BOOK XXXVII.

THE NATURAL HISTORY OF PRECIOUS STONES. CHAP. 1. (1.)—THE FIRST USE OF PRECIOUS STONES. That nothing may be wanting to the work which I have undertaken, it still remains for me to speak of precious stones: a subject in which the majestic might of Nature presents itself to us, contracted within a very limited space, though, in the opinion of many, nowhere displayed in a more admirable form. So great is the value that men attach to the multiplied varieties of these gems, their numerous colours, their constituent parts, and their singular beauty, that, in the case of some of them, it is looked upon as no less than sacrilege to engrave them, for signets even, the very purpose for which, in reality, they were made. Others, again, are regarded as beyond all price, and could not be valued at any known amount of human wealth; so much so that, in the case of many, it is quite sufficient to have some single gem or other before the eyes, there to behold the supreme and absolute perfection of Nature’s work. We have already[2889] stated, to some extent, when speaking on the subject of gold and rings, how the use of precious stones first originated, and from what beginnings this admiration of them has now increased to such an universal passion. According to fabulous lore, the first use of them was suggested by the rocks of Caucasus, in consequence of an unhappy interpretation which was given to the story of the chains of Prometheus: for we are told by tradition, that he enclosed a fragment of this stone in iron, and wore it upon his finger;[2890] such being the first ring and the first jewel known. CHAP. 2.—THE JEWEL OF POLYCRATES. With a beginning such as this, the value set upon precious stones increased to such a boundless extent, that Polycrates,[2891] the tyrant of Samos, who ruled over the islands and the adjacent shores, when he admitted that his good fortune had been too great, deemed it a sufficient expiation for all this enjoyment of happiness, to make a voluntary sacrifice of a single precious stone; thinking thereby to balance accounts with the inconstancy of fortune, and, by this single cause for regret, abundantly to buy off every ill-will she might entertain. Weary, therefore, of his continued prosperity, he embarked on board a ship, and, putting out to sea, threw the ring which he wore into the waves. It so happened, however, that a fish of remarkable size, one destined for the table of a king, swallowed the jewel, as it would have done a bait; and then, to complete the portentous omen, restored it again to the owner in the royal kitchen, by the ruling hand of a treacherous[2892] fortune. The stone in this ring, it is generally agreed, was a sardonyx,[2893] and they still show one at Rome, which, if we believe the story, was this identical stone. It is enclosed in a horn of gold, and was deposited, by the Emperor Augustus, in the Temple of Concord, where it holds pretty nearly the lowest rank among a multitude of other jewels that are preferable to it. CHAP. 3.—THE JEWEL OF PYRRHUS. Next in note after this ring, is the jewel that belonged to another king, Pyrrhus, who was so long at war with the Romans. It is said that there was in his possession an agate,[2894] upon which were to be seen the Nine Muses and Apollo holding a lyre; not a work of art, but the spontaneous produce of Nature,[2895] the veins in it being so arranged that each of the Muses had her own peculiar attribute. With the exception of these two jewels, authors make no mention of any others that have been rendered famous. We only find it recorded by them, that Ismenias the flute-player[2896] was in the habit of displaying great numbers of glittering stones, a piece of vanity, on his part, which gave occasion to the following story. An emerald,[2897] upon which was engraved a figure of Amymone,[2898] being offered for sale in the Isle of Cyprus at the price of six golden denarii, he gave orders to purchase it. The dealer however, reduced the price, and returned two denarii; upon which, Ismenias remarked—“By Hercules! he has done me but a bad turn in this, for the merit of the stone has been greatly impaired by this reduction in price.” It seems to have been this Ismenias who introduced the universal practice among musicians of proclaiming their artistic merit by this kind of ostentation. Thus Dionysodorus, for instance, his contemporary and rival, imitated his example, in order that he might not appear to be his inferior in skill; whereas, in reality, he only held the third rank among the musicians of that day. Nicomachus, too, it is said, was the possessor of great numbers of precious stones, though selected with but little taste. In mentioning these illustrations, by way of prelude to this Book, it is by no means improbable that they may have the appearance of being addressed to those, who, piquing themselves upon a similar display, become puffed up with a vanity which is evidently much more appropriate to a performer on the flute. CHAP. 4.—WHO WERE THE MOST SKILFUL LAPIDARIES. THE FINEST SPECIMENS OF ENGRAVING ON PRECIOUS STONES. The stone of the ring[2899] which is now shown as that of Polycrates, is untouched and without engraving. In the time of Ismenias, long[2900] after his day, it would appear to have become the practice to engrave smaragdi even; a fact which is established by an edict of Alexander the Great, forbidding his portrait to be cut upon this stone by any other engraver than Pyrgoteles,[2901] who, no doubt, was the most famous adept in this art. Since his time, Apollonides and Cronius have excelled in it; as also Dioscurides,[2902] who engraved a very excellent likeness of the late Emperor Augustus upon a signet, which, ever since, the Roman emperors have used. The Dictator Sylla, it is said, always made use of a seal[2903] which represented the surrender of Jugurtha. Authors inform us also, that the native of Intercatia,[2904] whose father challenged Scipio Æmilianus,[2905] and was slain by him, was in the habit of using a signet with a representation of this combat engraved upon it; a circumstance which gave rise to the well-known joke of Stilo Præconinus,[2906] who naively enquired, what he would have done if Scipio had been the person slain? The late Emperor Augustus was in the habit, at first, of using the figure of a Sphinx[2907] for his signet; having found two of them, among the jewels of his mother, that were perfectly alike. During the Civil Wars, his friends used to employ one of these signets, in his absence, for sealing such letters and edicts as the circumstances of the times required to be issued in his name; it being far from an unmeaning pleasantry on the part of those who received these missives, that the Sphinx always brought its enigmas[2908] with it. The frog, too, on the seal of Mæcenas, was held in great terror, by reason of the monetary imposts which it announced. At a later period, with the view of avoiding the sarcasms relative to the Sphinx, Augustus made use of a signet with a figure upon it of Alexander the Great. CHAP. 5.—THE FIRST DACTYLIOTHECÆ AT ROME. A collection of precious stones bears the foreign name of “dactyliotheca.”[2909] The first person who possessed one at Rome was Scaurus,[2910] the step-son of Sylla; and, for a long time, there was no other such collection there, until at length Pompeius Magnus consecrated in the Capitol, among other donations, one that had belonged to King Mithridates; and which, as M. Varro and other authors of that period assure us, was greatly superior to that of Scaurus. Following his example, the Dictator Cæsar consecrated six dactyliothecæ in the Temple of Venus Genetrix; and Marcellus, the son of Octavia,[2911] presented one to the Temple of the Palatine Apollo. CHAP. 6.—JEWELS DISPLAYED AT ROME IN THE TRIUMPH OF POMPEIUS MAGNUS. But it was this conquest by Pompeius Magnus that first introduced so general a taste for pearls and precious stones; just as the victories, gained by L. Scipio[2912] and Cneius Manlius,[2913] had first turned the public attention to chased silver, Attalic tissues, and banquetting-couches decorated with bronze; and the conquests of L. Mummius had brought Corinthian bronzes and pictures into notice. (2.) To prove more fully that this was the case, I will here give the very words of the public Registers[2914] with reference to the triumphs of Pompeius Magnus. On the occasion of his third triumph, over the Pirates and over the Kings and nations of Asia and Pontus that have been already enumerated in the Seventh Book[2915] of this work, M. Fiso and M. Messala being consuls,[2916] on the day before[2917] the calends of October, the anniversary of his birth, he displayed in public, with its pieces, a chess-board,[2918] made of two precious stones, three feet in width by two in length—and to leave no doubt that the resources of Nature do become exhausted, I will here observe, that no precious stones are to be found at the present day, at all approaching such dimensions as these; as also that there was upon this board a moon of solid gold, thirty pounds in weight!—three banquetting-couches; vessels for nine waiters, in gold and precious stones; three golden statues of Minerva, Mars, and Apollo; thirty-three crowns adorned with pearls; a square mountain of gold, with stags upon it, lions, and all kinds of fruit, and surrounded with a vine of gold; as also a musæum,[2919] adorned with pearls, with an horologe[2920] upon the top of it. There was a likeness also in pearls of Pompeius himself, his noble countenance, with the hair thrown back from the forehead, delighting the eye. Yes, I say, those frank features, so venerated throughout all nations, were here displayed in pearls! the severity of our ancient manners being thus subdued, and the display being more the triumph of luxury than the triumph of conquest. Never, most assuredly, would Pompeius have so long maintained his surname of “Magnus” among the men of that day, if on the occasion of his first[2921] conquest his triumph had been such as this. Thy portrait in pearls, O Magnus! those resources of prodigality, that have been discovered for the sake of females only! Thy portrait in pearls, refinements in luxury, which the Roman laws would not have allowed thee to wear even! And was it in this way that thy value must be appreciated? Would not that trophy have given a more truthful likeness of thee which thou hadst erst erected upon the Pyrenæan[2922] mountain heights? Assuredly such a portrait as this had been no less than a downright ignominy and disgrace, were we not bound to behold in it a menacing presage of the anger of the gods, and to see foreshadowed thereby the time when that head, now laden with the wealth of the East, was to be displayed, severed from the body.[2923] But in other respects, how truly befitting the hero was this triumph! To the state, he presented two thousand millions of sesterces; to the legati and quæstors who had exerted themselves in defence of the sea coast, he gave one thousand millions of sesterces; and to each individual soldier, six thousand sesterces. He has rendered, however, comparatively excusable the Emperor Caius,[2924] who, in addition to other feminine luxuries, used to wear shoes adorned with pearls; as also the Emperor Nero, who used to adorn his sceptres with masks worked in pearls, and had the couches, destined for his pleasures, made of the same costly materials. Nay, we have no longer any right, it would seem, to censure the employment of drinking-cups adorned with precious stones, of various other articles in daily use that are similarly enriched, and of rings that sparkle with gems: for what species of luxury can there be thought of, that was not more innocent in its results than this on the part of Pompeius? CHAP. 7.