BOOK IV.

AN ACCOUNT OF COUNTRIES, NATIONS, SEAS, TOWNS, HAVENS, MOUNTAINS, RIVERS, DISTANCES, AND PEOPLES WHO NOW EXIST OR FORMERLY EXISTED. CHAP. 1. (1.)—EPIRUS. The third great Gulf of Europe begins at the mountains of Acroceraunia[2083], and ends at the Hellespont, embracing an extent of 2500 miles, exclusive of the sea-line of nineteen smaller gulfs. Upon it are Epirus, Acarnania, Ætolia, Phocis, Locris, Achaia, Messenia, Laconia, Argolis, Megaris, Attica, Bœotia; and again, upon the other sea[2084], the same Phocis and Locris, Doris, Phthiotis, Thessalia, Magnesia, Macedonia and Thracia. All the fabulous lore of Greece, as well as the effulgence of her literature, first shone forth upon the banks of this Gulf. We shall therefore dwell a little the longer upon it. Epirus[2085], generally so called, begins at the mountains of Acroceraunia. The first people that we meet are the Chaones, from whom Chaonia[2086] receives its name, then the Thesproti[2087], and then the Antigonenses[2088]. We then come to the place where Aornos[2089] stood, with its exhalations so deadly to the feathered race, the Cestrini[2090], the Perrhæbi[2091], in whose country Mount Pindus is situate, the Cassiopæi[2092], the Dryopes[2093], the Sellæ[2094], the Hellopes[2095], the Molossi, in whose territory is the temple of the Dodonæan Jupiter, so famous for its oracle; and Mount Tomarus[2096], so highly praised by Theopompus, with its hundred springs gushing from its foot. (2.) Epirus, properly so called, advances towards Magnesia and Macedonia, having at its back the Dassaretæ, previously[2097] mentioned, a free nation, and after them the Dardani, a savage race. On the left hand, before the Dardani are extended the Triballi and the nations of Mœsia, while in front of them the Medi and the Denselatæ join, and next to them the Thracians, who stretch away as far as the Euxine: in such a manner is a rampart raised around the lofty heights of Rhodope, and then of Hæmus. On the coast of Epirus is the fortress of Chimæra[2098], situate upon the Acroceraunian range, and below it the spring known as the Royal Waters[2099]; then the towns of Mæandria, and Cestria[2100], the Thyamis[2101], a river of Thesprotia, the colony of Buthrotum[2102], and the Ambracian Gulf[2103], so famed in history; which, with an inlet only half a mile in width, receives a vast body of water from the sea, being thirty-seven miles in length, and fifteen in width. The river Acheron, which runs through Acherusia, a lake of Thesprotia, flows into it[2104] after a course of thirty-six miles; it is considered wonderful for its bridge, 1000 feet in length, by a people who look upon everything as wonderful that belongs to themselves. Upon this Gulf is also situate the town of Ambracia. There are also the Aphas and the Arachthus[2105], rivers of the Molossi; the city of Anactoria[2106], and the place where Pandosia[2107] stood. CHAP. 2.—ACARNANIA. The towns of Acarnania[2108], the ancient name of which was Curetis, are Heraclia[2109], Echinus[2110], and, on the coast, Actium, a colony founded by Augustus, with its famous temple of Apollo and the free city of Nicopolis[2111]. Passing out of the Ambracian Gulf into the Ionian Sea, we come to the coast of Leucadia, with the Promontory of Leucate[2112], and then the Gulf and the peninsula of Leucadia[2113], which last was formerly called Neritis[2114]. By the exertions of the inhabitants it was once cut off from the mainland, but was again joined to it by the vast bodies of sand accumulated through the action of the winds. This spot is called Dioryctos[2115], and is three stadia in length: on the peninsula is the town of Leucas, formerly called Neritus[2116]. We next come to Alyzia[2117], Stratos[2118], and Argos[2119], surnamed Amphilochian, cities of the Acarnanians: the river Acheloüs[2120] flows from the heights of Pindus, and, after separating Acarnania from Ætolia, is fast adding the island of Artemita[2121] to the mainland by the continual deposits of earth which it brings down its stream. CHAP. 3. (2.)—ÆTOLIA. The peoples of Ætolia are the Athamanes[2122], the Tymphæi[2123], the Ephyri[2124], the Ænienses, the Perrhæbi[2125], the Dolopes[2126], the Maraces, and the Atraces[2127], in whose territory rises the river Atrax, which flows into the Ionian Sea. Calydon[2128] is a city of Ætolia, situate at a distance of seven miles from the sea, and near the banks of the river Evenus[2129]. We then come to Macynia[2130], and Molycria, behind which lie Mounts Chalcis[2131] and Taphiassus. On the coast again, there is the promontory of Antirrhium[2132], off which is the mouth of the Corinthian Gulf, which flows in and separates Ætolia from the Peloponnesus, being less[2133] than one mile in width. The promontory which faces it on the opposite side is called Rhion[2134]. The towns of Ætolia, however, on the Corinthian Gulf are Naupactus[2135] and Pylene[2136]; and, more inland, Pleuron and Halicyrna[2137]. The most famous mountains are Tomarus, in the district of Dodona, Crania[2138] in Ambracia, Aracynthus[2139] in Acarnania, and Acanthon[2140], Panætolium[2141], and Macynium[2142], in Ætolia. CHAP. 4. (3.)—LOCRIS AND PHOCIS. Next to Ætolia are the Locri[2143], surnamed Ozolæ; a people exempt from tribute. Here is the town of Œanthe[2144], the port[2145] of Apollo Phæstius, and the Gulf of Crissa[2146]. In the interior are the towns of Argyna, Eupalia[2147], Phæstum, and Calamisus. Beyond are the Cirrhæan plains of Phocis, the town of Cirrha[2148], and the port of Chalæon[2149], seven miles from which, in the interior, is situate the free town of Delphi[2150], at the foot of Mount Parnassus[2151], and having the most celebrated oracle of Apollo throughout the whole world. There is the Fountain too of Castalia[2152], and the river Cephisus[2153] which flows past Delphi, rising in the former city of Lilæa[2154]. Besides these, there is the town of Crissa[2155] and that of Anticyra[2156], with the Bulenses[2157]; as also Naulochum[2158], Pyrrha, Amphissa[2159], exempt from all tribute, Tithrone, Tritea[2160], Ambrysus[2161], and Drymæa[2162], which district has also the name of Daulis. The extremity of the gulf washes one corner of Bœotia, with its towns of Siphæ[2163] and Thebes[2164], surnamed the Corsian, in the vicinity of Helicon[2165]. The third town of Bœotia on this sea is that of Pagæ[2166], from which point the Isthmus of the Peloponnesus projects in the form of a neck. CHAP. 5. (4.)—THE PELOPONNESUS. The Peloponnesus, which was formerly called Apia[2167] and Pelasgia, is a peninsula, inferior in fame to no land upon the face of the earth. Situate between the two seas, the Ægean and the Ionian, it is in shape like the leaf of a plane-tree, in consequence of the angular indentations made in its shores. According to Isidorus, it is 563 miles in circumference; and nearly as much again, allowing for the sea-line on the margin of its gulfs. The narrow pass at which it commences is known by the name of the Isthmus. At this spot the two seas, which we have previously mentioned, running from the north and the east, invade the land from opposite sides[2168], and swallow up its entire breadth, the result being that through these inroads in opposite directions of such vast bodies of water, the sides of the land are eaten away to such an extent, that Hellas[2169] only holds on to the Peloponnesus by the narrow neck, five miles in width, which intervenes. The Gulfs thus formed, the one on this side, the other on that, are known as the Corinthian[2170] and the Saronic Gulfs. The ports of Lecheæ[2171], on the one side, and of Cenchreæ on the other, form the frontiers of this narrow passage, which thus compels to a tedious and perilous circumnavigation such vessels as from their magnitude cannot be carried across by land on vehicles. For this reason it is that both King Demetrius[2172], Cæsar the Dictator, the prince Caius[2173], and Domitius Nero[2174], have at different times made the attempt to cut through this neck by forming a navigable canal; a profane design, as may be clearly seen by the result[2175] in every one of these instances. Upon the middle of this intervening neck which we have called the Isthmus, stands the colony of Corinth, formerly known by the name of Ephyre[2176], situate upon the brow of a hill, at a distance of sixty stadia from the shore of either sea. From the heights of its citadel, which is called Acrocorinthos, or the “Heights of Corinth,” and in which is the Fountain of Pirene, it looks down upon the two seas which lie in the opposite directions. From Leucas to Patræ upon the Corinthian gulf is a distance of eighty-eight miles. The colony of Patræ[2177] is founded upon the most extensive promontory of the Peloponnesus, facing Ætolia and the river Evenus, the Corinthian Gulf being, as we have previously[2178] stated, less than a mile in width at the entrance there, though extending in length as far as the isthmus, a distance of eighty-five miles. CHAP. 6. (5.)—ACHAIA. The province called Achaia[2179] begins at the Isthmus; from the circumstance of its cities being ranged in regular succession on its coast, it formerly had the name of Ægialos[2180]. The first place there is Lecheæ, already mentioned, a port of the Corinthians; next to which is Olyros[2181], a fortress of the people of Pellene[2182]; then the former towns of Helice and Bura[2183], and the places in which their inhabitants took refuge after their towns had been swallowed up by the sea, Sicyon[2184] namely, Ægira[2185], Ægium, and Erineos[2186]. In the interior are Cleonæ and Hysiæ[2187]; then come the port of Panormus[2188], and Rhium already mentioned; from which promontory, Patræ, of which we have previously spoken, is distant five miles; and then the place where Pheræ[2189] stood. Of the nine mountains of Achaia, Scioessa is the most famous; there is also the Fountain of Cymothoë. Beyond Patræ we find the town of Olenum[2190], the colony of Dyme[2191], the places where Buprasium[2192] and Hyrmine once stood, the Promontory of Araxus[2193], the Bay of Cyllene, and the Promontory of Chelonates, at five miles’ distance from Cyllene[2194]. There is also the fortress of Phlius[2195]; the district around which was called by Homer Aræthyrea[2196], and, after his time, Asopis. The territory of the Eleans then begins, who were formerly called Epei, with the city of Elis[2197] in the interior, and, at a distance of twelve miles from Phlius, being also in the interior, the temple of Olympian Jupiter, which by the universal celebrity of its games, gives to Greece its mode of reckoning[2198]. Here too once stood the town of Pisa[2199], the river Alpheus flowing past it. On the coast there is the Promontory of Ichthys[2200]. The river Alpheus is navigable six miles, nearly as far as the towns of Aulon[2201] and Leprion. We next come to the Promontory of Platanodes[2202]. All these localities lie to the west. CHAP. 7.—MESSENIA. Further south is the Gulf of Cyparissus, with the city of Cyparissa[2203] on its shores, the line of which is seventy-two miles in length. Then, the towns of Pylos[2204] and Methone[2205], the place where Helos stood, the Promontory of Acritas[2206], the Asinæan Gulf, which takes its name from the town of Asine[2207], and the Coronean, so called from Corone; which gulfs terminate at the Promontory of Tænarum[2208]. These are all in the country of Messenia, which has eighteen mountains, and the river Pamisus[2209] also. In the interior are Messene[2210], Ithome, Œchalia, Arene[2211], Pteleon, Thryon, Dorion[2212], and Zancle[2213], all of them known to fame at different periods. The margin of this gulf measures eighty miles, the distance across being thirty. CHAP. 8.—LACONIA. At Tænarum begins the territory of Laconia, inhabited by a free nation, and situate on a gulf 106 miles in circuit, and 38 across. The towns are, Tænarum[2214], Amyclæ[2215], Pheræ[2216], and Leuctra[2217]; and, in the interior, Sparta[2218], Theramne[2219], and the spots where Cardamyle[2220], Pitane[2221], and Anthea formerly stood; the former site of Thyrea[2222], and Gerania[2223]. Here is also Mount Taygetus[2224], the river Eurotas, the Gulf of Ægilodes[2225], the town of Psamathus, the Gulf of Gytheum[2226], so called from the town of that name, from which place the passage is the safest across to the island of Crete. All these places are bounded by the Promontory of Malea[2227]. CHAP. 9.