentioned. It stood at the mouth of the river now known as the Andraki. Cramer observes that it was here St. Paul was put on board the ship of Alexandria, Acts xxvii. 5, 6. [3906] Still called Myra by the Greeks, but Dembre by the Turks. It was built on a rock twenty stadia from the sea. St. Paul touched here on his voyage as a prisoner to Rome, and from the mention made of it in Acts xxvii. 5, 6, it would appear to have been an important sea-port. There are magnificent ruins of this city still to be seen, in part hewn out of the solid rock. [3907] From an inscription found by Cockerell at the head of the Hassac Bay, it is thought that _Aperlæ_ is the proper name of this place, though again there are coins of Gordian which give the name as _Aperræ_. It is fixed by the Stadismus as sixty stadia west of Somena, which Leake supposes to be the same as the Simena mentioned above by Pliny. [3908] Now called Antephelo or Andifilo, on the south coast of Lycia, at the head of a bay. Its theatre is still complete, with the exception of the proscenium. There are also other interesting remains of antiquity. [3909] Fellowes places the site of Phellos near a village called _Saaret_, west-north-west of Antiphellos, where he found the remains of a town; but Spratt considers this to mark the site of the Pyrra of Pliny, mentioned above—judging from Pliny’s words. Modern geographers deem it more consistent with his meaning to look for Phellos north of Antiphellos than in any other direction, and the ruins at Tchookoorbye, north of Antiphellos, on the spur of a mountain called Fellerdagh, are thought to be those of Phellos. [3910] The most famous city of Lycia. It stood on the western bank of the river of that name, now called the Echen Chai. It was twice besieged, and on both occasions the inhabitants destroyed themselves with their property, first by the Persians under Harpagus, and afterwards by the Romans under Brutus. Among its most famous temples were those of Sarpedon and of the Lycian Apollo. The ruins now known by the name of Gunik, have been explored by Sir C. Fellows and other travellers, and a portion of its remains are now to be seen in the British Museum, under the name of the Xanthian marbles. [3911] Its ruins still bear the same name. It was a flourishing seaport, on a promontory of the same name, sixty stadia east of the mouth of the Xanthus. It was early colonized by the Dorians from Crete, and became a chief seat of the worship of Apollo, from whose son Patarus it was said to have received its name. Ptolemy Philadelphus enlarged it, and called it Arsinoë, but it still remained better known by its old name. This place was visited by St. Paul, who thence took ship for Phœnicia. See Acts xxi. 1. [3912] This was more properly the name of a mountain district of Lycia. Strabo speaks of Cragus, a mountain with eight summits, and a city of the same name. Beaufort thinks that Yedy-Booroon, the Seven Capes, a group of high and rugged mountains, appear to have been the ancient Mount Cragus of Lycia. [3913] Probably the Gulf of Macri, equal in size to the Gulf of Satalia, which is next to it. [3914] This place lay in the interior at the base of Cragus, and its ruins are still to be seen on the east side of the range, about half-way between Telmessus and the termination of the range on the south coast. [3915] Its ruins are to be seen at Mei, or the modern port of Macri. [3916] Its site is unknown. That of Candyba has been ascertained to be a place called Gendevar, east of the Xanthus, and a few miles from the coast. Its rock-tombs are said to be beautifully executed. The Œnian grove or forest, it has been suggested, may still be recognized in the extensive pine forest that now covers the mountain above the city. The sites of Podalia and Choma seem to be unknown. [3917] In some editions “Cyane.” Leake says that this place was discovered to the west of Andriaca by Cockerell. It appears from Scott and Forbes’s account of Lycia, that three sites have been found between port Tristorus and the inland valley of Kassabar, which from the inscriptions appeared anciently to have borne this name, Yarvoo, Ghiouristan, and Toussa. The former is the chief place and is covered with ruins of the Roman and middle-age construction. At Ghiouristan there are Lycian rock-tombs. [3918] Its ruins are to be seen near the modern Doover, in the interior of Lycia, about two miles and a half east of the river Xanthus. Of the three places previously mentioned the sites appear to be unknown. [3919] Mentioned by the geographer Stephanus as being in Caria. [3920] Its site is fixed at Katara, on both sides of the Katara Su, the most northern branch of the Xanthus. The ruins are very considerable, lying on both sides of the stream. Balbura is a neuter plural. [3921] It lay to the west of Balbura, near a place now called Ebajik, on a small stream that flows into the Horzoom Tchy. In B. xxxv. c. 17, Pliny mentions a kind of chalk found in the vicinity of this place. Its ruins are still to be seen, but they are not striking. [3922] In the south-west corner of Asia Minor, bounded on the north and north-east by the mountains Messagis and Cadmus, dividing it from Lydia and Phrygia, and adjoining to Phrygia and Lycia on the south-east. [3923] Caria. [3924] Now Cape Ghinazi. It was also called Artemisium, from the temple of Artemis or Diana situate upon it. [3925] Discharging itself into the bay of Telmissus, now Makri. [3926] “Telmissus” is the reading here in some editions. [3927] Situate in the district of Caria called Peræa. It was also the name given to a mountainous district. In Hoskyn’s map the ruins of Dædala are placed near the head of the Gulf of Glaucus, on the west of a small river called Inegi Chai, probably the ancient Ninus, where Dædalus was bitten by a water-snake, in consequence of which he died. [3928] On the Gulf of Glaucus: Stephanus however places it in Lycia. Mela speaks only of a promontory of this name. [3929] Leake places this river immediately west of the Gulf of Glaucus. [3930] Placed by Strabo sixty stadia from the sea, west of the Gulf of Glaucus, and east of Carinus. Its site is uncertain, but it may possibly