—AT WHAT PERIOD MURRHINE VESSELS WERE FIRST INTRODUCED AT ROME. INSTANCES OF LUXURY IN REFERENCE TO THEM. It was the same conquest, too, that first introduced murrhine[2925] vessels at Rome; Pompeius being the first to dedicate, at the conclusion of this triumph, vases and cups, made of this material, in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus: a circumstance which soon brought them into private use, waiters, even, and eating-utensils made of murrhine being in great request. This species of luxury, too, is daily on the increase, a single cup, which would hold no more than three sextarii, having been purchased at the price of seventy thousand sesterces. A. person of consular rank, who some years[2926] ago used to drink out of this cup, grew so passionately fond of it, as to gnaw its edges even, an injury, however, which has only tended to enhance its value: indeed there is now no vessel in murrhine that has ever been estimated at a higher figure than this. We may form some opinion how much money this same personage swallowed up in articles of this description, from the fact that the number of them was so great, that, when the Emperor Nero deprived his children of them, and they were exposed to public view, they occupied a whole theatre to themselves, in the gardens beyond the Tiber; a theatre which was found sufficiently large even, for the audience that attended on the occasion when Nero[2927] rehearsed his musical performances before his appearance in the Theatre of Pompeius. It was at this exhibition, too, that I saw counted the broken fragments of a single cup, which it was thought proper to preserve in an urn and display, I suppose, with the view of exciting the sorrows of the world, and of exposing the cruelty of fortune; just as though it had been no less than the body of Alexander the Great himself! T. Petronius,[2928] a personage of consular rank, intending, from his hatred of Nero, to disinherit the table of that prince, broke a murrhine basin, which had cost him no less than three hundred thousand sesterces. But Nero himself, as it was only proper for a prince to do, surpassed them all, by paying one million of sesterces for a single cup: a fact well worthy of remembrance, that an emperor, the father of his country, should have drunk from a vessel of such costly price! CHAP. 8.—THE NATURE OF MURRHINE VESSELS. Murrhine vessels come from the East, in numerous localities of which, remarkable for nothing else, they are to be found. It is in the empire of the Parthians, more particularly, that they are met with, though those of the very finest quality come to us from Carmania.[2929] It is generally thought that these vessels are formed of a moist substance, which under ground becomes solidified by heat.[2930] In size they never exceed a small waiter,[2931] and, as to thickness, they rarely admit of being used as drinking-cups, so large as those already[2932] mentioned. The brightness of them is destitute of strength, and it may be said that they are rather shining than brilliant.[2933] But the chief merit of them is the great variety of their colours, and the wreathed veins, which, every here and there, present shades of purple and white, with a mixture of the two; the purple gradually changing, as it were, to a fiery red, and the milk-white assuming a ruddy hue. Some persons praise the edges of these vessels more particularly, with a kind of reflection in the colours, like those beheld in the rain-bow. Others, again, are more pleased with them when quite opaque, it being considered a demerit when they are at all transparent, or of a pallid hue. The appearance, too, of crystals[2934] in them is highly prized, and of spots that look like warts; not prominent, but depressed, as we mostly see upon the human body. The perfume,[2935] too, of which they smell, is looked upon as an additional recommendation. CHAP. 9—THE NATURE OF CRYSTAL. It is a diametrically opposite cause to this that produces crystal,[2936] a substance which assumes a concrete form from excessive congelation.[2937] At all events, crystal is only to be found in places where the winter snow freezes with the greatest intensity; and it is from the certainty that it is a kind of ice, that it has received the name[2938] which it bears in Greek. The East, too, sends us crystal, there being none preferred to the produce of India. It is to be found, also, in Asia, that of the vicinity of Alabanda,[2939] Orthosia,[2940] and the neighbouring mountains, being held in a very low degree of esteem. In Cyprus, also, there is crystal, but that found upon the Alpine heights in Europe is, in general, more highly valued. According to Juba, there is crystal in a certain island of the Red Sea, opposite the coast of Arabia, called “Necron;”[2941] as, also, in another neighbouring island[2942] which produces the precious stone known as the “topazus;” where a block of crystal was extracted, he says, by Pythagoras, the præfect of King Ptolemæus, no less than a cubit in length. Cornelius Bocchus informs us that in Lusitania, there have been blocks of crystal found, of extraordinary weight, in sinking shafts in the Ammiensian[2943] mountains there, to a water-level for the supply of wells. It is a marvellous fact, stated by Xenocrates of Ephesus, that in Asia and in the Isle of Cyprus, crystal is turned up by the plough; it having been the general belief that it is never to be found in terreous soils, and only in rocky localities. That is much more probable which the same Xenocrates tells us, when he says that the mountain streams often bring down with them fragments of crystal. Sudines says, that crystal is only to be found in localities that face the south, a thing that is known to be really the fact: indeed, it is never found in humid spots, however cold the climate may be, even though the rivers there freeze to the very bottom. Rain-water and pure snow are absolutely necessary for its formation,[2944] and hence it is, that it is unable to endure heat, being solely employed for holding liquids that are taken cold. From the circumstance of its being hexagonal[2945] and hexahedral, it is not easy to penetrate this substance; and the more so, as the pyramidal terminations do not always have the same appearance. The polish on its faces is so exquisite, that no art can possibly equal it. CHAP. 10.—LUXURY DISPLAYED IN THE USE OF CRYSTAL. REMEDIES DERIVED FROM CRYSTAL. The largest block of crystal that has ever been beheld by us, is the one that was consecrated by Julia Augusta in the Capitol, and which weighed about one hundred and fifty pounds.[2946] Xenocrates speaks of having seen a vase of crystal, which held one amphora,[2947] and we find other writers mentioning a vessel from India which held four sextarii. For my own part, I can positively say, that there is crystal amid the crags of the Alps, so difficult of access, that it is usually found necessary to be suspended by ropes in order to extract it. Persons who are experienced in the matter detect its presence by certain signs and indications. Crystal is subject to numerous defects, sometimes presenting a rough, solder-like, substance, or else clouded by spots upon it; while occasionally it contains some hidden humour[2948] within, or is traversed by hard and brittle knurrs,[2949] which are known as “salt grains.”[2950] Some crystal, too, has a red rust upon it, while, in other instances, it contains filaments that look like flaws, a defect which artists conceal by engraving it. But where crystals are entirely free from defect, they are preferred uncut; in which case, they are known as “acenteta,”[2951] and have the colour, not of foam, but of limpid water. In the last place, the weight of crystals is a point which is taken into consideration. I find it stated by medical men that the very best cautery for the human body is a ball of crystal acted upon by the rays of the sun.[2952] This substance, too, has been made the object of a mania; for, not many years ago, a mistress of a family, who was by no means very rich, gave one hundred and fifty thousand sesterces for a single basin made of crystal. Nero, on receiving tidings that all was lost, in the excess of his fury, dashed two cups of crystal to pieces; this being his last act of vengeance upon his fellow-creatures, preventing any one from ever drinking again from these vessels. Crystal, when broken, cannot by any possibility be mended. Vessels in glass have been brought to a marvellous degree of resemblance to crystal; and yet, wonderful to say, they have only tended to enhance the value of crystal, and in no way to depreciate it. CHAP. 11.—AMBER: THE MANY FALSEHOODS THAT HAVE BEEN TOLD ABOUT IT. Next in rank among the objects of luxury, we have amber;[2953] an article which, for the present, however, is in request among women[2954] only. All these three last-mentioned substances hold the same rank, no doubt, as precious stones; the two former for certain fair reasons; crystal, because it is adapted for taking cool drinks, and murrhine vessels, for taking drinks that are either hot or cold. But as for amber, luxury has not been able, as yet, to devise any justification for the use of it. This is a subject which affords us an excellent opportunity of exposing some of the frivolities and falsehoods of the Greeks; and I beg that my readers will only have patience with me while I do so, it being really worth while, for our own practical improvement, to become acquainted with the marvellous stories which they have promulgated respecting amber. After Phaëthon had been struck by lightning, his sisters, they tell us, became changed into poplars,[2955] which every year shed their tears upon the banks of the Eridanus, a river known to us as the “Padus.” To these tears was given the name of “electrum,”[2956] from the circumstance that the Sun was usually called “elector.” Such is the story, at all events, that is told by many of the poets, the first of whom were, in my opinion, Æschylus, Philoxenus, Euripides, Satyrus, and Nicander; and the falsity of which is abundantly proved upon the testimony of Italy itself.