—ARGOLIS. The next gulf, which extends as far as Scyllæum[2228], is called the Argolic Gulf, being fifty miles across, and 162 in circuit. The towns upon it are, Bœa[2229], Epidaurus[2230], surnamed Limera, Zarax[2231], and the port of Cyphanta[2232]. The rivers are the Inachus[2233] and the Erasinus, between which lies Argos, surnamed Hippium[2234], situate beyond the place called Lerna[2235], and at a distance of two miles from the sea. Nine miles farther is Mycenæ[2236], and the place where, it is said, Tiryns[2237] stood; the site, too, of Mantinea[2238]. The mountains are, Artemius, Apesantus[2239], Asterion[2240], Parparus, and some others, eleven in number. The fountains are those of Niobe[2241], Amymone, and Psamathe. From Scyllæum to the Isthmus of Corinth is a distance of 177 miles. We find here the towns of Hermione[2242], Trœzen[2243], Coryphasium[2244], and Argos, sometimes called “Inachian,” sometimes “Dipsian”[2245] Argos. Then comes the port of Schœnites[2246], and the Saronic Gulf, which was formerly encircled with a grove of oaks[2247], from which it derives its present name, oaks in ancient Greece having been so called. Upon this gulf is the town of Epidaurus, famous for its temple of Æsculapius[2248], the Promontory of Spiræum[2249], the port of Anthedus[2250], Bucephalus[2251], and then Cenchreæ, previously mentioned, on this side of the Isthmus, with its temple of Neptune[2252], famous for the games celebrated there every five years. So many are the gulfs which penetrate the shores of the Peloponnesus, so many the seas which howl around it. Invaded by the Ionian on the north, it is beaten by the Sicilian on the west, buffeted by the Cretan on the south, by the Ægean on the S.E., and by the Myrtoan on the N.E.; which last sea begins at the Gulf of Megara, and washes all the coast of Attica. CHAP. 10. (6.)—ARCADIA. Its interior is occupied for the greater part by Arcadia, which, remote from the sea on every side, was originally called Drymodes[2253], and at a later period Pelasgis. The cities of Arcadia are, Psophis[2254], Mantinea[2255], Stymphalus[2256], Tegea[2257], Antigonea[2258], Orchomenus[2259], Pheneum[2260], Palantium[2261] (from which the Palatium[2262] at Rome derives its name), Megalopolis[2263], Gortyna[2264], Bucolium, Carnion, Parrhasia[2265], Thelpusa[2266], Melænæ[2267], Heræa[2268], Pylæ[2269], Pallene, Agræ, Epium, Cynæthæ[2270], Lepreon of Arcadia[2271], Parthenium[2272], Alea, Methydrium[2273], Enispe, Macistum, Lampia, Clitorium[2274], and Cleonæ[2275]; between which two last towns is the district of Nemea, commonly known as Bembinadia[2276]. The mountains of Arcadia are, Pholoë[2277], with a town of the same name, Cyllene[2278], Lycæus[2279], upon which is the temple of Lycæan Jupiter; Mænalus[2280], Artemisius[2281], Parthenius[2282], Lampeus[2283], and Nonacris[2284], besides eight others of no note. The rivers are the Ladon[2285], which rises in the marshes of Pheneus[2286], and the Erymanthus[2287], which springs from a mountain of the same name, and flows into the Alpheus. The other cities of Achaia worthy of mention are those of the Aliphiræi[2288], the Abeatæ[2289], the Pyrgenses[2290], the Paroreatæ[2291], the Paragenitæ, the Tortuni, the Typanei[2292], the Thriasii[2293], and the Tritienses[2294]. Domitius Nero [the emperor] granted liberty to the whole of Achaia[2295]. The Peloponnesus, from the Promontory of Malea to the town of Ægium[2296] on the Corinthian Gulf, is 190 miles in length, and 125 miles across from Elis to Epidaurus; the distance being, from Olympia to Argos, through Arcadia, sixty-eight miles. The distance from Olympia to Phlius has been already mentioned[2297]. Throughout the whole of this region, as though nature had been desirous to compensate for the inroads of the sea, seventy-six mountains raise their lofty heads. CHAP. 11. (7.)—ATTICA. At the narrow neck of the Isthmus, Hellas begins, by our people known as Græcia. The first state that presents itself is Attica, anciently called Acte[2298]. It touches the Isthmus in that part of it which is called Megaris, from the colony of Megara[2299], lying on the opposite side to Pagæ[2300]. These two towns are situate at the spot where the Peloponnesus projects to the greatest distance; being placed, one on each side, upon the very shoulders of Hellas as it were. The Pagæans, as well as the people of Ægosthena[2301], belong to the jurisdiction of Megara. On the coast there is the port of Schœnos[2302], the towns of Sidus[2303] and Cremmyon[2304], the Scironian Rocks[2305], six miles in length, Geranea, Megara, and Eleusis[2306]. Œnoë[2307] and Probalinthos also formerly existed here; the ports of Piræus and Phalerum[2308] are distant from the Isthmus fifty-five miles, being united to Athens, which lies in the interior, by a wall[2309] five miles in length. Athens is a free city, and needs[2310] not a word more from us in its commendation; of fame it enjoys even more than enough. In Attica there are the Fountains of Cephisia[2311], Larine, Callirrhoë Enneacrunos[2312], and the mountains of Brilessus[2313], Ægialeus, Icarius, Hymettus[2314], Lycabettus[2315], and the place where Ilissus[2316] stood. At the distance of forty-five miles from the Piræus is the Promontory of Sunium[2317]. There is also the Promontory of Thoricos[2318]; Potamos[2319], Steria[2320], and Brauron[2321], once towns, the borough of Rhamnus[2322], the place where Marathon[2323] stood, the Thriasian[2324] plain, the town of Melite[2325], and Oropus[2326] upon the confines of Bœotia. CHAP. 12.—BŒOTIA. In this country are Anthedon[2327], Onchestus[2328], the free town of Thespiæ[2329], Lebadea[2330], and then Thebes[2331], surnamed Bœotian[2332], which does not yield the palm to Athens even in celebrity; the native land, according to the common notion, of the two Divinities Liber and Hercules. The birth-place of the Muses too is pointed out in the grove of Helicon. To this same Thebes also belong the forest of Cithæron[2333], and the river Ismenus. Besides these, there are in Bœotia the Fountains of Œdipodia, Psamathe, Dirce, Epicrane, Arethusa, Hippocrene[2334], Aganippe, and Gargaphie; and, besides the mountains already mentioned, Mycalesos, Hadylius, and Acontius. The remaining towns between Megara and Thebes are Eleutheræ[2335], Haliartus[2336], Platææ[2337], Pheræ, Aspledon[2338], Hyle[2339], Thisbe[2340], Erythræ[2341], Glissas[2342], and Copæ[2343]; near the river Cephisus, Larymna and Anchoa[2344]; as also Medeon, Phlygone, Acræphia[2345], Coronea[2346], and Chæronea[2347]. Again, on the coast and below Thebes, are Ocalea[2348], Heleon, Scolos, Schœnos[2349], Peteon[2350], Hyriæ[2351], Mycalesos[2352], Iresion, Pteleon, Olyros, and Tanagra[2353], the people of which are free; and, situate upon the very mouth of the Euripus[2354], a strait formed by the opposite island of Eubœa, Aulis[2355], so famous for its capacious harbour. The Bœotians formerly had the name of Hyantes. After them come the Locrians, surnamed Epicnemidii[2356], formerly called Leleges, through whose country the river Cephisus passes, in its course to the sea. Their towns are Opus[2357]; from which the Opuntian Gulf[2358] takes its name, and Cynos. Daphnus[2359] is the only town of Phocis situate on the coast. In the interior of Locris is Elatea[2360], and on the banks of the Cephisus, as we have previously stated[2361], Lilæa, and, facing Delphi, Cnemisæ[2362] and Hyampolisæ[2363]. Again, upon the coast of the Locrians, are Larymna[2364], and Thronium[2365], near which last the river Boagrius enters the sea. Also, the towns of Narycion, Alope[2366], and Scarphia[2367]; and then the gulf which receives the name of the Maliac[2368] from the people who dwell there, and upon which are the towns of Halcyone, Econia, and Phalara[2369]. CHAP. 13.—DORIS. Doris comes next, in which are Sperchios[2370], Erineon[2371], Boion[2372], Pindus, and Cytinum[2373]. Behind Doris lies Mount Œta. CHAP. 14.—PHTHIOTIS. Hæmonia follows, a country which has often changed its name, having been successively called Pelasgic Argos, Hellas, Thessaly, and Dryopis, always taking its surname from its kings. In this country was born the king whose name was Græcus; and from whom Græcia was so called; and here too was born Hellen[2374], from whom the Hellenes derive their name. The same people Homer has called by three different names, Myrmidones, Hellenes, and Achæi. That portion of these people which inhabit the country adjacent to Doris are called Phthiotæ. Their towns are Echinus[2375], at the mouth of the river Sperchius, and, at four miles from the narrow pass of Thermopylæ[2376], Heraclea, which from it takes its surname of Trachin[2377]. Here too is Mount Callidromus[2378], and the celebrated towns of Hellas[2379], Halos[2380], Lamia[2381], Phthia[2382], and Arne[2383]. CHAP. 15. (8.)—THESSALY PROPER. In Thessaly is Orchomenus, formerly called the Minyan[2384], and the towns of Almon, by some called Salmon, Atrax[2385], and Pelinna; the Fountain of Hyperia; the towns also of Pheræ[2386], at the back of which is Pieria[2387], extending to Macedonia, Larisa[2388], Gomphi[2389], Thebes[2390] of Thessaly, the grove of Pteleon, the Gulf of Pagasa, the town of Pagasa[2391], which was afterwards called Demetrias[2392], the Plains of Pharsalia, with a free city of similar name[2393], Crannon[2394], and Iletia. The mountains of Phthiotis are Nymphæus, once so beautiful for its garden scenery, the work of nature; Busygæus, Donacesa, Bermius[2395], Daphusa, Chimerion, Athamas, and Stephane. In Thessaly there are thirty-four, of which the most famous are Cercetii, Olympus[2396], Pierus, and Ossa, opposite to which last are Pindus and Othrys, the abodes of the Lapithæ. These mountains look towards the west, Pelion[2397] towards the east, all of them forming a curve like an amphitheatre, in the interior of which, lying before them, are no less than seventy-five cities. The rivers of Thessaly are the Apidanus[2398], the Phœnix[2399], the Enipeus[2400], the Onochonus[2401], and the Pamisus. There is also the Fountain of Messeis, and the lake Bœbeis[2402]. The river Peneus[2403] too, superior to all others in celebrity, takes its rise near Gomphi, and flows down a well-wooded valley between Ossa and Olympus, a distance of five hundred stadia, being navigable half that distance. The vale, for a distance of five miles through which this river runs, is called by the name of Tempe; being a jugerum[2404] and a half nearly in breadth, while on the right and left, the mountain chain slopes away with a gentle elevation, beyond the range of human vision, the foliage imparting its colour to the light within. Along this vale glides the Peneus, reflecting the green tints as it rolls along its pebbly bed, its banks covered with tufts of verdant herbage, and enlivened by the melodious warblings of the birds. The Peneus receives the river Orcus, or rather, I should say, does not receive it, but merely carries its waters, which swim on its surface like oil, as Homer says[2405]; and then, after a short time, rejects them, refusing to allow the waters of a river devoted to penal sufferings and engendered for the Furies to mingle with his silvery streams. CHAP. 16. (9.)—MAGNESIA. To Thessaly Magnesia joins, in which is the fountain of Libethra[2406]. Its towns are Iolcos[2407], Hormenium, Pyrrha[2408], Methone[2409], and Olizon[2410]. The Promontory of Sepias[2411] is here situate. We then come to the towns of Casthanea[2412] and Spalathra[2413], the Promontory of Æantium[2414], the towns of Melibœa[2415], Rhizus, and Erymnæ[2416]; the mouth of the Peneus, the towns of Homolium[2417], Orthe, Thespiæ, Phalanna[2418], Thaumacie[2419], Gyrton[2420], Crannon[2421], Acharne[2422], Dotion[2423], Melitæa, Phylace[2424], and Potniæ[2425]. The length of Epirus, Achaia, Attica, and Thessaly is said altogether to amount to 490 miles, the breadth to 287. CHAP. 17. (10.)