be the place discovered by Fellows, which is proved by inscriptions to have been called Cadyanda, a name otherwise unknown to us. This lies N.N.E. of Makri, on the Gulf of Glaucus or Makri, at a place called Hoozoomlee, situate on an elevated plain. [3931] The same as the river Calbis of Strabo and Mela, at present the Dalamon Tchy, Quingi or Taas, having its sources in Mount Cadmus above Cibyra. It was said to have derived its name from an Indian, who had been thrown into it from an elephant. [3932] Their district was Cibyratis, of which the chief city was Cibyra. This place, uniting with the towns of Balbura, Bubon, and Œnianda, had the name of Tetrapolis; of which league Cibyra was the head, mustering 30,000 infantry and 2000 cavalry. The iron found in this district was easily cut with a chisel or other sharp tool. The site of this powerful city has been ascertained to be at Horzoom, on the Horzoom Tchy, a branch of the Dalamon Tchy or Indus. The ruins are very extensive, and the theatre in fine preservation. [3933] Placed by Strabo west of Calynda. The ancient descriptions of its locality vary, but the place now known as Kaiguez is said to denote its site. The Caunii are frequently mentioned in the Persian, Grecian, and Roman histories. It was noted for its dried figs, mentioned by Pliny in B. xv. c. 19. [3934] Supposed by Mannert to be the Physcus of Strabo and the Phuscæ of Ptolemy. [3935] Leake says that this harbour is now called Aplothíka by the Greeks, and Porto Cavaliere by the Italians, lie also says that on its western shore are the ruins of an Hellenic fortress and town, which are undoubtedly those of Loryma. [3936] It had a port of the same name. [3937] Called Pandion by Mela, according to Parisot. [3938] Parisot suggests that it is the same as Loryma previously mentioned. [3939] Like the Gulf of Schœnus, a portion probably of the Dorian Gulf, now the Gulf of Syme. [3940] The modern name of this promontory is not given by Hamilton, who sailed round it. It has been confounded with the Cynos Sema of Strabo, now Capo Velo. The site of Hyda or Hyde is unknown. [3941] There was a town of this name as well. Stephen of Byzantium tells us that it received its name from a shepherd who saved the life of Podalirius, when shipwrecked on the coast of Caria. [3942] Part of it was situate on an island now called Cape Krio, connected by a causeway with the mainland. Its site is covered with ruins of a most interesting character in every direction. The Triopian promontory, evidently alluded to by Pliny, is the modern Cape Krio. [3943] It has been remarked that in his description here Pliny is very brief and confused, and that he may intend to give the name of Triopia either to the small peninsula or island, or may include in this term the western part of the whole of the larger peninsula. [3944] Of these _conventus_. For an account of Cibyra see last page. [3945] On the Lycus, now known as the Choruk-Su. By different writers it has been assigned to Lydia, Caria, and Phrygia, but in the ultimate division of the Roman provinces it was assigned to the Greater Phrygia. It was founded by Antiochus II. on the site of a previous town, and named in honour of his wife Laodice. Its site is occupied by ruins of great magnificence. In the Apostolic age it was the seat of a flourishing Christian Church, which however very soon gave signs of degeneracy, as we learn from St. John’s Epistle to it, Revel. ii. 14-22. St. Paul also addresses it in common with the neighbouring church of Colossæ. Its site is now called Eski-Hissar, or the Old Castle. [3946] A tributary of the Phrygian Mæander. [3947] The people of Hydrela, a town of Caria, said to have been founded by one of three brothers who emigrated from Sparta. [3948] The people of Themisonium, now called Tseni. [3949] The people of Hierapolis, a town of Phrygia, situate on a height between the rivers Lycus and Mæander, about five miles north of Laodicea, on the road from Apamea to Sardis. It was celebrated for its warm springs, and its Plutonium, or cave of Pluto, from which issued a mephitic vapour of a poisonous nature; see B. ii. c. 95. The Christian Church here is alluded to by St. Paul in his Epistle to the Colossians, iv. 13. Its ruins are situate at an uninhabited place called Pambuk-Kalessi. [3950] Situate in the north of Phrygia Salutaris; its ruins being probably those to be seen at Afiour-Kara-Hisar. From the time of Constantine this place became the capital of Phrygia Salutaris. It stood in a fruitful plain, near a mountain quarry of the celebrated Synnadic marble, which was white with red veins and spots. This marble was also called “Docimiticus,” from Docimia, a nearer place. [3951] As already mentioned in C. 25 of the present Book. [3952] The site of Appia does not appear to be known. Cicero speaks of an application made to him by the Appiani, when he was governor of Cilicia, respecting the taxes with which they were burdened, and the buildings of their town. [3953] Eucarpia was a town of Phrygia, not far from the sources of the Mæander, on the road from Dorylæum to Apamea Cibotus. The vine grew there in great luxuriance, and to its fruitfulness the town probably owed its name. Kiepert places it in the vicinity of Segielar, but its exact site is unknown. [3954] The site of Dorylæum is now called Eski-Shehr. The hot-baths here are mentioned by Athenæus, and its waters were pleasant to the taste. Sheep-feeding appears to have been carried on here to a great extent, and under the Greek empire it was a flourishing place. The site of Midæum does not seem to be known. [3955] The people of Julia, Juliopolis, or Julianopolis, a town of Lydia, probably to the south of Mount Tmolus. [3956] This place was built near Celænæ by Antiochus Soter, and named after his mother Apama. Strabo says that it lay at the mouth of the river Marsyas. Its site has been fixed at the modern Denair. Some ancient ruins are to be seen. [3957] Pliny commits an error here; Celænæ was a different place from Apamea, though close to it. [3958] Meaning the “Fountains of the Pipe,” and probably deriving its name from the legend here mentioned by Pliny, and in B. xvi. c.