[2957] Those among the Greeks who have devoted more attention to the subject, have spoken of certain islands in the Adriatic Sea, known as the “Electrides,” and to which the Padus,[2958] they say, carries down electrum. It is the fact, however, that there never were any islands there so called, nor, indeed, any islands so situate as to allow of the Padus carrying down anything in its course to their shores. As to Æschylus placing the Eridanus in Iberia, or, in other words, in Spain, and giving it the name of Rhodanus; and as to Euripides and Apollonius representing the Rhodanus and the Padus as discharging themselves by one common mouth on the shores of the Adriatic; we can forgive them all the more readily for knowing nothing about amber when they betray such monstrous ignorance of geography. Other writers, again, who are more guarded in their assertions, have told us, though with an equal degree of untruthfulness, that, at the extremity of the Adriatic Gulf, upon certain inaccessible rocks there, there are certain trees[2959] which shed their gum at the rising of the Dog-Star. Theophrastus[2960] has stated that amber is extracted from the earth in Liguria;[2961] Chares, that Phaëthon died in the territory of Hammon, in Æthiopia, where there is a temple of his and an oracle, and where amber is produced; Philemon, that it is a fossil substance, and that it is found in two different localities in Scythia, in one of which it is of a white and waxen colour, and is known as “electrum;” while in the other it is red, and is called “sualiternicum.” Demostratus calls amber “lyncurion,”[2962] and he says that it originates in the urine of the wild beast known as the “lynx;” that voided by the male producing a red and fiery substance, and that by the female an amber of a white and less pronounced colour: he also informs us that by some persons it is called “langurium,” and that in Italy, there are certain wild beasts known as “languri.” Zeuothemis, however, calls these wild beasts “langæ,” and gives the banks of the river Padus as their locality. Sudines says, that it is a tree in reality, that produces amber, and that, in Etruria, this tree is known by the name of “lynx;” an opinion which is also adopted by Metrodorus. Sotacus expresses a belief that amber exudes from certain stones in Britannia, to which he gives the name of “electrides.” Pytheas says that the Gutones,[2963] a people of Germany, inhabit the shores of an estuary of the Ocean called Mentonomon, their territory extending a distance of six thousand stadia; that, at one day’s sail from this territory, is the Isle of Abalus, upon the shores of which, amber is thrown up by the waves in spring, it being an excretion of the sea in a concrete form; as, also, that the inhabitants use this amber by way of fuel, and sell it to their neighbours, the Teutones. Timæus, too, is of the same belief, but he has given to the island the name of Basilia.[2964] Philemon says that electrum does not yield a flame.[2965] Nicias, again, will have it, that it is a liquid produced by the rays of the sun; and that these rays, at the moment of the sun’s setting, striking with the greatest force upon the surface of the soil, leave upon it an unctuous sweat, which is carried off by the tides of the Ocean, and thrown up upon the shores of Germany. He states, also, that in Egypt it is similarly produced, and is there called “sacal;”[2966] that it is found in India, too, where it is held as a preferable substitute for frankincense; and that in Syria the women make the whirls of their spindles of this substance, and give it the name of “harpax,”[2967] from the circumstance that it attracts leaves towards it, chaff, and the light fringe of tissues. According to Theochrestus, amber is thrown up by the tides of the Ocean, at the foot of the Pyrenæan range; an opinion adopted also by Xenocrates. Asarubas, who has written the most recently upon these subjects, and is still living, informs us, that near the shores of the Atlantic is Lake Cephisis, known to the Mauri by the name of “Electrum;” and that when this lake is dried up by the sun, the slime of it produces amber, which floats upon the surface. Mnaseas speaks of a locality in Africa called Sicyon, and of a river Crathis there, which discharges itself from a lake into the Ocean, the banks of which are frequented by birds which he calls “meleagrides”[2968] and “penelopes:” it is here that, according to him, electrum is produced, in manner above mentioned. Theomenes says that near the Greater Syrtis are the Gardens of the Hesperides, and Lake Electrum: on the banks, he says, are poplars, from the summits of which amber falls into the water below, where it is gathered by the maidens of the Hesperides. Ctesias asserts that there is in India[2969] a river called Hypobarus, a word which signifies “bearer of all good things;” that this river flows from the north into the Eastern Ocean, where it discharges itself near a mountain covered with trees which produce electrum; and that these trees are called “siptachoræ,” the meaning of which is “intense sweetness.” Mithridates says, that off the shores of Germany there is an island called “Serita,”[2970] covered with a kind of cedar, from which amber falls upon the rocks. According to Xenocrates, this substance is called, in Italy, not only “succinum,” but “thieum” as well, the Scythian name of it, for there also it is to be found, being “sacrium:” others, he says, are of opinion that it is a product of Numidia. But the one that has surpassed them all is Sophocles, the tragic poet; a thing that indeed surprises me, when I only consider the surpassing gravity of his lofty style, the high repute that he enjoyed in life, his elevated position by birth at Athens, his various exploits, and his high military command. According to him, amber is produced in the countries beyond India, from the tears that are shed for Meleager, by the birds called “meleagrides!”[2971] Who can be otherwise than surprised that he should have believed such a thing as this, or have hoped to persuade others to believe it? What child, too, could possibly be found in such a state of ignorance as to believe that birds weep once a year, that their tears are so prolific as this, or that they go all the way from Greece, where Meleager died, to India to weep? “But then,” it will be said, “do not the poets tell many other stories that are quite as fabulous?” Such is the fact, no doubt, but for a person seriously to advance such an absurdity with reference to a thing so common as amber, which is imported every day and so easily proves the mendacity of this assertion, is neither more nor less than to evince a supreme contempt for the opinions of mankind, and to assert with impunity an intolerable falsehood. (3.) There can be no doubt that amber is a product of the islands of the Northern Ocean, and that it is the substance by the Germans called “glæsum;”[2972] for which reason the Romans, when Germanicus Cæsar commanded the fleet in those parts, gave to one of these islands the name of Glæsaria,[2973] which by the barbarians was known as Austeravia. Amber is produced from a marrow discharged by trees belonging to the pine[2974] genus, like gum from the cherry, and resin from the ordinary pine. It is a liquid at first, which issues forth in considerable quantities, and is gradually hardened by heat or cold, or else by the action of the sea, when the rise of the tide carries off the fragments from the shores of these islands. At all events, it is thrown up upon the coasts, in so light and voluble a form that in the shallows it has all the appearance of hanging suspended in the water. Our forefathers, too, were of opinion that it is the juice of a tree, and for this reason gave it the name of “succinum:”[2975] and one great proof that it is the produce of a tree of the pine genus, is the fact that it emits a pine-like smell when rubbed, and that it burns, when ignited, with the odour and appearance of torch-pine wood. Amber is imported by the Germans into Pannonia, more particularly; from whence the Veneti, by the Greeks called Eneti, first brought it into general notice, a people in the vicinity of Pannonia, and dwelling on the shores of the Adriatic Sea. From this it is evident how the story which connects it with the Padus first originated; and at the present day we see the female peasantry in the countries that lie beyond that river wearing necklaces of amber, principally as an ornament, no doubt, but on account of its remedial virtues as well; for amber, it is generally believed, is good for affections of the tonsillary glands and fauces, the various kinds of water in the vicinity of the Alps being apt to produce disease in the human throat.[2976] From Carnuntum in Pannonia, to the coasts of Germany from which the amber is brought, is a distance of about six hundred miles, a fact which has been only very recently ascertained; and there is still living a member of the equestrian order, who was sent thither by Julianus, the manager of the gladiatorial exhibitions for the Emperor Nero, to procure a supply of this article. Traversing the coasts of that country and visiting the various markets there, he brought back amber, in such vast quantities, as to admit of the nets, which are used for protecting the podium[2977] against the wild beasts, being studded[2978] with amber. The arms too, the litters,[2979] and all the other apparatus, were, on one day, decorated with nothing but amber, a different kind of display being made each day that these spectacles were exhibited. The largest piece of amber that this personage brought to Rome was thirteen pounds in weight. That amber is found in India too, is a fact well ascertained. Archelaüs, who reigned over Cappadocia, says that it is brought from that country in the rough state, and with the fine bark still adhering to it, it being the custom there to polish it by boiling it in the grease of a sucking-pig. One great proof that amber must have been originally in a liquid state, is the fact that, owing to its transparency, certain objects are to be seen within, ants for example, gnats, and lizards. These, no doubt, must have first adhered to it while liquid, and then, upon its hardening, have remained enclosed within.[2980] CHAP. 12.—THE SEVERAL KINDS OF AMBER: THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM IT. There are several kinds[2981] of amber. The white is the one that has the finest odour;[2982] but neither this nor the wax-coloured amber is held in very high esteem. The red amber is more highly valued; and still more so, when it is transparent, without presenting too brilliant and igneous an appearance. For amber, to be of high quality, should present a brightness like that of fire, but not flakes resembling those of flame. The most highly esteemed amber is that known as the “Falernian,” from its resemblance to the colour of Falernian wine; it is perfectly transparent, and has a softened, transparent, brightness. Other kinds, again, are valued for their mellowed tints, like the colour of boiled honey in appearance. It ought to be known, however, that any colour can be imparted to amber that may be desired, it being sometimes stained with kid-suet and root of alkanet; indeed, at the present day, amber is dyed purple even. When a vivifying heat has been imparted to it by rubbing it between the fingers, amber will attract chaff, dried leaves, and thin bark, just in the same way that the magnet attracts iron. Pieces of amber, steeped in oil, burn with a more brilliant and more lasting flame than pith of flax.