—MACEDONIA. Macedonia comes next, including 150 nations, and renowned for its two kings[2426] and its former empire over the world; it was formerly known by the name of Emathia[2427]. Stretching away towards the nations of Epirus on the west it lies at the back of Magnesia and Thessaly, being itself exposed to the attacks of the Dardani[2428]. Pæonia and Pelagonia protect its northern parts from the Triballi[2429]. Its towns are Ægiæ[2430], at which place its kings were usually buried, Beræa[2431], and, in the country called Pieria from the grove of that name, Æginium[2432]. Upon the coast are Heraclea[2433], the river Apilas[2434], the towns of Pydna[2435] and Aloros[2436], and the river Haliacmon[2437]. In the interior are the Aloritæ[2438], the Vallæi[2439], the Phylacæi, the Cyrrhestæ[2440], the Tyrissæi, the colony of Pella[2441], and Stobi[2442], a town with the rights of Roman citizens. Next comes Antigonea[2443], Europus[2444] upon the river Axius, and another place of the same name by which the Rhœdias flows, Scydra, Eordæa, Mieza, and Gordyniæ. Then, upon the coast, Ichnæ[2445], and the river Axius; along this frontier the Dardani, the Treres[2446], and the Pieres, border on Macedonia. Leaving this river, there are the nations of Pæonia[2447], the Paroræi[2448], the Eordenses[2449], the Almopii[2450], the Pelagones, and the Mygdones[2451]. Next come the mountains of Rhodope, Scopius, and Orbelus; and, lying along the extent of country in front of these mountains, the Arethusii[2452], the Antiochienses[2453], the Idomenenses[2454], the Doberi[2455], the Æstræenses, the Allantenses, the Audaristenses, the Morylli, the Garesci[2456], the Lyncestæ[2457], the Othryonei[2458], and the Amantini[2459] and Orestæ[2460], both of them free peoples; the colonies of Bullis[2461] and Dium[2462], the Xylopolitæ, the Scotussæi, a free people, Heraclea Sintica[2463], the Tymphæi[2464], and the Toronæi. Upon the coast of the Macedonian Gulf there are the town of Chalastra[2465], and, more inland, Piloros; also Lete, and at the extreme bend of the Gulf, Thessalonica[2466], a free city; (from this place to Dyrrhachium it is 245 miles[2467],) and then Thermæ[2468]. Upon the Gulf[2469] of Thermæ are the towns of Dicæa, Pydna[2470], Derra, Scione[2471], the Promontory of Canastræum[2472], and the towns of Pallene[2473] and Phlegra. In this region also are the mountains Hypsizorus, Epitus, Halcyone, and Leoomne; the towns of Nyssos[2474], Phryxelon, Mendæ, and what was formerly Potidæa[2475] on the isthmus of Pallene, but now the Colony of Cassandria; Anthemus[2476], Olophyxus[2477], and the Gulf of Mecyberna[2478]; the towns of Miscella, Ampelos[2479], Torone[2480], Singos[2481], and the canal, a mile and a half in length, by means of which Xerxes, king of the Persians, cut off Mount Athos[2482] from the main land. This mountain projects from the level plain of the adjacent country into the sea, a distance of seventy-five[2483] miles; its circumference at its base being 150 miles in extent. There was formerly upon its summit the town of Acroathon[2484]: the present towns are Uranopolis[2485], Palæorium, Thyssus, Cleonæ[2486], and Apollonia, the inhabitants of which have the surname of Macrobii[2487]. The town also of Cassera, and then the other side of the Isthmus, after which come Acanthus[2488], Stagira[2489], Sithone[2490], Heraclea[2491], and the country of Mygdonia that lies below, in which are situate, at some distance from the sea, Apollonia[2492] and Arethusa. Again, upon the coast we have Posidium[2493], and the bay with the town of Cermorus, Amphipolis[2494], a free town, and the nation of the Bisaltæ. We then come to the river Strymon[2495] which takes its rise in Mount Hæmus[2496] and forms the boundary of Macedonia: it is worthy of remark that it first discharges itself into seven lakes before it proceeds onward in its course. Such is Macedonia, which was once the mistress of the world, which once extended[2497] her career over Asia, Armenia, Iberia, Albania, Cappadocia, Syria, Egypt, Taurus, and Caucasus, which reduced the whole of the East under her power, and triumphed over the Bactri, the Medes, and the Persians. She too it was who proved the conqueror of India, thus treading in the footsteps of Father Liber[2498] and of Hercules; and this is that same Macedonia, of which our own general Paulus Æmilius sold to pillage seventy-two[2499] cities in one day. So great the difference in her lot resulting from the actions of two[2500] individuals! CHAP. 18. (11.)—THRACE; THE ÆGEAN SEA. Thrace now follows, divided into fifty strategies[2501], and to be reckoned among the most powerful nations of Europe. Among its peoples whom we ought not to omit to name are the Denseletæ and the Medi, dwelling upon the right bank of the Strymon, and joining up to the Bisaltæ above[2502] mentioned; on the left there are the Digerri and a number of tribes of the Bessi[2503], with various names, as far as the river Mestus[2504], which winds around the foot of Mount Pangæum[2505], passing among the Elethi, the Diobessi[2506], the Carbilesi; and then the Brysæ, the Sapæi, and the Odomanti. The territory of the Odrysæ[2507] gives birth to the Hebrus[2508], its banks being inhabited by the Cabyleti, the Pyrogeri, the Drugeri, the Cænici, the Hypsalti, the Beni, the Corpili, the Bottiæi, and the Edoni[2509]. In the same district are also the Selletæ, the Priantæ, the Doloncæ, the Thyni, and the Greater Cœletæ, below Mount Hæmus, the Lesser at the foot of Rhodope. Between these tribes runs the river Hebrus. We then come to a town at the foot of Rhodope, first called Poneropolis[2510], afterwards Philippopolis[2511] from the name of its founder, and now, from the peculiarity of its situation, Trimontium[2512]. To reach the summit of Hæmus you have to travel six[2513] miles. The sides of it that look in the opposite direction and slope towards the Ister are inhabited by the Mœsi[2514], the Getæ, the Aorsi, the Gaudæ, and the Clariæ; below them, are the Arræi Sarmatæ[2515], also called Arreatæ, the Scythians, and, about the shores of the Euxine, the Moriseni and the Sithonii, the forefathers of the poet Orpheus[2516], dwell. Thus is Thrace bounded by the Ister on the north, by the Euxine, and the Propontis[2517] on the east, and by the Ægean Sea on the south; on the coast of which, after leaving the Strymon, we come in turn to Apollonia[2518], Œsyma[2519], Neapolis[2520] and Datos. In the interior is the colony of Philippi[2521], distant from Dyrrhachium 325 miles; also Scotussa[2522], the city of Topiris, the mouth of the river Mestus[2523], Mount Pangæus, Heraclea[2524], Olynthos[2525], Abdera[2526], a free city, the people of the Bistones[2527] and their Lake. Here was formerly the city of Tirida, which struck such terror with its stables of the horses[2528] of Diomedes. At the present day we find here Dicæa[2529], Ismaron[2530], the place where Parthenion stood, Phalesina, and Maronea[2531], formerly called Orthagorea. We then come to Mount Serrium[2532] and Zone[2533], and then the place called Doriscus[2534], capable of containing ten thousand men, for it was in bodies of ten thousand that Xerxes here numbered his army. We then come to the mouth of the Hebrus[2535], the Port of Stentor, and the free town of Ænos[2536], with the tomb there of Polydorus[2537], the region formerly of the Cicones. From Doriscus there is a winding coast as far as Macron Tichos[2538], or the “Long Wall,” a distance of 122 miles; round Doriscus flows the river Melas, from which the Gulf of Melas[2539] receives its name. The towns are, Cypsela[2540], Bisanthe[2541], and Macron Tichos, already mentioned, so called because a wall extends from that spot between the two seas,—that is to say, from the Propontis to the Gulf of Melas, thus excluding the Chersonesus[2542], which projects beyond it. The other side of Thrace now begins, on the coast[2543] of the Euxine, where the river Ister discharges itself; and it is in this quarter perhaps that Thrace possesses the finest cities, Histropolis[2544], namely, founded by the Milesians, Tomi[2545], and Callatis[2546], formerly called Acervetis. It also had the cities of Heraclea and Bizone, which latter was swallowed up by an earthquake; it now has Dionysopolis[2547], formerly called Cruni, which is washed by the river Zyras. All this country was formerly possessed by the Scythians, surnamed Aroteres; their towns were, Aphrodisias, Libistos, Zygere, Rocobe, Eumenia, Parthenopolis, and Gerania[2548], where a nation of Pigmies is said to have dwelt; the barbarians used to call them Cattuzi, and entertain a belief that they were put to flight by cranes. Upon the coast, proceeding from Dionysopolis, is Odessus[2549], a city of the Milesians, the river Panysus[2550], and the town of Tetranaulochus. Mount Hæmus, which, with its vast chain, overhangs the Euxine, had in former times upon its summit the town of Aristæum[2551]. At the present day there are upon the coast Mesembria[2552], and Anchialum[2553], where Messa formerly stood. The region of Astice formerly had a town called Anthium; at the present day Apollonia[2554] occupies its site. The rivers here are the Panisos, the Riras, the Tearus, and the Orosines; there are also the towns of Thynias[2555], Halmydessos[2556], Develton[2557], with its lake, now known as Deultum, a colony of veterans, and Phinopolis, near which last is the Bosporus[2558]. From the mouth of the Ister to the entrance of the Euxine, some writers have made to be a distance of 555 miles; Agrippa, however, increases the length by sixty miles. The distance thence to Macron Tichos, or the Long Wall, previously mentioned, is 150 miles; and, from it to the extremity of the Chersonesus, 126. On leaving the Bosporus we come to the Gulf of Casthenes[2559], and two harbours, the one called the Old Men’s Haven, and the other the Women’s Haven. Next comes the promontory of Chrysoceras[2560], upon which is the town of Byzantium[2561], a free state, formerly called Lygos, distant from Dyrrhachium 711 miles,—so great being the space of land that intervenes between the Adriatic Sea and the Propontis. We next come to the rivers Bathynias and Pydaras[2562], or Athyras, and the towns of Selymbria[2563] and Perinthus[2564], which join the mainland by a neck only 200 feet in width. In the interior are Bizya[2565], a citadel of the kings of Thrace, and hated by the swallows, in consequence of the sacrilegious crime of Tereus[2566]; the district called Cænica[2567], and the colony of Flaviopolis, where formerly stood a town called Cæla. Then, at a distance of fifty miles from Bizya, we come to the colony of Apros, distant from Philippi 180 miles. Upon the coast is the river Erginus[2568]; here formerly stood the town of Ganos[2569]; and Lysimachia[2570] in the Chersonesus is being now gradually deserted. At this spot there is another isthmus[2571], similar in name to the other[2572], and of about equal width; and, in a manner by no means dissimilar, two cities formerly stood on the shore, one on either side, Pactye on the side of the Propontis, and Cardia[2573] on that of the Gulf of Melas, the latter deriving its name from the shape[2574] which the land assumes. These, however, were afterwards united with Lysimachia[2575], which stands at a distance of five miles from Macron Tichos. The Chersonesus formerly had, on the side of the Propontis, the towns of Tiristasis, Crithotes, and Cissa[2576], on the banks of the river Ægos[2577]; it now has, at a distance of twenty-two[2578] miles from the colony of Apros, Resistos, which stands opposite to the colony of Parium. The Hellespont also, which separates, as we have already[2579] stated, Europe from Asia, by a channel seven stadia in width, has four cities facing each other, Callipolis[2580] and Sestos[2581] in Europe, and Lampsacus[2582] and Abydos[2583] in Asia. On the Chersonesus, there is the promontory of Mastusia[2584], lying opposite to Sigeum[2585]; upon one side of it stands the Cynossema[2586] (for so the tomb of Hecuba is called), the naval station[2587] of the Achæans, and a tower; and near it the shrine[2588] of Protesilaüs. On the extreme front of the Chersonesus, which is called Æolium, there is the city of Elæus. Advancing thence towards the Gulf of Melas, we have the port of Cœlos[2589], Panormus, and then Cardia, previously mentioned. In this manner is the third great Gulf of Europe bounded. The mountains of Thrace, besides those already mentioned, are Edonus, Gigemoros, Meritus, and Melamphyllos; the rivers are the Bargus and the Syrmus, which fall into the Hebrus. The length of Macedonia, Thrace, and the Hellespont has been already[2590] mentioned; some writers, however, make it 720 miles, the breadth being 384. What may be called a rock rather than an island, lying between Tenos and Chios, has given its name to the Ægean Sea; it has the name of Æx[2591] from its strong resemblance to a goat, which is so called in Greek, and shoots precipitately from out of the middle of the sea. Those who are sailing towards the isle of Andros from Achaia, see this rock on the left, boding no good, and warning them of its dangers. Part of the Ægean Sea bears the name of Myrtoan[2592], being so called from the small island [of Myrtos] which is seen as you sail towards Macedonia from Geræstus, not far from Carystus[2593] in Eubœa. The Romans include all these seas under two names,—the Macedonian, in those parts where it touches the coasts of Macedonia or Thrace, and the Grecian where it washes the shores of Greece. The Greeks, however, divide the Ionian Sea into the Sicilian and the Cretan Seas, after the name of those islands; and they give the name of Icarian to that part which lies between Samos and Myconos. The gulfs which we have already mentioned, have given to these seas the rest of their names. Such, then, are the seas and the various nations which are comprehended in the third great Gulf of Europe. CHAP. 19. (12.)