[2983] So highly valued is this as an object of luxury, that a very diminutive human effigy, made of amber, has been known to sell at a higher price than living men even, in stout and vigorous health. This single ground for censure, however, is far from being sufficient; in Corinthian objects of vertu, it is the copper that recommends them, combined with silver and gold; and in embossed works it is the skill and genius of the artist that is so highly esteemed. We have already said what it is that recommends vessels of murrhine and of crystal; pearls, too, are of use for wearing upon the head, and gems upon the fingers. In the case of all other luxuries, in fact, it is either a spirit of ostentation or some utility that has been discovered in them that pleads so strongly in their behalf; but in that of amber we have solely the consciousness that we are enjoying a luxury, and nothing more. Domitius Nero, among the other portentous extravagances of his life, bestowed this name upon the ringlets of his wife Poppæa, and, in certain verses of his, he has even gone so far as to call them “succini.” As fine names, too, are never wanting for bodily defects, a third tint has been introduced of late for hair among our ladies, under the name of “amber-colour.” Amber, however, is not without its utility in a medicinal point of view; though it is not for this reason that the women are so pleased with it. It is beneficial for infants also, attached to the body in the form of an amulet; and, according to Callistratus, it is good for any age, as a preventive of delirium and as a cure for strangury, either taken in drink or attached as an amulet to the body. This last author, too, has invented a new variety of amber; giving the name of “chryselectrum”[2984] to an amber of a golden colour, and which presents the most beautiful tints in the morning. This last kind attracts flame, too, with the greatest rapidity, and, the moment it approaches the fire, it ignites. “Worn upon the neck, he says, it is a cure for fevers and other diseases, and, triturated with honey and oil of roses, it is good for maladies of the ears. Beaten up with Attic honey, it is good for dimness of sight: and the powder of it, either taken by itself or with gum mastich in water, is remedial for diseases of the stomach. Amber, too, is greatly in request for the imitation of the transparent precious stones, amethystos in particular: for, as already stated, it admits of being dyed of every colour. CHAP. 13.—LYNCURUIM: TWO ASSERTED REMEDIES. The pertinacity that has been displayed by certain authors compels me to speak of lyncurium[2985] next; for even those who maintain that it is not a variety of amber, still assure us that it is a precious stone. They assert, too, that it is a product of the urine of the lynx and of a kind of earth, the animal covering up the urine the moment it has voided it, from a jealousy that man should gain possession of it; a combination which hardens into stone. The colour of it, they inform us, like that of some kinds of amber, is of a fiery[2986] hue, and it admits, they say, of being engraved. They assert, too, that this substance attracts[2987] to itself not only leaves or straws, but thin plates of copper even or of iron; a story which Theophrastus even believes, on the faith of a certain Diocles. For my own part, I look upon the whole of these statements as untrue, and I do not believe that in our time there has ever been a precious stone seen with such a name as this. I regard, too, the assertions that have been made as to its medicinal properties, as equally false; to the effect that, taken in drink, it disperses urinary calculi, and that, taken in wine, or only looked at, it is curative of jaundice. CHAP. 14.—THE VARIOUS PRECIOUS STONES, CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO THEIR PRINCIPAL COLOURS. We will now proceed to speak of the various kinds of precious stones, the existence of which is generally admitted, beginning with those which are the most highly esteemed. Nor shall we content ourselves with doing this only; but, with the view of consulting the general welfare of mankind, we shall also refute the infamous lies that have been promulgated by the magicians: for it is with reference to precious stones, more particularly, that they have circulated most of their fabulous stories, stepping, under that most alluring guise of ascertaining remedial virtues, beyond all bounds, and entering the region of the marvellous. CHAP. 15. (4.)—ADAMAS: SIX VARIETIES OF IT. TWO REMEDIES. The substance that possesses the greatest value, not only among the precious stones, but of all human possessions, is adamas;[2988] mineral which, for a long time, was known to kings only, and to very few of them. Such was the name given to a nodosity of gold,[2989] sometimes, though but rarely, found in the mines, in close proximity with gold, and only there to be found, it was thought. The ancients supposed that adamas was only to be discovered in the mines of Æthiopia,[2990] between the Temple of Mercury and the island of Meroë; and they have informed us that it was never larger than a cucumber-seed, or differing at all from it in colour. At the present day, for the first time, there are no less than six different varieties of it recognized. The Indian adamas is found, not in a stratum of gold, but in a substance of a kindred nature to crystal; which it closely resembles in its transparency and its highly polished hexangular and hexahedral[2991] form. In shape it is turbinated, running to a point at either extremity, and closely resembling, marvellous to think of, two cones united at the base. In size, too, it is as large even as a hazel-nut. Resembling that of India, is the adamas[2992] of Arabia, which is found in a similar bed, but not so large in size. Other varieties have a pallid hue like that of silver, and are only to be found in the midst of gold of the very finest quality. These stones are tested upon the anvil, and will resist the blow to such an extent, as to make the iron rebound and the very anvil split asunder.[2993] Indeed its hardness is beyond all expression, while at the same time it quite sets fire at defiance[2994] and is incapable of being heated; owing to which indomitable powers it is, that it has received the name which it derives from the Greek.[2995] One kind, about as large as a grain of millet in size, has been called “cenchros,”[2996] and another,[2997] that is found in the gold mines at Philippi, is known as the “Macedonian” adamas: this last is about as large as a cucumber-seed in size. We next come to the Cyprian[2998] adamas, so called from its being found in the Isle of Cyprus: it is of a colour somewhat inclining to that of copper, but, in reference to its medicinal virtues, of which we shall have to make further mention, it is the most efficacious of them all. Next in succession to this we have siderites,[2999] a stone which shines like iron, and is more ponderous than any of the others, but differs in its properties from them all. For it breaks when struck by the hammer, and admits of being perforated by other kinds of adamas; a thing which is the case, also, with that of Cyprus: in short, these two are degenerate stones, and only bear the name of “adamas” for the purpose of enhancing their value. Now with reference to those affinities and repugnances which exist between certain objects, known to the Greeks as “sympathia” and “antipathia,” phænomena to which we have endeavoured[3000] to draw attention throughout these books, they nowhere manifest themselves with greater distinctness than here. This indomitable power, in fact, which sets at nought the two most violent agents in Nature, fire, namely, and iron, is made to yield before the blood of a he-goat.[3001] The blood, however must be no otherwise than fresh and warm; the stone, too, must be well steeped in it, and then subjected to repeated blows: and even then, it is apt to break both anvils and hammers of iron, if they are not of the very finest temper. To what spirit of research, or to what accident, are we indebted for this discovery? or what conjecture can it have been, that first led man to experiment upon a thing of such extraordinary value as this, and that, too, with the most unclean[3002] of all animals? Surely a discovery, such as this, must have been due solely to the munificence of the gods, and we must look for the reason of it in none of the elementary operations of Nature, but wholly in her will. When, by good fortune, this stone does happen to be broken, it divides into fragments so minute as to be almost imperceptible. These particles are held in great request by engravers, who enclose them in iron, and are enabled thereby, with the greatest facility, to cut[3003] the very hardest substances known. So great is the antipathy borne by this stone to the magnet, that when placed near, it will not allow of its attracting iron; or if the magnet has already attracted the iron, it will seize the metal and drag it away from the other.[3004] Adamas, too, overcomes and neutralizes poisons, dispels delirium, and banishes groundless perturbations of the mind; hence it is that some have given it the name of “ananchites.”[3005] Metrodorus of Scepsis is the only author, that I know of, who says that this stone is found also in Germany, and in the island of Basilia,[3006] where amber is found. He says, too, that this is preferable to the stone of Arabia; but can there be any doubt that his statement is incorrect? CHAP. 16.—-SMARAGDUS. Next[3007] in esteem with us are the pearls of India and Arabia, of which we have already spoken in the Ninth Book,[3008] when treating of the marine productions. (5.) The third rank, for many reasons, has been given to the smaragdus.[3009] Indeed there is no stone, the colour of which is more delightful to the eye; for whereas the sight fixes itself with avidity upon the green[3010] grass and the foliage of the trees, we have all the more pleasure in looking upon the smaragdus, there being no green in existence of a more intense colour[3011] than this. And then, besides, of all the precious stones, this is the only one that feeds the sight without satiating it. Even when the vision has been fatigued with intently viewing other objects, it is refreshed by being turned upon this stone; and lapidaries know of nothing that is more gratefully soothing to the eyes, its soft green tints being wonderfully adapted for assuaging lassitude, when felt in those organs. And then, besides, when viewed from a distance, these stones appear all the larger to the sight, reflecting as they do, their green hues upon the circumambient air. Neither sunshine, shade, nor artificial light effects any change in their appearance; they have always a softened and graduated brilliancy; and transmitting the light with facility, they allow the vision to penetrate their interior; a property which is so pleasing, also, with reference to water. In form they are mostly concave, so as to re-unite the rays of light and the powers of vision: and hence it is, that it is so universally agreed upon among mankind to respect these stones, and to forbid their surface[3012] to be engraved. In the case, however, of the stones of Scythia and Egypt, their hardness is such, that it would be quite impossible to penetrate them. When the surface of the smaragdus is flat, it reflects the image of objects in the same manner as a mirror. The Emperor Nero used to view[3013] the combats of the gladiators upon a smaragdus. CHAP. 17.—TWELVE VARIETIES OF THE SMARAGDUS. Of this stone there are no less than twelve different kinds; of which the finest is the Scythian[3014] smaragdus, so called from the country where it is found. None of them has a deeper colour than this, or is more free from defects: indeed, in the same degree that the smaragdus is superior to other precious stones, the Scythian smaragdus is superior to the other varieties. Next in esteem to this, as also in locality, is the smaragdus of Bactriana.[3015] These stones are collected, it is said, in the fissures of rocks, when the Etesian[3016] winds prevail; a period at which the earth that covers them is removed, and the stones are detected by their brightness, the sands being greatly agitated by the action of the winds. These last, however, are much inferior, they say, to those of Scythia in size. The third rank is held by the stones of Egypt,[3017] which are extracted from the hills in the vicinity of Coptos, a city of Thebais. All the other kinds are found in copper-mines, and hence it is that, of these varieties, the smaragdus of Cyprus holds the highest rank. The merit of them consists in their clear colour, which has nothing thin or diluted in it, but presents a rich and humid transparency, closely resembling the tints of the sea, in fact. Hence it is that these stones are at once diaphanous and shining, or, in other words, reflect their colours and allow the vision to penetrate within. They say that in this island, upon the tomb of a petty king named Hermias, near the fisheries[3018] there, there was formerly a lion in marble, with eyes made of smaragdi; the brilliancy of which penetrated the sea to such a degree, as to alarm the tunnies and put them to flight: a novel circumstance, which for a long time excited wonder in the fishermen, till at last the stones in the statue were changed for others. CHAP. 18.—DEFECTS IN THE SMARAGDUS. It will be only proper, too, seeing that the prices of these stones are so exorbitant, to point out their defects. Some defects, no doubt, are common to all of them, while others, again, like those found in the human race, are peculiar only to those of a certain country. Thus, for example, the stones of Cyprus are not all green alike, and in the same smaragdus some parts are more or less so than others, the stone not always preserving that uniform deep tint which characterizes the smaragdus of Scythia. In other instances, a shadow runs through the stone, and the colour becomes dulled thereby; the consequence of which is, that its value is depreciated; and even more so, when the colour is thin and diluted. In consequence of the defects[3019] in these stones, they have been divided into several classes. Some of them are obscure, and are then known as “blind” stones; some have a certain density, which impairs their transparency; others, again, are mottled, and others covered with a cloud. This cloud, however, is altogether different from the shadow above mentioned; for it is a defect which renders the stone of a whitish hue, and not of a transparent green throughout; presenting, as it does, in the interior or upon the surface, a certain degree of whiteness which arrests the vision. Other defects, again, in these stones, are filaments, salt-like[3020] grains, or traces of lead ore, faults which are mostly common to them all. Next after the kinds above described, the smaragdus of Æthiopia is held in high esteem; being found, as Juba tells us, at a distance of twenty-five days’ journey from Coptos. These are of a bright green, but are seldom to be met with perfectly clear or of an uniform colour. Democritus includes in this class the stones that are known as “herminei,” and as “Persian” stones; the former of which are of a convex, massive shape, while the latter are destitute of transparency, but have an agreeable, uniform colour, and satisfy the vision without allowing it to penetrate them; strongly resembling, in this respect, the eyes of cats and of panthers, which are radiant without being diaphanous. In the sun, he says, they lose their brilliancy, but they are radiant in the shade, the brightness of them being seen at a greater distance than in the case of other stones. One other fault, too, in all these stones is, that they often have a colour like that of honey or rancid oil, or else are clear and transparent, but not green. These defects exist in the smaragdi of Attica,[3021] more particularly, which are found in the silver-mines there, at a place known by the name of Thoricos.[3022] These last are never so massive as the others, and are always more pleasing to the sight when viewed from a distance: lead ore, too, is often to be detected in them, or, in other words, they have a leaden appearance when looked at in the sun.[3023] One peculiarity in them is, that some of them become impaired by age, gradually lose their green colour, and are even deteriorated by exposure to the sun. Next to the stones of Attica come those of Media, a variety which presents the most numerous tints of all, and sometimes approaches sapphiros[3024] in colour. These stones are wavy,[3025] and represent various natural objects, such as poppy-heads, for example, birds, the young of animals, and feathers: all of them appear naturally of a green colour, but become improved by the application of oil. No stones of this species are of a larger size than these. I am not aware that any of these stones[3026] are still in existence at Chalcedon, the copper mines of that locality being now exhausted: but be this as it may, they were always the smallest in size and the most inferior in value. Brittle, and of a colour far from distinctly pronounced, they resembled in their tints the feathers that are seen in the tail of the peacock or on the necks of pigeons.[3027] More or less brilliant, too, according to the angle at which they were viewed, they presented an appearance like that of veins and scales. There was another defect, also, peculiar to these stones, known as “sarcion,” from the circumstance that a kind of flesh[3028] appeared to attach itself to the stone. The mountain near Chalcedon, where these stones were gathered, is still known by the name of “Smaragdites.” Juba informs us that a kind of smaragdus, known as “cloras,”[3029] is used in Arabia as an ornament for buildings, as also the stone which by the people of Egypt is called “alabastrites.” On the same authority, too, we learn that there are several varieties of the smaragdus in the neighbouring mountains, and that stones like those of Media are found in Mount Taygetus,[3030] as also in Sicily. CHAP. 19.—THE PRECIOUS STONE CALLED TANOS. CHALCOSMARAGDOS. Among the smaragdi is also included the precious stone known as “tanos.”[3031] It comes from Persia, and is of an unsightly green, and of a soiled colour within. There is the chalcosmaragdos[3032] also, a native of Cyprus, the face of which is mottled with coppery veins. Theophrastus relates that he had found it stated in the Egyptian histories, that a king of Babylon once sent to the king of Egypt a smaragdus[3033] four cubits in length by three in breadth. He informs us, also, that in a temple of Jupiter in Egypt there was an obelisk made of four smaragdi, forty cubits in length, and four in breadth at one extremity, and two at the other. He says, too, that at the period at which he wrote, there was in the Temple of Hercules at Tyrus a large column made of a single smaragdus;[3034] though very possibly it might only be pseudo-smaragdus, a kind of stone not uncommonly found in Cyprus, where a block had been discovered, composed, one half of smaragdus, and one half of jasper,[3035] and the liquid in which had not as yet been entirely transformed. Apion, surnamed “Plistonices,”[3036] has left a very recent statement, that there was still in existence, in his time, in the Labyrinth of Egypt, a colossal statue of Serapis made of a single smaragdus, nine cubits in height. CHAP. 20.—BERYLS: EIGHT VARIETIES OF THEM. DEFECTS IN BERYLS. Beryls, it is thought, are of the same[3037] nature as the smaragdus, or at least closely analogous. India[3038] produces them, and they are rarely to be found elsewhere. The lapidaries cut all beryls of an hexagonal[3039] form; because the colour, which is deadened by a dull uniformity of surface, is heightened by the reflection resulting from the angles. If they are cut in any other way, these stones have no brilliancy whatever. The most esteemed beryls are those which in colour resemble the pure green of the sea;[3040] the chrysoberyl[3041] being next in value, a stone of a somewhat paler colour, but approaching a golden tint. Closely allied to this last in its brilliancy, but of a more pallid colour, and thought by some to constitute a separate genus, is chrysoprasus.[3042] In the fourth rank are reckoned the hyacinthine beryls; and in the fifth, those known as “aëroides.”[3043] Next, we have the wax-coloured beryls, and, after them, the oleaginous beryls, so called from the resemblance of their colour to that of oil. Last of all, there are the stones which closely resemble crystal in appearance; mostly disfigured by spots and filaments, and of a poor, faint, colour as well; all of them so many imperfections in the stone. The people of India are marvellously fond of beryls of an elongated[3044] form, and say that these are the only precious stones they prefer wearing without the addition of gold: hence it is that, after piercing them, they string them upon the bristles of the elephant. It is generally agreed, however, that those stones should not be perforated which are of the finest quality; and in this case they only enclose the extremities of them in studs of gold. They prefer, too, cutting the beryls in a cylindrical form, instead of setting them as precious stones; an elongated shape being the one that is most highly esteemed. Some are of opinion that beryls are naturally angular,[3045] and that when pierced they become improved in colour; the white substance being thus removed that lies within, and their brilliancy heightened by the reflection of the gold in which they are set; or, at all events, their transparency being increased by this diminution in their thickness. In addition to the defects already[3046] mentioned, and which are pretty nearly the same as those to which the smaragdus is subject, beryls are affected with cloudy spots,[3047] like those on the finger-nails in appearance. In our own part of the world, it is thought that they are sometimes found in the countries that lie in the vicinity of Pontus.[3048] The people of India, by colouring crystal, have found a method of imitating various precious stones, beryls in particular. CHAP. 21. (6.)—OPALS: SEVEN VARIETIES OF THEM. Opals[3049] are at once very similar to, and very different from, beryls, and only yield to the smaragdus in value. India, too, is the sole[3050] parent of these precious stones, thus completing her glory as being the great producer of the most costly gems. Of all precious stones, it is opal that presents the greatest difficulties of description, it displaying at once the piercing fire of carbunculus,[3051] the purple brilliancy of amethystos, and the sea-green of smaragdus, the whole blended together and refulgent with a brightness that is quite incredible. Some authors have compared the effect of its refulgence to that of the colour known as Armenian[3052] pigment, while others speak of it as resembling the flame of burning sulphur, or of flame fed with oil. In size, the opal is about as large as a hazel-nut,[3053] and, with reference to it, there is a remarkable historical anecdote related. For there is still in existence a stone of this class, on account of which Antonius proscribed the senator Nonius, son of the Nonius Struma, whom the poet Catullus[3054] was so displeased at seeing in the curule chair, and grandfather of the Servilius Nonianus, who in our own times was consul.