—THE ISLANDS WHICH LIE BEFORE THE LANDS ALREADY MENTIONED. Lying opposite to Thesprotia, at a distance of twelve miles from Buthrotus, and of fifty from Acroceraunia, is the island of Corcyra[2594], with a city of the same name, the citizens of which are free; also a town called Cassiope[2595], and a temple dedicated to Jupiter Cassius. This island is ninety-seven miles in length, and in Homer has the names of Scheria and Phæacia; while Callimachus calls it Drepane. There are some other islands around it, such as Thoronos[2596], lying in the direction of Italy, and the two islands of Paxos[2597] in that of Leucadia, both of them five miles distant from Corcyra. Not far[2598] from these, and in front of Corcyra, are Ericusa, Marathe, Elaphusa, Malthace, Trachie, Pythionia, Ptychia, Tarachie, and, off Phalacrum[2599], a promontory of Corcyra, the rock into which (according to the story, which arises no doubt from the similarity of appearance) the ship of Ulysses was changed. Before Leucimna[2600] we find the islands of Sybota, and between Leucadia and Achaia a great number of islands, among which are those called Teleboïdes[2601], as also Taphiæ; by the natives, those which lie before Leucadia are called by the names of Taphias, Oxiæ, and Prinoessa[2602]; while those that are in front of Ætolia are the Echinades[2603], consisting of Ægialia, Cotonis, Thyatira, Geoaris, Dionysia, Cyrnus, Chalcis, Pinara, and Mystus. In front of these, and lying out at sea, are Cephallenia[2604] and Zacynthus[2605], both of them free, Ithaca[2606], Dulichium[2607], Same[2608], and Crocyle[2609]. Cephallenia, formerly known as Melæna[2610], lies at a distance of eleven miles from Paxos, and is ninety-three miles in circumference: its city of Same has been levelled to the ground by the Romans; but it still possesses three others[2611]. Between this island and Achaia lies the island of Zacynthus, remarkable for its city of the same name, and for its singular fertility. It formerly had the name of Hyrie, and lies to the south of Cephallenia, at a distance of twenty-five miles; in it there is the famous mountain of Elatus[2612]. This island is thirty-six miles in circumference. At a distance of fifteen miles from Zacynthus is Ithaca, in which is Mount Neritus[2613]; its circumference in all is twenty-five miles. Twelve miles distant from this island is Araxus[2614], a promontory of the Peloponnesus. Before Ithaca, lying out in the main sea, are Asteris[2615] and Prote; and before Zacynthus, at a distance of thirty-five miles in the direction of the south-east wind, are the two Strophades[2616], by some known as the Plotæ. Before Cephallenia lies Letoia[2617], before Pylos the three Sphagiæ[2618], and before Messene the Œnussæ[2619], as many in number. In the Asinæan Gulf there are the three Thyrides[2620], and in that of Laconia Theganusa[2621], Cothon, and Cythera[2622], with the town of that name, the former name of which island was Porphyris. It is situate five miles from the promontory of Malea[2623], thus forming a strait very dangerous to navigation. In the Gulf of Argolis are Pityusa[2624], Irine, and Ephyre; opposite the territory of Hermione[2625], Tiparenus, Aperopia[2626], Colonis[2627], and Aristera; and, opposite that of Trœzen, Calauria[2628], at a distance of half a mile, Plateis[2629], Belbina, Lasia, and Baucidias. Opposite Epidaurus is Cecryphalos[2630], and Pityonesos[2631], six miles distant from the mainland; and, at a distance of fifteen miles from this last, Ægina[2632], a free island, the length of which, as you sail past it, is eighteen miles. This island is twenty miles distant from Piræus, the port of Athens: it used formerly to be called Œnone. Opposite the promontory of Spiræum[2633], lie Eleusa[2634], Adendros[2635], the two islands called Craugiæ, the two Cæciæ, Selachusa, Cenchreis, and Aspis; as also, in the Gulf of Megara, the four Methurides. Ægila[2636] lies at a distance of fifteen miles from Cythera, and of twenty-five from Phalasarna, a city of Crete. CHAP. 20.—CRETE. Crete itself lies from east to west, the one side facing the south, the other the north, and is known to fame by the renown of its hundred cities. Dosiades says, that it took its name from the nymph Crete, the daughter of Hesperides[2637]; Anaximander, from a king of the Curetes, Philistides of Mallus * * * * *; while Crates says that it was at first called Aëria, and after that Curetis; and some have been of opinion that it had the name of Macaron[2638] from the serenity of its climate. In breadth it nowhere exceeds fifty miles, being widest about the middle. In length, however, it is full 270 miles, and 589 in circumference, forming a bend towards the Cretan Sea, which takes its name from it. At its eastern extremity is the Promontory of Sammonium[2639], facing Rhodes, while towards the west it throws out that of Criumetopon[2640], in the direction of Cyrene. The more remarkable cities of Crete are, Phalasarna, Etæa[2641], Cisamon[2642], Pergamum, Cydonia[2643], Minoium[2644], Apteron[2645], Pantomatrium, Amphimalla[2646], Rhithymna, Panormus, Cytæum, Apollonia, Matium[2647], Heraclea, Miletos, Ampelos, Hierapytna[2648], Lebena[2649], and Hierapolis; and, in the interior, Gortyna[2650], Phæstum, Cnossus[2651], Polyrrenium, Myrina, Lycastus, Rhamnus, Lyctus, Dium[2652], Asus, Pyloros, Rhytion, Elatos, Pharæ, Holopyxos, Lasos, Eleuthernæ[2653], Therapnæ, Marathusa, and Tylisos; besides some sixty others, of which the memory only exists. The mountains are those of Cadistus[2654], Ida, Dictynnæus, and Corycus[2655]. This island is distant, at its promontory of Criumetopon, according to Agrippa, from Phycus[2656], the promontory of Cyrene, 125 miles; and at Cadistus, from Malea in the Peloponnesus, eighty. From the island of Carpathos[2657], at its promontory of Sammonium it lies in a westerly direction, at a distance of sixty miles; this last-named island is situate between it and Rhodes. The other islands in its vicinity, and lying in front of the Peloponnesus, are the two isles known as Corycæ, and the two called Mylæ[2658]. On the north side, having Crete on the right, and opposite to Cydonia, is Leuce[2659], and the two islands known as Budroæ[2660]. Opposite to Matium lies Dia[2661]; opposite to the promontory of Itanum[2662], Onisia and Leuce; and over against Hierapytna, Chrysa and Gaudos[2663]. In the same neighbourhood, also, are Ophiussa, Butoa, and Aradus; and, after doubling Criumetopon, we come to the three islands known as Musagorus. Before the promontory of Sammonium lie the islands of Phocœ, the Platiæ, the Sirnides, Naulochos, Armedon, and Zephyre. Belonging to Hellas, but still in the Ægean Sea, we have the Lichades[2664], consisting of Scarphia, Coresa, Phocaria, and many others which face Attica, but have no towns upon them, and are consequently of little note. Opposite Eleusis, however, is the far-famed Salamis[2665]; before it, Psyttalia[2666]; and, at a distance of five miles from Sunium, the island of Helene[2667]. At the same distance from this last is Ceos[2668], which some of our countrymen have called Cea, and the Greeks Hydrussa, an island which has been torn away from Eubœa. It was formerly 500 stadia in length; but more recently four-fifths of it, in the direction of Bœotia, have been swallowed up by the sea. The only towns it now has left are Iulis and Carthæa[2669]; Coresus[2670] and Pœëessa[2671] have perished. Varro informs us, that from this place there used to come a cloth of very fine texture, used for women’s dresses. CHAP. 21.—EUBŒA. Eubœa[2672] itself has also been rent away from Bœotia; the channel of the Euripus, which flows between them, being so narrow as to admit of the opposite shores being united by a bridge[2673]. At the south, this island is remarkable for its two promontories, that of Geræstus[2674], which looks towards Attica, and that of Caphareus[2675], which faces the Hellespont; on the north it has that of Cenæum[2676]. In no part does this island extend to a greater breadth than forty miles, while it never contracts to less than two. In length it runs along the whole coast of Bœotia, extending from Attica as far as Thessaly, a distance of 150 miles[2677]. In circumference it measures 365, and is distant from the Hellespont, on the side of Caphareus, 225 miles. The cities for which it was formerly famous were, Pyrrha, Porthmos, Nesos, Cerinthos[2678], Oreum, Dium, Ædepsos[2679], Ocha, and Œchalia; at present it is ennobled by those of Chalcis[2680] (opposite which, on the mainland, is Aulis), Geræstus[2681], Eretria[2682], Carystus[2683], Oritanum, and Artemisium[2684]. Here are also the Fountain of Arethusa[2685], the river Lelantus, and the warm springs known as Ellopiæ; it is still better known, however, for the marble of Carystus. This island used formerly to be called Chalcodontis and Macris[2686], as we learn from Dionysius and Ephorus; according to Aristides, Macra; also, as Callidemus says, Chalcis, because copper was first discovered here. Menæchmus says that it was called Abantias[2687], and the poets generally give it the name of Asopis. CHAP. 22.—THE CYCLADES. Beyond Eubœa, and out in the Myrtoan[2688] Sea, are numerous other islands; but those more especially famous are, Glauconnesos and the Ægila[2689]. Off the promontory, too, of Geræstus are the Cyclades, lying in a circle around Delos, from which circumstance[2690] they derive their name. The first of them is the one called Andros[2691] with a city of the same name, distant from Geræstus ten miles, and from Ceos thirty-nine. Myrsilus tells us that this island was at first called Cauros, and after that Antandros; Callimachus calls it Lasia, and others again Nonagria, Hydrussa, and Epagris. It is ninety-three miles in circumference. At a distance of one mile from Andros and of fifteen from Delos, is Tenos[2692], with a city of the same name; this island is fifteen miles in length. Aristotle says that it was formerly called Hydrussa, from the abundance of water found here, while some writers call it Ophiussa[2693]. The other islands are, Myconos[2694], with the mountain of Dimastus[2695], distant from Delos fifteen[2696] miles; Siphnus[2697], formerly called Meropia and Acis, twenty-eight miles in circumference; Seriphus[2698], twelve miles in circuit; Prepesinthus[2699]; Cythnos[2700]; and then, by far the most famous among the Cyclades, and lying in the very middle of them, Delos[2701] itself, so famous for its temple of Apollo, and its extensive commerce. This island long floated on the waves, and, as tradition says, was the only one that had never experienced an earthquake, down to the time of M. Varro[2702]; Mucianus however has informed us, that it has been twice so visited. Aristotle states that this island received its name from the fact of its having so suddenly made its appearance[2703] on emerging from the sea; Aglaosthenes, however, gives it the name of Cynthia, and others of Ortygia[2704], Asteria, Lagia, Chlamydia, Cynthus, and, from the circumstance of fire having been first discovered here, Pyrpile. Its circumference is five miles only; Mount Cynthus[2705] here raises his head. Next to this island is Rhene[2706], which Anticlides calls by the name of Celadussa, and Callidemus, Artemite; Scyros[2707], which the old writers have stated to be twenty miles in circumference, but Mucianus 160; Oliaros[2708]; and Paros[2709], with a city of the same name, distant from Delos thirty-eight miles, and famous for its marble[2710]; it was first called Platea, and after that, Minois. At a distance of seven miles from this last island is Naxos[2711], with a town of the same name; it is eighteen miles distant from Delos. This island was formerly called Strongyle[2712], then Dia, and then Dionysias[2713], in consequence of the fruitfulness of its vineyards; others again have called it the Lesser Sicily, or Callipolis[2714]. It is seventy-five[2715] miles in circumference—half as large again as Paros. CHAP. 23.