[3055] On being thus proscribed, Nonius took to flight, carrying with him, out of all his wealth, nothing but this ring, the value of which, it is well known, was estimated at two millions of sesterces. How marvellous must have been the cruelty, how marvellous the luxurious passion of Antonius, thus to proscribe a man for the possession of a jewel! and no less marvellous must have been the obstinacy of Nonius, who could thus dote upon what had been the cause of his proscription; for we see the very brutes even tear off the portion of their body for the sake of which they know their existence to be imperilled,[3056] and so redeem themselves by parting with it. CHAP. 22.—DEFECTS IN OPALS: THE MODES OF TESTING THEM. Defects in opal are, a colour inclining to that of the flower called heliotropium,[3057] or to that of crystal or of hailstones; salt-like grains intervening; roughness on the surface; or sharp points, presenting themselves to the eye. There is no stone that is imitated by fraudulent dealers with more exactness than this, in glass, the only mode of detecting the imposition being by the light of the sun. For when a false[3058] opal is held between the finger and thumb, and exposed to the rays of that luminary, it presents but one and the same transparent colour throughout, limited to the body of the stone: whereas the genuine opal offers various refulgent tints in succession, and reflects now one hue and now another, as it sheds its luminous brilliancy upon the fingers. This stone, in consequence of its extraordinary beauty, has been called “pæderos”[3059] by many authors; and some who make a distinct species of it, say that it is the same as the stone that in India is called “sangenon.” These last-mentioned stones, it is said, are found in Egypt also, Arabia, and, of very inferior quality, in Pontus. Galatia, too, is said to produce them, as also Thasos and Cyprus. The finest in quality of them have all the beauty of opal, but they are of a softer brilliancy, and are mostly rough on the surface. Their colour is a mixture of sky-blue and purple, and the green hues of the smaragdus are wanting: those, too, are preferred, which have their brilliancy deepened by a vinous hue, rather than those which have their colours diluted, as it were, with water. CHAP. 23.—SARDONYX; THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT. DEFECTS IN THE SARDONYX. Thus far we have spoken in reference to the stones, which, it is generally agreed, belong to the highest rank; in obedience, more particularly, to a decree[3060] that has been passed by the ladies to that effect. There is less certainty with respect to those upon which the men as well have been left to form a judgment; seeing that the value of each stone depends more particularly upon the caprice of the individual and the rivalry that exists in reference thereto; as, for example, when Claudius Cæsar was so much in the habit of wearing the smaragdus and the sardonyx.[3061] The first Roman who wore a sardonyx, according to Demostratus, was the elder Africanus, since whose time this stone has been held in very high esteem at Rome: for which reason, we shall give it the next place after the opal. By sardonyx, as the name[3062] itself indicates, was formerly understood a sarda with a white ground beneath it, like the flesh beneath the human finger-nail; both parts of the stone being equally transparent. Such, according to Ismenias, Demostratus, Zenothemis, and Sotacus, is the sardonyx of India; the last two giving the name of “blind” sardonyx to all the other stones of this class which are not transparent, and which have now entirely appropriated the name to themselves. For, at the present day, the Arabian sardonyx presents no traces whatever of the Indian sarda,[3063] it being a stone that has been found to be characterized by several different colours of late; black or azure for the base, and vermilion, surrounded with a line of rich white, for the upper part, not without a certain glimpse[3064] of purple as the white passes into the red.[3065] We learn from Zenothemis that in his time these stones were not held by the people of India in any high esteem, although they are found there of so large a size as to admit of the hilts of swords being made of them. It is well known, too, that in that country they are exposed to view by the mountain-streams, and that in our part of the world they were formerly valued from the fact that they are nearly the only ones[3066] among the engraved precious stones that do not bring away the wax when an impression is made. The consequence is, that our example has at last taught the people of India to set a value upon them, and the lower classes there now pierce them even, to wear them as ornaments for the neck; the great proof, in fact, at the present day, of a sardonyx being of Indian origin. Those of Arabia are remarkable for their marginal line of brilliant white, of considerable breadth, and not glistening in hollow fissures in the stone or upon the sides, but shining upon the very surface, at the margin, and supported by a ground intensely black beneath. In the stones of India, this ground is like wax in colour,[3067] or else like cornel, with a circle also of white around it. In some of these stones, too, there is a play of colours like those of the rainbow, while the surface is redder even than the shell of the sea-locust.[3068] Those stones which are like honey in appearance, or of a fæculent[3069] colour—such being the name given to one defect in them—are generally disapproved of. They are rejected also when the white zone blends itself with the other colours, and its limits are not definitely marked; or if, in like manner, it is irregularly intersected by any other colour; it being looked upon as an imperfection if the regularity of any one of the colours is interrupted by the interposition of another. The sardonyx of Armenia is held in some esteem, but the zone round it is of a pallid hue. CHAP. 24.—ONYX: THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT. We must give some account also of onyx,[3070] because of the name which it partly shares in common with sardonyx. This name, though in some places[3071] given to a marble, is here used to signify a precious stone. Sudines says, that in this stone there is a white portion which resembles the white of the human-finger nail, in addition to the colours of chrysolithos, sarda, and iaspis. According to Zenothemis, there are numerous varieties of the Indian onyx, the fiery-coloured, the black, and the cornel, with white veins encircling them, like an eye as it were, and in some cases running across them obliquely.[3072] Sotacus mentions an Arabian onyx, which differs from the rest; that of India, according to him, presenting small flames,[3073] each surrounded by one or more white zones; in a manner altogether different from the Indian sardonyx, which presents a series of white specks, while in this case it is one continuous circle. The Arabian onyx, on the other hand, is black, he says, with a white zone encircling it. Satyrus says, that there is an onyx in India of a flesh colour,[3074] partly resembling carbunculus, and partly chrysolithos and amethystos; a variety, however, which he altogether disapproves of. The real onyx, according to him, has numerous veins of variegated colours, interspersed with others of a milk-white hue; the shades of which, as they pass into one another, produce a tint which surpasses all description, and blends itself into one harmonious whole, of a most beautiful appearance. Not unlike sardonyx, too, is sarda,[3075] a stone which also has, in part, a kindred name with it; but before passing on to it, we must first take some notice of all those precious stones which have a brilliancy like that of flame. CHAP. 25. (7.)—CARBUNCULUS: TWELVE VARIETIES OF IT. In the first rank among these is carbunculus,[3076] so called from its resemblance to fire; though in reality it is proof against the action of that element:[3077] hence it is that some persons call these stones “acaustoi.”[3078] There are various kinds of carbunculus, the Indian and the Garamantic, for example, which last has been also called the Carchedonian,[3079] in compliment to the former opulence of Great Carthage.[3080] To these are added the Æthiopian and the Alabandic stones, the latter of which are found at Orthosia[3081] in Caria, but are cut and polished at Alabanda.[3082] In addition to this, each kind is subdivided into the male carbunculus and the female, the former of which is of a more striking brilliancy, the brightness of the latter being not so strong. In the male varieties too, we see some in which the fire is clearer than in others; while some, again, are of a darker[3083] hue, or else have their brilliancy more deeply seated, and shine with a more powerful lustre than others when viewed in the sun. The most highly esteemed, however, is the amethyst-coloured[3084] stone, the fire at the extremity of which closely approaches the violet tint of amethystos: next in value to which, are the stones known as “syrtites,” radiant with a wavy, feathery,[3085] refulgence. They are found more particularly, it is said, where the reflection is most powerful of the rays of the sun. Satyrus says that the carbunculus[3086] of India has no lustre, that it is mostly soiled, and that in all cases its brilliancy is of a tawny complexion. The Æthiopian stones, he says, are dense, emit no lustre, and burn with a concentrated flame. According to Callistratus, the refulgence of this stone should be of a whitish hue, and, when placed upon a table, it should heighten by its lustre other stones placed near it that are clouded at the edge. Hence it is, that many writers speak of this stone as the white carbunculus, while the Indian stone, with its comparatively feeble lustre, is known by the name of “lignyzon.”[3087] The Carchedonian stones, they say, are of much smaller size than the others; but those of India admit of being hollowed out, and making vessels that will hold as much as one sextarius[3088] even. According to Archelaüs, the Carchedonian carbunculus is of a more swarthy appearance than the others, but, when exposed to the light of the fire or sun, and viewed obliquely, the brilliancy of it is much more intense than that of the rest. He says, too, that this stone, when overshadowed by a roof, has a purple tint; that when viewed in the open air, it is of a flame colour; and that, when exposed to the rays of the sun, it scintillates. He states also that wax, if sealed with these stones, in the shade even, will melt. Many authors have asserted that the Indian stones are paler than the Carchedonian, and that, quite the converse of these last, they are all the less brilliant when viewed obliquely; as also, that in the male Carchedonian stone there are luminous points like stars within, while, in the case of the female stone, the whole of its refulgence is thrown beyond it. The stones of Alabanda too, it is said, are darker than the other kinds, and rough on the surface. In the vicinity also of Miletus, there are stones of this description found in the earth, resembling those of Alabanda in colour, and proof against the action of fire. According to Theophrastus,[3089] these stones are to be found also at Orchomenus in Arcadia and in the Isle of Chios;[3090] the former[3091] of which are of a darker hue, and are used for making mirrors. He says too, that at Trœzen they are found of various colours and mottled with white spots, those found at Corinth being of a more pallid, whitish, hue. He states also, that they are sometimes imported from Massilia. Bocchus informs us in his writings, that these stones are extracted from the ground at Olisipo;[3092] at the cost of great labour, however, in consequence of the parched, argillaceous, nature of the soil. CHAP. 26.—DEFECTS IN CARBUNCULUS, AND THE MODE OF TESTING IT. Nothing is more difficult than to distinguish the several varieties of this stone, so great an opportunity do they afford to artistic skill of compelling them to reflect the colours of substances placed beneath. It is possible, they say, to heighten the brilliancy of dull stones, by steeping them for fourteen days in vinegar, this adventitious lustre being retained by them as many months. They are counterfeited, too, with great exactness in glass; but the difference may be detected with the touchstone; the same being the case also with other artificial stones, as the material is always of a softer nature and comparatively brittle. When thus tested by the stone, hard knots, too, are detected in them; and the weight of the glass counterfeit is always less. In some cases, too, they present small blisters within, which shine like silver. CHAP. 27.—AHTHRACITIS.[3093] There is also a fossil stone found in Thesprotia, known as “anthracitis,”[3094] and resembling a burning coal[3095] in appearance. Those who have stated that it is a native also of Liguria, are mistaken, in my opinion, unless perhaps it was to be found there in their time. Some of these stones, they say, are surrounded with a vein of white. Like those which we have mentioned above, they have a fiery colour, but there is this peculiarity in them, that when thrown into the fire they have all the appearance of becoming quenched and deadened; while, on the other hand, if they are drenched with water, they become doubly glowing.[3096] CHAP. 28.—SANDASTROS. SANDARESOS. Of a kindred nature, too, is sandastros,[3097] known as “garamantites” by some: it is found in India, at a place of that name, and is a product also of the southern parts of Arabia. The great recommendation of it is, that it has all the appearance of fire placed behind a transparent substance, it burning with star-like scintillations within, that resemble drops of gold, and are always to be seen in the body of the stone, and never upon the surface. There are certain religious associations, too, connected with this stone, in consequence of the affinity which it is supposed to bear with the stars; these scintillations being mostly, in number and arrangement, like the constellations of the Pleiades and Hyades; a circumstance which had led to the use of it by the Chaldæi in the ceremonials which they practise. Here, too, the male stones are distinguished from the female, by their comparative depth of colour and the vigorousness of the tints which they impart to objects near them: indeed the stones of India, it is said, quite dim the sight by their brilliancy. The flame of the female sandastros is of a more softened nature, and may be pronounced to be lustrous rather than brilliant. Some prefer the stone of Arabia to that of India, and say that this last bears a considerable resemblance to a smoke-coloured chrysolithos. Ismenias asserts that sandastros, in consequence of its extreme softness, will not admit of being polished, a circumstance which makes it sell all[3098] the dearer: other writers, again, call these stones “sandrisitæ.” One point upon which all the authorities are agreed is, that the greater the number of stars upon the stone, the more costly it is in price. The similarity of the name has sometimes caused this stone to be confounded with that known as “sandaresos,” and which Nicander calls “sandaserion,” and others “sandaseron.” Some, again, call this last-mentioned stone “sandastros,” and the former one “sandaresos.” The stone[3099] that is thus mentioned by Nicander, is a native of India as well as the other, and likewise takes its name from the locality where it is found. The colour of it is that of an apple, or of green oil, and no one sets any value on it. CHAP. 29.—LYCHNIS: FOUR VARIETIES OF IT. To the same class of flame-coloured stones belongs that known as “lychnis;”[3100] so called from its lustre being heightd by the light of the lamp, under which circumstances its tints are particularly pleasing. It is found in the vicinity of Orthosia, throughout the whole of Caria, and in the neighbouring localities; but the most approved stones are those that come from India. Some writers have given the name of “deadened”[3101] carbunculus to a lychnis of second-rate quality, and similar in colour to the flower known as the “flower of Jove.”[3102] I find other varieties also mentioned, one with a purple radiance, and another of a scarlet[3103] tint. It is asserted, too, that these stones, when heated or rubbed between the fingers, will attract[3104] chaff and filaments of paper. CHAP. 30.—CARCHEDONIA. Carchedonia,[3105] too, is said to have the same property, though far inferior in value to the stones already mentioned. It is found in the mountains among the Nasamones,[3106] being produced, the natives think, by showers sent for the purpose from heaven. These stones are found by the light of the moon, more particularly when at full: in former days, Carthage was the entrepôt for them. Archelaüs speaks of a brittle variety being found in the vicinity of Thebes also, in Egypt, full of veins, and similar to dying embers in appearance. I find it stated, too, that in former times, drinking-vessels used to be made of this stone and of lychnis:[3107] all these kinds of stone, however, offer the most obstinate resistance to the graver, and, if used for seals, are apt to bring away a part of the wax. CHAP. 31.—SARDA: FIVE VARIETIES OF IT. Sarda,[3108] on the other hand, is remarkably useful for this purpose; a stone which shares its name, in part, with sardonyx. It is a common stone, and was first found at Sardes, but the most esteemed kind is that of the vicinity of Babylon. When certain quarries are being worked, these stones are found, adhering, like a kind of heart, to the interior of the rock. This mineral, however, is said to be now extinct in Persia; though it is to be found in numerous other localities, Paros and Assos, for example. In India[3109] there are three varieties of this stone; the red sarda, the one known as “pionia,” from its thickness, and a third kind, beneath which they place a ground of silver tinsel. The Indian stones are transparent, those of Arabia being more opaque. There are some found also in the vicinity of Leucas in Epirus, and in Egypt, which have a ground placed beneath them of leaf gold. In the case of this stone, too, the male stone shines with a more attractive brilliancy than the female, which is of a thicker substance, and more opaque. Among the ancients there was no precious stone in more common use than this; at all events, it is this stone that is made so much parade of in the comedies of Menander and Philemon. No one, too, among the transparent stones is tarnished more speedily by exposure to moisture than this; though of all liquids, it is oil that acts the most readily upon it. Those stones which are like honey in colour, are generally disapproved of, and still more so, when they have the complexion of earthenware.[3110] CHAP. 32. (8.)—TOPAZOS: TWO VARIETIES OF IT. Topazos[3111] is a stone that is still held in very high estimation for its green tints: indeed, when it was first discovered, it was preferred to every other kind of precious stone. It so happened that some Troglodytic pirates, suffering from tempest and hunger, having landed upon an island off the coast of Arabia known as Cytis,[3112] when digging there for roots and grass, discovered this precious stone: such, at least, is the opinion expressed by Archelaüs. Juba says that there is an island in the Red Sea called “Topazos,”[3113] at a distance of three hundred stadia from the main land; that it is surrounded by fogs, and is often sought by navigators in consequence; and that, owing to this, it received its present name,[3114] the word “topazin” meaning “to seek,” in the language of the Troglodytæ. He states also, that Philon, the king’s præfect, was the first to bring these stones from this island; that, on his presenting them to Queen Berenice, the mother of the second Ptolemæus, she was wonderfully pleased with them; and that, at a later period, a statue, four cubits in height, was made of this stone,[3115] in honour of Arsinoë, the wife of Ptolemæus Philadelphus, it being consecrated in the temple known as the “Golden Temple.” The most recent writers say that this stone is found also in the vicinity of Alabastrum, a city of Thebais, and they distinguish two varieties of it, the prasoïdes[3116] and the chrysopteron;[3117] which last is similar to chrysoprasus,[3118] all the shades of it tending, more or less, to resemble the colouring principle of the leek. Topazos is the largest of all the precious stones, and is the only one among those of high value that yields to the action of the file, the rest being polished by the aid of stone of Naxos.[3119] It admits, too, of being worn by use. CHAP. 33.—CALLAINA. With this stone we must also couple another, which resembles it more closely in appearance than in value, the stone known as “callaina,”[3120] and of a pale green colour. It is found in the countries[3121] that lie at the back of India, among the Phycari, namely, who inhabit Mount Caucasus, the Sacæ, and the Dahæ. It is remarkable for its size, but is covered with holes and full of extraneous matter; that, however, which is found in Carmania is of a finer quality, and far superior. In both cases, however, it is only amid frozen and inaccessible rocks that it is found, protruding from the surface, like an eye in appearance, and slightly adhering to the rock; not as though it formed an integral part of it, but with all the appearance of having been attached to it. People so habituated as they are to riding on horseback, cannot find the energy and dexterity requisite for climbing the rocks to obtain the stones, while, at the same time, they are quite terrified at the danger of doing so. Hence it is, that they attack the stones with slings from a distance, and so bring them down, moss and all. It is with this stone that the people pay their tribute, and this the rich look upon as their most graceful ornament for the neck.[3122] This constitutes the whole of their wealth, with some, and it is their chief glory to recount how many of these stones they have brought down from the mountain heights since the days of their childhood. Their success, however, is extremely variable;[3123] for while some, at the very first throw, have brought down remarkably fine specimens, many have arrived at old age without obtaining any. Such is the method of procuring these stones; their form being given them by cutting, a thing that is easily effected. The best of them have just the colour of smaragdus, a thing that proves that the most pleasing property in them is one that belongs of right to another stone. Their beauty is heightened by setting them in gold, and there is no stone to which the contrast of the gold is more becoming. The finest of them lose their colour by coming in contact with oil, unguents, or undiluted wine even; whereas those of a poorer quality preserve their colour better. There is no stone, too, that is more easily counterfeited in glass. Some writers say, that this stone is to be found in Arabia also, in the nest of the bird known as the “melancoryphus.”