—THE SPORADES. The islands thus far are considered as belonging to the Cyclades; the rest that follow are the Sporades[2716]. These are, Helene[2717], Phacussa, Nicasia, Schinussa, Pholegandros, and, at a distance of thirty-eight miles from Naxos, Icaros[2718], which has given its name to the surrounding sea, and is the same number of miles in length[2719], with two cities, and a third now no longer in existence: this island used formerly to be called Doliche, Macris, and Ichthyoëssa[2720]. It is situate fifty miles to the north-east of Delos, and thirty-five from the island of Samos. Between Eubœa and Andros, there is an arm of the sea ten miles in width, and from Icaros to Geræstus is a distance of 112-1/2 miles. After we pass these, no regular order can be well observed; the rest must therefore be mentioned indiscriminately. There is the island of Scyros[2721], and that of Ios[2722], eighteen miles distant from Naxos, and deserving of all veneration for the tomb there of Homer; it is twenty-five miles in length, and was formerly known by the name of Phœnice; also Odia, Oletandros, and Gyara[2723], with a city of the same name, the island being twelve miles in circumference, and distant from Andros sixty-two. At a distance of eighty miles from Gyara is Syrnos, then Cynæthus, Telos[2724], noted for its unguents, and by Callimachus called Agathussa, Donusa[2725], Patmos[2726], thirty miles in circumference, the Corassiæ[2727], Lebinthus[2728], Leros[2729], Cinara[2730]; Sicinus[2731], formerly called Œnoë[2732]; Hieracia, also called Onus; Casos[2733], likewise called Astrabe; Cimolus[2734], or Echinussa; and Melos[2735], with a city of that name, which island Aristides calls Memblis, Aristotle Zephyria, Callimachus Mimallis, Heraclides Siphis and Acytos. This last is the most circular[2736] in form of all these islands. After this comes Machia, then Hypere, formerly Patage, or, as others have it, Platage, but now called Amorgos[2737], Polyægos[2738], Phyle, and Thera[2739], known as Calliste when it first sprang from the waves. From this, at a later period, the island of Therasia[2740] was torn away, and between the two afterwards arose Automate, also called Hiera, and Thia, which in our own times came into existence in the vicinity of these islands. Ios is distant from Thera twenty-five miles. Next to these follow Lea, Ascania[2741], Anaphe[2742], Hippuris, and Astypalæa[2743], a free state. This island is eighty-eight miles in circumference, and 125 miles distant from Cadistus, in Crete. From Astypalæa, Platea is distant sixty miles, and Caminia thirty-eight from this last. We then come to the islands of Azibintha, Lanise, Tragæa, Pharmacussa, Techedia, Chalcia[2744], Calymna[2745], in which is the town of Coös, Calymna, at a distance of twenty-five miles from which is Carpathum[2746], which has given its name to the Carpathian Sea. The distance thence to Rhodes[2747], in the direction of the south-west wind, is fifty miles. From Carpathum to Casus is seven miles, and from Casus to Sammonium, the promontory of Crete, thirty[2748]. In the Euripus of Eubœa, almost at the very mouth of it, are the four islands called Petaliæ[2749]; and, at its outlet, Atalante[2750]. The Cyclades and the Sporades are bounded on the east by the Asiatic shores of the Icarian Sea, on the west by the Attic shores of the Myrtoan Sea, on the north by the Ægean, and on the south by the Cretan and Carpathian seas, extending 700 miles in length, and 200 in breadth. The Gulf of Pagasa[2751] has in front of it Euthia[2752], Cicynethus[2753], Scyros, previously mentioned[2754], and the very furthermost of the Cyclades and Sporades, Gerontia and Scandila[2755]; the Gulf of Thermæ[2756], Iræsia, Solimnia, Eudemia, and Nea, which last is sacred to Minerva. Athos has before it four islands; Peparethus[2757], formerly called Evœnus, with a city of that name, at a distance from Athos of nine miles; Sciathus[2758], at a distance of fifteen, and Imbros[2759], with a city of the same name, at a distance of eighty-eight miles. This last island is distant from Mastusia, in the Chersonesus, twenty-five miles; it is sixty-two[2760] miles in circumference, and is washed by the river Ilisus. At a distance of twenty-two miles from it is Lemnos[2761], being distant from Mount Athos eighty-seven; it is 112 miles in circumference, and has the cities of Hephæstia and Myrina[2762]; into the market-place of which last city Athos throws its shadow at the summer solstice. The island of Thasos[2763], constituting a free state, is six miles distant from Lemnos; it formerly had the name of Aëria, or Æthria. Abdera[2764], on the mainland, is distant from Thasos twenty-two miles, Athos sixty-two[2765]. The island of Samothrace[2766], a free state, facing the river Hebrus, is the same distance from Thasos, being also thirty-two[2767] miles from Imbros, twenty-two from Lemnos, and thirty-eight[2768] from the coast of Thrace; it is thirty-two miles in circumference, and in it rises Mount Saoce[2769], ten miles in height. This island is the most inaccessible of them all. Callimachus mentions it by its ancient name of Dardania. Between the Chersonesus and Samothrace, at a distance of about fifteen miles from them both, is the island of Halonnesos[2770], and beyond it Gethone, Lamponia, and Alopeconnesus[2771], not far from Cœlos, a port[2772] of the Chersonesus, besides some others of no importance. The following names may be also mentioned, as those of uninhabited islands in this gulf, of which we have been enabled to discover the names:—Desticos, Sarnos, Cyssiros, Charbrusa, Calathusa, Scylla, Draconon, Arconnesus, Diethusa, Scapos, Capheris, Mesate, Æantion, Pateronnesos, Pateria, Calate, Neriphus, and Polendos[2773]. CHAP. 24.—THE HELLESPONT.—THE LAKE MÆOTIS. The fourth great Gulf of Europe begins at the Hellespont and ends at the entrance of the Mæotis[2774]. But in order that the several portions of the Euxine and its coasts may be the better known, we must briefly embrace the form of it in one general view. This vast sea, lying in front of Asia, is shut out from Europe by the projection of the shores of the Chersonesus, and effects an entrance into those countries by a narrow channel only, of the width, as already mentioned, of seven stadia, thus separating Europe from Asia. The entrance of these Straits is called the Hellespont; over it Xerxes, the king of the Persians, constructed a bridge of boats, across which he led his army. A narrow channel extends thence a distance of eighty-six miles, as far as Priapus[2775], a city of Asia, at which Alexander the Great passed over. At this point the sea becomes wider, and after some distance again takes the form of a narrow strait. The wider part is known as the Propontis[2776], the Straits as the Thracian Bosporus[2777], being only half-a-mile in width, at the place where Darius, the father of Xerxes, led his troops across by a bridge. The extremity of this is distant from the Hellespont 239 miles. We then come to the vast sea called the Euxine, which invades the land as it retreats afar, and the name of which was formerly Axenus[2778]. As the shores bend inwards, this sea with a vast sweep stretches far away, curving on both sides after the manner of a pair of horns, so much so that in shape it bears a distinct resemblance to a Scythian bow[2779]. In the middle of the curve it is joined by the mouth of Lake Mæotis, which is called the Cimmerian[2780] Bosporus, and is two miles and a half in width. Between the two Bospori, the Thracian and the Cimmerian, there is a distance in a straight line, of 500 miles, as Polybius informs us. We learn from Varro and most of the ancient writers, that the circumference of the Euxine is altogether 2150 miles; but to this number Cornelius Nepos adds 350 more; while Artemidorus makes it 2919 miles, Agrippa 2360, and Mucianus 2425. In a similar manner some writers have fixed the length of the European shores of this sea at 1478 miles, others again at 1172. M. Varro gives the measurement as follows:—from the mouth of the Euxine to Apollonia 187 miles, and to Callatis the same distance; thence to the mouth of the Ister 125 miles; to the Borysthenes 250; to Chersonesus[2781], a town of the Heracleotæ, 325; to Panticapæum[2782], by some called Bosporus, at the very extremity of the shores of Europe, 212 miles: the whole of which added together, makes 1337[2783] miles. Agrippa makes the distance from Byzantium to the river Ister 560 miles, and from thence to Panticapæum, 635. Lake Mæotis, which receives the river Tanais as it flows from the Riphæan Mountains[2784], and forms the extreme boundary between Europe and Asia, is said to be 1406 miles in circumference; which however some writers state at only 1125. From the entrance of this lake to the mouth of the Tanais in a straight line is, it is generally agreed, a distance of 375 miles. The inhabitants of the coasts of this fourth great Gulf of Europe, as far as Istropolis, have been already[2785] mentioned in our account of Thrace. Passing beyond that spot we come to the mouths of the Ister. This river rises in Germany in the heights of Mount Abnoba[2786], opposite to Rauricum[2787], a town of Gaul, and flows for a course of many miles beyond the Alps and through nations innumerable, under the name of the Danube. Adding immensely to the volume of its waters, at the spot where it first enters Illyricum, it assumes the name of Ister, and, after receiving sixty rivers, nearly one half of which are navigable, rolls into the Euxine by six[2788] vast channels. The first of these is the mouth of Peuce[2789], close to which is the island of Peuce itself, from which the neighbouring channel takes its name; this mouth is swallowed up in a great swamp nineteen miles in length. From the same channel too, above Istropolis, a lake[2790] takes its rise, sixty-three miles in circuit; its name is Halmyris. The second mouth is called Naracu-Stoma[2791]; the third, which is near the island of Sarmatica, is called Calon-Stoma[2792]; the fourth is known as Pseudo-Stomon[2793], with its island called Conopon-Diabasis[2794]; after which come the Boreon-Stoma[2795] and the Psilon-Stoma[2796]. These mouths are each of them so considerable, that for a distance of forty miles, it is said, the saltness of the sea is quite overpowered, and the water found to be fresh. CHAP. 25.—DACIA, SARMATIA. On setting out from this spot, all the nations met with are Scythian in general, though various races have occupied the adjacent shores; at one spot the Getæ[2797], by the Romans called Daci; at another the Sarmatæ, by the Greeks called Sauromatæ, and the Hamaxobii[2798] or Aorsi, a branch of them; then again the base-born Scythians and descendants of slaves, or else the Troglodytæ[2799]; and then, after them, the Alani[2800] and the Rhoxalani. The higher[2801] parts again, between the Danube and the Hercynian Forest[2802], as far as the winter quarters of Pannonia at Carnuntum[2803], and the borders of the Germans, are occupied by the Sarmatian Iazyges[2804], who inhabit the level country and the plains, while the Daci, whom they have driven as far as the river Pathissus[2805], inhabit the mountain and forest ranges. On leaving the river Marus[2806], whether it is that or the Duria[2807], that separates them from the Suevi and the kingdom of Vannius[2808], the Basternæ, and, after them, other tribes of the Germans occupy the opposite sides[2809]. Agrippa considers the whole of this region, from the Ister to the ocean, to be 2100 miles in length, and 4400 miles in breadth to the river Vistula in the deserts[2810] of Sarmatia. The name “Scythian” has extended, in every direction, even to the Sarmatæ and the Germans; but this ancient appellation is now only given to those who dwell beyond those nations, and live unknown to nearly all the rest of the world. CHAP. 26.—SCYTHIA. Leaving the Ister, we come to the towns of Cremniscos[2811], Æpolium, the mountains of Macrocremnus, and the famous river Tyra[2812], which gives name to a town on the spot where Ophiusa is said formerly to have stood. The Tyragetæ inhabit a large island[2813] situate in this river, which is distant from Pseudostomos, a mouth of the Ister, so called, 130 miles. We then come to the Axiacæ, who take their name from the river Axiaces[2814], and beyond them, the Crobyzi, the river Rhodes[2815], the Sagarian Gulf[2816], and the port of Ordesos[2817]. At a distance of 120 miles from the Tyra is the river Borysthenes[2818], with a lake and a people of similar name, as also a town[2819] in the interior, at a distance of fifteen miles from the sea, the ancient names of which were Olbiopolis and Miletopolis. Again, on the shore is the port of the Achæi, and the island of Achilles[2820], famous for the tomb there of that hero, and, at a distance of 125 miles from it, a peninsula which stretches forth in the shape of a sword, in an oblique direction, and is called, from having been his place of exercise, Dromos Achilleos[2821]: the length of this, according to Agrippa, is eighty miles. The Taurian Scythians and the Siraci[2822] occupy all this tract of country. At this spot begins a well-wooded district[2823], which has given to the sea that washes its banks the name of the Hylæan Sea; its inhabitants are called Enœchadlæ[2824]. Beyond them is the river Panticapes[2825], which separates the Nomades[2826] and the Georgi, and after it the Acesinus[2827]. Some authors say that the Panticapes flows into the Borysthenes below Olbia[2828]. Others, who are more correct, say that it is the Hypanis[2829]: so great is the mistake made by those who have placed it[2830] in Asia. The sea runs in here and forms a large gulf[2831], until there is only an intervening space[2832] of five miles between it and the Lake Mæotis, its margin forming the sea-line of extensive tracts of land, and numerous nations; it is known as the Gulf of Carcinites. Here we find the river Pacyris[2833], the towns of Navarum and Carcine[2834], and behind it Lake Buges[2835], which discharges itself by a channel into the sea. This Buges is separated by a ridge of rocks[2836] from Coretus, a gulf in the Lake Mæotis; it receives the rivers Buges[2837], Gerrus[2838], and Hypacaris[2839], which approach it from regions that lie in various directions. For the Gerrus separates the Basilidæ from the Nomades, the Hypacaris flows through the Nomades and the Hylæi, by an artificial channel into Lake Buges, and by its natural one into the Gulf of Coretus: this region bears the name of Scythia Sindice. At the river Carcinites, Scythia Taurica[2840] begins, which was once covered by the sea, where we now see level plains extended on every side: beyond this the land rises into mountains of great elevation. The peoples here are thirty in number, of which twenty-three dwell in the interior, six of the cities being inhabited by the Orgocyni, the Characeni[2841], the Lagyrani, the Tractari, the Arsilachitæ, and the Caliordi. The Scythotauri possess the range of mountains: on the west they are bounded by the Chersonesus, and on the east by the Scythian Satarchæ[2842]. On the shore, after we leave Carcinites, we find the following towns; Taphræ[2843], situate on the very isthmus of the peninsula, and then Heraclea Chersonesus[2844], to which its freedom has been granted[2845] by the Romans. This place was formerly called Megarice, being the most polished city throughout all these regions, in consequence of its strict preservation of Grecian manners and customs. A wall, five miles in length, surrounds it. Next to this comes the Promontory of Parthenium[2846], the city of the Tauri, Placia, the port of the Symboli[2847], and the Promontory of Criumetopon[2848], opposite to Carambis[2849], a promontory of Asia, which runs out in the middle of the Euxine, leaving an intervening space between them of 170 miles, which circumstance it is in especial that gives to this sea the form of a Scythian bow. After leaving this headland we come to a great number of harbours and lakes of the Tauri[2850]. The town of Theodosia[2851] is distant from Criumetopon 125 miles, and from Chersonesus 165. Beyond it there were, in former times, the towns of Cytæ, Zephyrium, Acræ, Nymphæum, and Dia. Panticapæum[2852], a city of the Milesians, by far the strongest of them all, is still in existence; it lies at the entrance of the Bosporus, and is distant from Theodosia eighty-seven miles and a half, and from the town of Cimmerium, which lies on the other side of the Strait, as we have previously[2853] stated, two miles and a half. Such is the width here of the channel which separates Asia from Europe, and which too, from being generally quite frozen over, allows of a passage on foot. The width of the Cimmerian Bosporus[2854] is twelve miles and a half: it contains the towns of Hermisium[2855], Myrmecium, and, in the interior[2856] of it, the island of Alopece. From the spot called Taphræ[2857], at the extremity of the isthmus, to the mouth of the Bosporus, along the line of the Lake Mæotis, is a distance of 260 miles. Leaving Taphræ, and going along the mainland, we find in the interior the Auchetæ[2858], in whose country the Hypanis has its rise, as also the Neurœ, in whose district the Borysthenes has its source, the Geloni[2859], the Thyssagetæ, the Budini, the Basilidæ, and the Agathyrsi[2860] with their azure-coloured hair. Above them are the Nomades, and then a nation of Anthropophagi or cannibals. On leaving Lake Buges, above the Lake Mæotis we come to the Sauromatæ and the Essedones[2861]. Along the coast, as far as the river Tanais[2862], are the Mæotæ, from whom the lake derives its name, and the last of all, in the rear of them, the Arimaspi. We then come to the Riphæan[2863] mountains, and the region known by the name of Pterophoros[2864], because of the perpetual fall of snow there, the flakes of which resemble feathers; a part of the world which has been condemned by the decree of nature to lie immersed in thick darkness; suited for nothing but the generation of cold, and to be the asylum of the chilling blasts of the northern winds. Behind these mountains, and beyond the region of the northern winds, there dwells, if we choose to believe it, a happy race, known as the Hyperborei[2865], a race that lives to an extreme old age, and which has been the subject of many marvellous stories[2866]. At this spot are supposed to be the hinges upon which the world revolves, and the extreme limits of the revolutions of the stars. Here we find light for six months together, given by the sun in one continuous day, who does not, however, as some ignorant persons have asserted, conceal himself from the vernal equinox[2867] to autumn. On the contrary, to these people there is but one rising of the sun for the year, and that at the summer solstice, and but one setting, at the winter solstice. This region, warmed by the rays of the sun, is of a most delightful temperature, and exempt from every noxious blast. The abodes of the natives are the woods and groves; the gods receive their worship singly and in groups, while all discord and every kind of sickness are things utterly unknown. Death comes upon them only when satiated with life; after a career of feasting, in an old age sated with every luxury, they leap from a certain rock there into the sea; and this they deem the most desirable mode of ending existence. Some writers have placed these people, not in Europe, but at the very verge of the shores of Asia, because we find there a people called the Attacori[2868], who greatly resemble them and occupy a very similar locality. Other writers again have placed them midway between the two suns, at the spot where it sets to the Antipodes and rises to us; a thing however that cannot possibly be, in consequence of the vast tract of sea which there intervenes. Those writers who place them nowhere[2869] but under a day which lasts for six months, state that in the morning they sow, at mid-day they reap, at sunset they gather in the fruits of the trees, and during the night conceal themselves in caves. Nor are we at liberty to entertain any doubts as to the existence of this race; so many authors[2870] are there who assert that they were in the habit of sending their first-fruits to Delos to present them to Apollo, whom in especial they worship. Virgins used to carry them, who for many years were held in high veneration, and received the rites of hospitality from the nations that lay on the route; until at last, in consequence of repeated violations of good faith, the Hyperboreans came to the determination to deposit these offerings upon the frontiers of the people who adjoined them, and they in their turn were to convey them on to their neighbours, and so from one to the other, till they should have arrived at Delos. However, this custom, even, in time fell into disuse. The length of Sarmatia, Scythia, and Taurica, and of the whole of the region which extends from the river Borysthenes, is, according to Agrippa, 980 miles, and its breadth 717. I am of opinion, however, that in this part of the earth all estimates of measurement are exceedingly doubtful. CHAP. 27.—THE ISLANDS OF THE EUXINE. THE ISLANDS OF THE NORTHERN OCEAN. But now, in conformity with the plan which I originally proposed, the remaining portions of this gulf must be described. As for its seas, we have already made mention of them. (13.) The Hellespont has no islands belonging to Europe that are worthy of mention. In the Euxine there are, at a distance of a mile and a half from the European shore, and of fourteen from the mouth of the Strait, the two Cyanæan[2871] islands, by some called the Symplegades[2872], and stated in fabulous story to have run the one against the other; the reason being the circumstance that they are separated by so short an interval, that while to those who enter the Euxine opposite to them they appear to be two distinct islands, but if viewed in a somewhat oblique direction they have the appearance of becoming gradually united into one. On this side of the Ister there is the single island[2873] of the Apolloniates, eighty miles from the Thracian Bosporus; it was from this place that M. Lucullus brought the Capitoline[2874] Apollo. Those islands which are to be found between the mouths of the Ister we have already mentioned[2875]. Before the Borysthenes is Achillea[2876] previously referred to, known also by the names of Leuce and Macaron[2877]. Researches which have been made at the present day place this island at a distance of 140 miles from the Borysthenes, of 120 from Tyra, and of fifty from the island of Peuce. It is about ten miles in circumference. The remaining islands in the Gulf of Carcinites are Cephalonnesos, Rhosphodusa, and Macra. Before we leave the Euxine, we must not omit to notice the opinion expressed by many writers that all the interior[2878] seas take their rise in this one as the principal source, and not at the Straits of Gades. The reason they give for this supposition is not an improbable one—the fact that the tide is always running out of the Euxine and that there is never any ebb. We must now leave the Euxine to describe the outer portions[2879] of Europe. After passing the Riphæan mountains we have now to follow the shores of the Northern Ocean on the left, until we arrive at Gades. In this direction a great number of islands[2880] are said to exist that have no name; among which there is one which lies opposite to Scythia, mentioned under the name of Raunonia[2881], and said to be at a distance of the day’s sail from the mainland; and upon which, according to Timæus, amber is thrown up by the waves in the spring season. As to the remaining parts of these shores, they are only known from reports of doubtful authority. With reference to the Septentrional[2882] or Northern Ocean; Hecatæus calls it, after we have passed the mouth of the river Parapanisus, where it washes the Scythian shores, the Amalchian sea, the word ‘Amalchian’ signifying in the language of these races, frozen. Philemon again says that it is called Morimarusa or the “Dead Sea” by the Cimbri, as far as the Promontory of Rubeas, beyond which it has the name of the Cronian[2883] Sea. Xenophon of Lampsacus tells us that at a distance of three days’ sail from the shores of Scythia, there is an island of immense size called Baltia[2884], which by Pytheas is called Basilia[2885]. Some islands[2886] called Oönæ are said to be here, the inhabitants of which live on the eggs of birds and oats; and others again upon which human beings are produced with the feet of horses, thence called Hippopodes. Some other islands are also mentioned as those of the Panotii, the people of which have ears of such extraordinary size as to cover the rest of the body, which is otherwise left naked. Leaving these however, we come to the nation of the Ingævones[2887], the first in Germany; at which we begin to have some information upon which more implicit reliance can be placed. In their country is an immense mountain called Sevo[2888], not less than those of the Riphæan range, and which forms an immense gulf along the shore as far as the Promontory of the Cimbri. This gulf, which has the name of the ‘Codanian,’ is filled with islands; the most famous among which is Scandinavia[2889], of a magnitude as yet unascertained: the only portion of it at all known is inhabited by the nation of the Hilleviones, who dwell in 500 villages, and call it a second world: it is generally supposed that the island of Eningia[2890] is of not less magnitude. Some writers state that these regions, as far as the river Vistula, are inhabited by the Sarmati, the Venedi[2891], the Sciri, and the Hirri[2892], and that there is a gulf there known by the name of Cylipenus[2893], at the mouth of which is the island of Latris, after which comes another gulf, that of Lagnus, which borders on the Cimbri. The Cimbrian Promontory, running out into the sea for a great distance, forms a peninsula which bears the name of Cartris[2894]. Passing this coast, there are three and twenty islands which have been made known by the Roman arms[2895]: the most famous of which is Burcana[2896], called by our people Fabaria, from the resemblance borne[2897] by a fruit which grows there spontaneously. There are those also called Glæsaria[2898] by our soldiers, from their amber; but by the barbarians they are known as Austeravia and Actania. CHAP. 28.—GERMANY. The whole of the shores of this sea as far as the Scaldis[2899], a river of Germany, is inhabited by nations, the dimensions of whose respective territories it is quite impossible to state, so immensely do the authors differ who have touched upon this subject. The Greek writers and some of our own countrymen have stated the coast of Germany to be 2500 miles in extent, while Agrippa, comprising Rhætia and Noricum in his estimate, makes the length to be 686[2900] miles, and the breadth 148[2901]. (14.) The breadth of Rhætia alone however very nearly exceeds that number of miles, and indeed we ought to state that it was only subjugated at about the period of the death of that general; while as for Germany, the whole of it was not thoroughly known to us for many years after his time. If I may be allowed to form a conjecture, the margin of the coast will be found to be not far short of the estimate of the Greek writers, while the distance in a straight line will nearly correspond with that mentioned by Agrippa. There are five German races; the Vandili[2902], parts of whom are the Burgundiones[2903], the Varini[2904], the Carini[2905], and the Gutones[2906]: the Ingævones, forming a second race, a portion of whom are the Cimbri[2907], the Teutoni[2908], and the tribes of the Chauci[2909]. The Istævones[2910], who join up to the Rhine, and to whom the Cimbri[2911] belong, are the third race; while the Hermiones, forming a fourth, dwell in the interior, and include the Suevi[2912], the Hermunduri[2913], the Chatti[2914], and the Cherusci[2915]: the fifth race is that of the Peucini[2916], who are also the Basternæ, adjoining the Daci previously mentioned. The more famous rivers that flow into the ocean are the Guttalus[2917], the Vistillus or Vistula, the Albis[2918], the Visurgis[2919], the Amisius[2920], the Rhine, and the Mosa[2921]. In the interior is the long extent of the Hercynian[2922] range, which in grandeur is inferior to none. CHAP. 29. (15.)—NINETY-SIX ISLANDS OF THE GALLIC OCEAN. In the Rhine itself, nearly 100 miles in length, is the most famous island[2923] of the Batavi and the Canninefates, as also other islands of the Frisii[2924], the Chauci, the Frisiabones[2925], the Sturii[2926], and the Marsacii, which lie between Helium[2927] and Flevum[2928]. These are the names of the mouths into which the Rhine divides itself, discharging its waters on the north into the lakes there, and on the west into the river Mosa. At the middle mouth which lies between these two, the river, having but a very small channel, preserves its own name. CHAP. 30. (16.)—BRITANNIA. Opposite to this coast is the island called Britannia, so celebrated in the records of Greece[2929] and of our own country. It is situate to the north-west, and, with a large tract of intervening sea, lies opposite to Germany, Gaul, and Spain, by far the greater part of Europe. Its former name was Albion[2930]; but at a later period, all the islands, of which we shall just now briefly make mention, were included under the name of “Britanniæ.” This island is distant from Gesoriacum, on the coast of the nation of the Morini[2931], at the spot where the passage across is the shortest, fifty miles. Pytheas and Isidorus say that its circumference is 4875 miles. It is barely thirty years since any extensive knowledge of it was gained by the successes of the Roman arms, and even as yet they have not penetrated beyond the vicinity of the Caledonian[2932] forest. Agrippa believes its length to be 800 miles, and its breadth 300; he also thinks that the breadth of Hibernia is the same, but that its length is less by 200 miles. This last island is situate beyond Britannia, the passage across being the shortest from the territory of the Silures[2933], a distance of thirty miles. Of the remaining islands none is said to have a greater circumference than 125 miles. Among these there are the Orcades[2934], forty in number, and situate within a short distance of each other, the seven islands called Acmodæ[2935], the Hæbudes, thirty in number, and, between Hibernia and Britannia, the islands of Mona[2936], Monapia[2937], Ricina[2938], Vectis[2939], Limnus[2940], and Andros[2941]. Below it are the islands called Samnis and Axantos[2942], and opposite, scattered in the German Sea, are those known as the Glæsariæ[2943], but which the Greeks have more recently called the Electrides, from the circumstance of their producing _electrum_ or amber. The most remote of all that we find mentioned is Thule[2944], in which, as we have previously stated[2945], there is no night at the summer solstice, when the sun is passing through the sign of Cancer, while on the other hand at the winter solstice there is no day. Some writers are of opinion that this state of things lasts for six whole months together. Timæus the historian says that an island called Mictis[2946] is within six days’ sail of Britannia, in which white lead[2947] is found; and that the Britons sail over to it in boats of osier[2948], covered with sewed hides. There are writers also who make mention of some other islands, Scandia[2949] namely, Dumna, Bergos, and, greater than all, Nerigos, from which persons embark for Thule. At one day’s sail from Thule is the frozen ocean, which by some is called the Cronian Sea. CHAP. 31. (17.)—GALLIA BELGICA. The whole of Gaul that is comprehended under the one general name of _Comata_[2950], is divided into three races of people, which are more especially kept distinct from each other by the following rivers. From the Scaldis to the Sequana[2951] it is Belgic Gaul; from the Sequana to the Garumna[2952] it is Celtic Gaul or Lugdunensis[2953]; and from the Garumna to the promontory of the Pyrenæan range it is Aquitanian Gaul, formerly called Aremorica[2954]. Agrippa makes the entire length of the coast of Gaul to be 1800 miles, measured from the Rhine to the Pyrenees: and its length, from the ocean to the mountains of Gebenna and Jura, excluding therefrom Gallia Narbonensis, he computes at 420 miles, the breadth being 318. Beginning at the Scaldis, the parts beyond[2955] are inhabited by the Toxandri, who are divided into various peoples with many names; after whom come the Menapii[2956], the Morini[2957], the Oromarsaci[2958], who are adjacent to the burgh which is known as Gesoriacum[2959], the Britanni[2960], the Ambiani[2961], the Bellovaci[2962], the Hassi[2963], and, more in the interior, the Catoslugi[2964], the Atrebates[2965], the Nervii[2966], a free people, the Veromandui[2967], the Suæuconi[2968], the Suessiones[2969], a free people, the Ulmanetes[2970], a free people, the Tungri[2971], the Sunuci[2972], the Frisiabones[2973], the Betasi[2974], the Leuci[2975], a free people, the Treveri[2976], who were formerly free, and the Lingones[2977], a federal state, the federal Remi[2978], the Mediomatrici[2979], the Sequani[2980], the Raurici[2981], and the Helvetii[2982]. The Roman colonies are Equestris[2983] and Rauriaca[2984]. The nations of Germany which dwell in this province, near the sources of the Rhine, are the Nemetes[2985], the Triboci[2986], and the Vangiones[2987]; nearer again[2988], the Ubii[2989], the Colony[2990] of Agrippina, the Cugerni[2991], the Batavi[2992], and the peoples whom we have already mentioned as dwelling on the islands of the Rhine. CHAP. 32. (18.)—GALLIA LUGDUNENSIS. That part of Gaul which is known as Lugdunensis[2993] contains the Lexovii[2994], the Vellocasses[2995], the Galeti[2996], the Veneti[2997], the Abrincatui[2998], the Ossismi[2999], and the celebrated river Ligeris[3000], as also a most remarkable peninsula, which extends into the ocean at the extremity[3001] of the territory of the Ossismi, the circumference of which is 625[3002] miles, and its breadth at the neck 125[3003]. Beyond this are the Nannetes[3004], and in the interior are the Ædui[3005], a federal people, the Carnuti[3006], a federal people, the Boii[3007], the Senones[3008], the Aulerci, both those surnamed Eburovices[3009] and those called Cenomanni[3010], the Meldi[3011], a free people, the Parisii[3012], the Tricasses[3013], the Andecavi[3014], the Viducasses[3015], the Bodiocasses[3016], the Venelli[3017], the Cariosvelites[3018], the Diablinti[3019], the Rhedones[3020], the Turones[3021], the Atesui[3022], and the Secusiani[3023], a free people, in whose territory is the colony of Lugdunum[3024]. CHAP. 33. (19.)—GALLIA AQUITANICA. In Aquitanica are the Ambilatri[3025], the Anagnutes[3026], the Pictones[3027], the Santoni[3028], a free people, the Bituriges[3029], surnamed Vivisci, the Aquitani[3030], from whom the province derives its name, the Sediboviates[3031], the Convenæ[3032], who together form one town, the Begerri[3033], the Tarbelli Quatuorsignani[3034], the Cocosates Sexsignani[3035], the Venami[3036], the Onobrisates[3037], the Belendi[3038], and then the Pyrenæan range. Below these are the Monesi[3039], the Oscidates[3040] a mountain race, the Sibyllates[3041], the Camponi[3042], the Bercorcates[3043], the Pindedunni[3044], the Lassunni[3045], the Vellates[3046], the Tornates[3047], the Consoranni[3048], the Ausci[3049], the Elusates[3050], the Sottiates[3051], the Oscidates Campestres[3052], the Succasses[3053], the Tarusates[3054], the Basabocates[3055], the Vassei[3056], the Sennates, and the Cambolectri Agessinates[3057]. Joining up to the Pictones are the Bituriges[3058], a free people, who are also known as the Cubi, and then the Lemovices[3059], the Arverni[3060], a free people, and the Gabales[3061]. Again, adjoining the province of Narbonensis are the Ruteni[3062], the Cadurci[3063], the Nitiobriges[3064], and the Petrocori[3065], separated by the river Tarnis from the Tolosani. The seas around the coast are the Northern Ocean, flowing up to the mouth of the Rhine, the Britannic Ocean between the Rhine and the Sequana, and, between it and the Pyrenees, the Gallic Ocean. There are many islands belonging to the Veneti, which bear the name of “Veneticæ[3066],” as also in the Aquitanic Gulf, that of Uliarus[3067]. CHAP. 34. (20.)—NEARER SPAIN, ITS COAST ALONG THE GALLIC OCEAN. At the Promontory of the Pyrenees Spain begins, more narrow, not only than Gaul, but even than itself[3068] in its other parts, as we have previously mentioned[3069], seeing to what an immense extent it is here hemmed in by the ocean on the one side, and by the Iberian Sea on the other. A chain of the Pyrenees, extending from due east to south-west[3070], divides Spain into two parts, the smaller one to the north, the larger to the south. The first coast that presents itself is that of the Nearer Spain, otherwise called Tarraconensis. On leaving the Pyrenees and proceeding along the coast, we meet with the forest ranges of the Vascones[3071], Olarso[3072], the towns of the Varduli[3073], the Morosgi[3074], Menosca[3075], Vesperies[3076], and the Port of Amanus[3077], where now stands the colony of Flaviobriga. We then come to the district of the nine states of the Cantabri[3078], the river Sauga[3079], and the Port of Victoria of the Juliobrigenses[3080], from which place the sources of the Iberus[3081] are distant forty miles. We next come to the Port of Blendium[3082], the Orgenomesci[3083], a people of the Cantabri, Vereasueca[3084] their port, the country of the Astures[3085], the town of Noega[3086], and on a peninsula[3087], the Pæsici. Next to these we have, belonging to the jurisdiction of Lucus[3088], after passing the river Navilubio[3089], the Cibarci[3090], the Egovarri, surnamed Namarini, the Iadoni, the Arrotrebæ[3091], the Celtic Promontory, the rivers Florius[3092] and Nelo, the Celtici[3093], surnamed Neri, and above them the Tamarici[3094], in whose peninsula[3095] are the three altars called Sestianæ, and dedicated[3096] to Augustus; the Capori[3097], the town of Noela[3098], the Celtici surnamed Præsamarci, and the Cileni[3099]: of the islands, those worthy of mention are Corticata[3100] and Aunios. After passing the Cileni, belonging to the jurisdiction of the Bracari[3101], we have the Heleni[3102], the Gravii[3103], and the fortress of Tyde, all of them deriving their origin from the Greeks. Also, the islands called Cicæ[3104], the famous city of Abobrica[3105], the river Minius[3106], four miles wide at its mouth, the Leuni, the Seurbi[3107], and Augusta[3108], a town of the Bracari, above whom lies Gallæcia. We then come to the river Limia[3109], and the river Durius[3110], one of the largest in Spain, and which rises in the district of the Pelendones[3111], passes near Numantia, and through the Arevaci and the Vaccæi, dividing the Vettones from Asturia, the Gallæci from Lusitania, and separating the Turduli from the Bracari. The whole of the region here mentioned from the Pyrenees is full of mines of gold, silver, iron, and lead, both black and white[3112]. CHAP. 35. (21.)—LUSITANIA. After passing the Durius, Lusitania[3113] begins. We here have the ancient Turduli[3114], the Pæsuri, the river Vaga[3115], the town of Talabrica, the town and river[3116] of Æminium, the towns of Conimbrica[3117], Collippo[3118], and Eburobritium[3119]. A promontory[3120] then advances into the sea in shape of a large horn; by some it has been called Artabrum[3121], by others the Great Promontory, while many call it the Promontory of Olisipo, from the city[3122] near it. This spot forms a dividing line in the land, the sea, and the heavens. Here ends one side[3123] of Spain; and, when we have doubled the promontory, the front of Spain begins. (22.) On one side of it lie the North and the Gallic Ocean, on the other the West and the Atlantic. The length of this promontory has been estimated by some persons at sixty miles, by others at ninety. A considerable number of writers estimate the distance from this spot to the Pyrenees at 1250 miles; and, committing a manifest error, place here the nation of the Artabri, a nation that never[3124] was here. For, making a slight change in the name, they have placed at this spot the Arrotrebæ, whom we have previously spoken of as dwelling in front of the Celtic Promontory. Mistakes have also been made as to the more celebrated rivers. From the Minius, which we have previously mentioned, according to Varro, the river Æminius[3125] is distant 200 miles, which others[3126] suppose to be situate elsewhere, and called Limæa. By the ancients it was called the “River of Oblivion,” and it has been made the subject of many fabulous stories. At a distance of 200 miles from the Durius is the Tagus, the Munda[3127] lying between them. The Tagus is famous for its golden sands[3128]. At a distance of 160 miles from it is the Sacred Promontory[3129], projecting from nearly the very middle of the front[3130] of Spain. From this spot to the middle of the Pyrenees, Varro says, is a distance of 1400 miles; while to the Anas, by which we have mentioned[3131] Lusitania as being separated from Bætica, is 126 miles, it being 102 more to Gades. The peoples are the Celtici, the Turduli, and, about the Tagus, the Vettones[3132]. From the river Anas to the Sacred Promontory[3133] are the Lusitani. The cities worthy of mention on the coast, beginning from the Tagus, are that of Olisipo[3134], famous for its mares, which conceive[3135] from the west wind; Salacia[3136], which is surnamed the Imperial City; Merobrica[3137]; and then the Sacred Promontory, with the other known by the name of Cuneus[3138], and the towns of Ossonoba[3139], Balsa[3140], and Myrtili[3141]. The whole of this province is divided into three jurisdictions, those of Emerita, Pax, and Scalabis. It contains in all forty-six peoples, among whom there are five colonies, one municipal town of Roman citizens, three with the ancient Latin rights, and thirty-six that are tributaries. The colonies are those of Augusta Emerita[3142], situate on the river Anas, Metallinum[3143], Pax[3144], and Norba[3145], surnamed Cæsariana. To this last place of jurisdiction the people of Castra Servilia[3146] and Castra Cæcilia[3147] resort. The fifth jurisdiction is that of Scalabis[3148], which also has the name of Præsidium Julium[3149]. Olisipo, surnamed Felicitas Julia[3150], is a municipal city, whose inhabitants enjoy the rights of Roman citizens. The towns in the enjoyment of the ancient Latin rights are Ebora[3151], which also has the name of Liberalitas Julia[3152], and Myrtili and Salacia, which we have previously mentioned. Those among the tributaries whom it may not be amiss to mention, in addition to those already[3153] alluded to among the names of those in Bætica, are the Augustobrigenses[3154], the Ammienses[3155], the Aranditani, the Arabricenses, the Balsenses, the Cæsarobricenses, the Caperenses[3156], the Caurenses[3157], the Colarni, the Cibilitani, the Concordienses[3158], the Elbocorii, the Interannienses, the Lancienses[3159], the Mirobrigenses, surnamed[3160] Celtici, the Medubrigenses[3161], surnamed Plumbarii, the Ocelenses[3162] or Lancienses, the Turduli, also called Barduli, and the Tapori. Agrippa states, that Lusitania, with Asturia and Gallæcia, is 540 miles in length, and 536 in breadth. The provinces of Spain, measured from the two extreme[3163] promontories of the Pyrenees, along the sea-line of the entire coast, are thought to be 3922 miles in circumference; while some writers make them to be but 2600. CHAP. 36.—THE ISLANDS IN THE ATLANTIC OCEAN. Opposite to Celtiberia are a number of islands, by the Greeks called Cassiterides[3164], in consequence of their abounding in tin: and, facing the Promontory[3165] of the Arrotrebæ, are the six Islands of the Gods, which some persons have called the Fortunate Islands[3166]. At the very commencement of Bætica, and twenty-five miles from the mouth of the Straits of Gades, is the island of Gadis, twelve miles long and three broad, as Polybius states in his writings. At its nearest part, it is less than 700 feet[3167] distant from the mainland, while in the remaining portion it is distant more than seven miles. Its circuit is fifteen miles, and it has on it a city which enjoys the rights of Roman citizens[3168], and whose people are called the Augustani of the city of Julia Gaditana. On the side which looks towards Spain, at about 100 paces distance, is another long island, three miles wide, on which the original city of Gades stood. By Ephorus and Philistides it is called Erythia, by Timæus and Silenus Aphrodisias[3169], and by the natives the Isle of Juno. Timæus says, that the larger island used to be called Cotinusa[3170], from its olives; the Romans call it Tartessos[3171]; the Carthaginians Gadir[3172], that word in the Punic language signifying a hedge. It was called Erythia because the Tyrians, the original ancestors of the Carthaginians, were said to have come from the Erythræan, or Red Sea. In this island Geryon is by some thought to have dwelt, whose herds were carried off by Hercules. Other persons again think, that his island is another one, opposite to Lusitania, and that it was there formerly called by that name[3173]. CHAP. 37. (23.)—THE GENERAL MEASUREMENT OF EUROPE. Having thus made the circuit of Europe, we must now give the complete measurement of it, in order that those who wish to be acquainted with this subject may not feel themselves at a loss. Artemidorus and Isidorus have given its length, from the Tanais to Gades, as 8214 miles. Polybius in his writings has stated the breadth of Europe, in a line from Italy to the ocean, to be 1150 miles. But, even in his day, its magnitude was but little known. The distance of Italy, as we have previously[3174] stated, as for as the Alps, is 1120 miles, from which, through Lugdunum to the British port of the Morini[3175], the direction which Polybius seems to follow, is 1168 miles. But the better ascertained, though greater length, is that taken from the Alps through the Camp of the Legions[3176] in Germany, in a north-westerly direction, to the mouth of the Rhine, being 1543 miles. We shall now have to speak of Africa and Asia. * * * * * SUMMARY.—Towns and nations mentioned * * * *. Noted rivers * * * *. Famous mountains * * * *. Islands * * * *. People or towns no longer in existence * * * *. Remarkable events, narratives, and observations * * * *. * * * * * ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Cato the Censor[3177], M. Varro[3178], M. Agrippa[3179], the late Emperor Augustus[3180], Varro Atacinus[3181], Cornelius Nepos[3182], Hyginus[3183], L. Vetus[3184], Mela Pomponius[3185], Licinius Mucianus[3186], Fabricius Tuscus[3187], Ateius Capito[3188], Ateius the Philologist[3189]. FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Polybius[3190], Hecatæus[3191], Hellanicus[3192], Damastes[3193], Eudoxus[3194], Dicæarchus[3195], Timosthenes[3196], Eratosthenes[3197], Ephorus[3198], Crates the Grammarian[3199], Serapion[3200] of Antioch, Callimachus[3201], Artemidorus[3202], Apollodorus[3203], Agathocles[3204], Eumachus[3205], Timæus the Sicilian[3206], Myrsilus[3207], Alexander Polyhistor[3208], Thucydides[3209], Dosiades[3210], Anaximander[3211], Philistides Mallotes[3212], Dionysius[3213], Aristides[3214], Callidemus[3215], Menæchmus[3216], Aglaosthenes[3217], Anticlides[3218], Heraclides[3219], Philemon[3220], Xenophon[3221], Pytheas[3222], Isidorus[3223], Philonides[3224], Xenagoras[3225], Astynomus[3226], Staphylus[3227], Aristocritus[3228], Metrodorus[3229], Cleobulus[3230], Posidonius[3231].