[3124] CHAP. 34.—PRASIUS; THREE VARIETIES OF IT. There are numerous other kinds also of green stones. To the more common class belongs prasius;[3125] one variety of which is disfigured with spots[3126] like blood, while another kind is marked with three streaks of white. To all these stones chrysoprasus[3127] is preferred, which is also similar to the colouring matter of the leek, but varies in tint between topazos and gold. This stone is found of so large a size as to admit of drinking-boats[3128] even being made of it, and is cut into cylinders very frequently. CHAP. 35.—NILION. India, which produces these stones, produces nilion[3129] also, a stone that differs from the last in its dull, diminished lustre, which, when steadily looked upon, soon fades from the sight. Sudines says that it is to be found also in the Siberus, a river of Attica. In appearance it resembles a smoke-coloured topazos, or, in some cases, a topazos with a tint like honey. According to Juba, Æthiopia produces it, upon the shores of the river known to us as the Nilus; to which circumstance, he says, it owes its name. CHAP. 36.—MOLOCHITIS. Molochitis[3130] is not transparent, being of a deeper green, and more opaque than smaragdus; its name is derived from the mallow,[3131] which it resembles in colour. It is highly esteemed for making seals, and it is endowed by Nature with medicinal properties which render it a preservative for infants against certain dangers which menace them. This stone is a native of Arabia.[3132] CHAP. 37.—IASPIS; FOURTEEN VARIETIES OF IT. DEFECTS FOUND IN IASPIS. Iaspis,[3133] too, is green, and often transparent; a stone which, if surpassed by many others, still retains the renown which it acquired in former times. Many countries produce this stone: that of India is like smaragdus in colour; that of Cyprus is hard, and of a full sea-green; and that of Persia is sky-blue, whence its name, “aërizusa.”[3134] Similar to this last is the Caspian iaspis. On the banks of the river Thermodon the iaspis is of an azure colour; in Phrygia, it is purple; and in Cappadocia of an azure purple, sombre, and not refulgent. Amisos[3135] sends us an iaspis like that of India in colour, and Chalcedon,[3136] a stone of a turbid hue. But it is of less consequence to distinguish the several localities that furnish it, than it is to remark upon the degrees of excellence which they present. The best kind is that which has a shade of purple, the next best being the rose-coloured, and the next the stone with the green colour of the smaragdus; to each of which the Greeks have given names[3137] according to their respective tints. A fourth kind, which is called by them “boria,”[3138] resembles in colour the sky of a morning in autumn; this, too, will be the same that is known as “aërizusa.”[3139] There is an iaspis also which resembles sarda[3140] in appearance, and another with a violet tint. Not less numerous, too, are the other kinds that are left undescribed; but they are all blue to a fault,[3141] or else resemble crystal in appearance, or the tints of the myxa[3142] plum. There is the terebenthine[3143]-coloured iaspis also; improperly so called, in my opinion, as it has all the appearance of being a composition of numerous gems of this description. The best of these stones are set in an open bezel, the gold of which only embraces the margins of the stone, leaving the upper and lower surfaces uncovered. One great defect in them is a subdued lustre, and a want of refulgence when viewed from a distance. Grains also like salt appear within the stone, and all the other defects which are common[3144] to precious stones in general. Sometimes they are imitated in glass; a fraud, however, which may be easily detected, from the material throwing out its refulgence, instead of concentrating it within itself. To this class also belongs the stone called “sphragis,”[3145] which is only reckoned as belonging to the domain of precious stones, from the circumstance that it is the best of all for making signets.[3146] (9.) Throughout all the East, it is the custom, it is said, to wear iaspis by way of amulet. The variety of this stone which resembles smaragdus in colour is often found with a white line running transversely through the middle; in which case it is known as “monogrammos:”[3147] when it is streaked with several lines, it is called “polygrammos.”[3148] Here, too, I may take the opportunity of exposing the falsehoods[3149] of the magicians, who pretend that this stone is beneficial for persons when speaking in public. There is a stone also that is formed of iaspis and onyx combined, and is known as “iasponyx.”[3150] Sometimes this stone has a clouded appearance; sometimes it has spots upon the surface like snow;[3151] and sometimes it is stellated with red spots.[3152] One kind resembles salt of Megara[3153] in appearance, and another is known as capnias,[3154] and looks as if it had been smoked. We have seen in our day an iaspis[3155] fifteen inches in length, of which a figure of Nero was made, armed with a cuirass. CHAP. 38.—CYANOS; THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT. We must also give a separate account of cyanos,[3156] a name which, until very recently, was given to a species of iaspis, on account of its cærulean colour. The best kind is that of Scythia,[3157] the next best being the produce of Cyprus, and, last of all, that of Egypt. An artificial[3158] kind is much in use, that is prepared by dyeing other substances; and this invention is looked upon as one of the great glories of the kings of Egypt, the name of the king who first discovered it being still preserved in their annals. This stone, too, is divided into male and female, and sometimes it has the appearance of being powdered with a golden dust, in much the same way as sapphiros. CHAP. 39.—SAPPHIROS. For sapphiros,[3159] too, is refulgent with spots[3160] like gold. It is also of an azure colour, though sometimes, but rarely, it is purple; the best kind being that which comes from Media. In no case, however, is this stone diaphanous; in addition to which, it is not suited for engraving when intersected with hard particles of a crystalline[3161] nature. Those among them that have the colour of cyanos are generally thought to be the male stones. CHAP. 40.—AMETHYSTOS; FOUR VARIETIES OF IT. SOCONDION. SAPENOS. PHARANITIS. APHRODITES BLEPHARON, ANTEROS, OR PÆDEROS. We will now commence with another class of precious stones, those of a purple colour, or whose tints are derived from purple. To the first rank belongs the amethystos[3162] of India; a stone which is also found in the part of Arabia that adjoins Syria and is known as Petra, as also in Lesser Armenia, Egypt, and Galatia; the very worst of all, and the least valued, being those of Thasos and Cyprus. The name which these stones bear, originates, it is said, in the peculiar tint of their brilliancy, which, after closely approaching the colour of wine, passes off into a violet without being fully pronounced; or else, according to some authorities, in the fact that in their purple there is something that falls short of a fiery colour, the tints fading off and inclining to the colour of wine. All these stones are transparent and of an agreeable violet colour, and are easy[3163] to engrave. Those of India have in perfection the very richest shades of purple, and it is to attain this colour that the dyers[3164] in purple direct all their endeavours; it presenting a fine mellowed appearance to the eye, and not dazzling the sight, as in the case with the colours of the carbunculus. Another variety approaches more nearly the hyacinth in colour: the people of India call this tint “socon,” and the stone itself “socondion.” A third stone of this class is of a more diluted colour, and is known as “sapenos,” being identical with “pharanitis,” so called from a country[3165] on the frontiers of Arabia that produces it. Of a fourth kind, the colour is like that of wine; and in a fifth it borders very closely upon that of crystal, the purple gradually passing off into white. This last kind is but little valued; for a fine amethyst should always have, when viewed sideways[3166] and held up to the light, a certain purple refulgence, like that of carbunculus, slightly inclining to a tint of rose. Some prefer giving these stones the name of “pæderos”[3167] or of “anteros,”[3168] while to many they are known as “Venus’[3169] eyelid,” a name which would seem to be particularly appropriate to the colour and general appearance of the gem. The falsehoods of the magicians would persuade us that these stones are preventive of inebriety, and that it is from this that they have derived[3170] their name. They tell us also, that if we inscribe the names of the sun and moon upon this stone, and then wear it suspended from the neck, with some hair of the cynocephalus[3171] and feathers of the swallow, it will act as a preservative against all noxious spells. It is said too, that worn in any manner, this stone will ensure access to the presence of kings; and that it will avert hail and the attacks of locusts, if a certain prayer is also repeated which they mention. They make similar promises, too, in reference to the smaragdus, if graven with the figure of an eagle or of a scarabæus: statements which, in my opinion, they cannot have committed to writing without a feeling of contempt and derision for the rest of mankind. CHAP. 41.—HYACINTHOS. Very different from this stone is hyacinthos,[3172] though partaking of a colour that closely borders upon it. The great difference between them is, that the brilliant violet which is so refulgent in the amethystos, is diluted in the other stone. Though pleasing at first sight, its beauty fades before the eye is satiated; indeed, so far is it from satisfying the sight, that it almost wholly fails to attract the eye, its lustre disappearing more rapidly than the tints of the flower[3173] known by the same name. CHAP. 42.—CHRYSOLITHOS: SEVEN VARIETIES OF IT. Æthiopia, which produces hyacinthos, produces chrysolithos[3174] also, a transparent stone with a refulgence like that of gold. The stones of India are the most highly esteemed, as also those found among the Tibareni,[3175] provided these last are not of a mottled hue. The worst in quality are those of Arabia, the colour of them being turbid and mottled, and their brilliancy interrupted by cloudy spots: even too, when they happen to be limpid, they have all the appearance of being full, as it were, of a peculiar dust. The best stones are those which, when placed by the side of gold, impart to it a sort of whitish hue, and so give it the appearance of silver. When this is the case, they are set in a bezel that is open on either side; but when the stone is of inferior quality, a ground of aurichalcum[3176] is placed beneath. CHAP. 43.—CHRYSELECTRUM. Though it has now altogether gone out of use for jewellery, there is a precious stone known as “chryselectrum,”[3177] the colour of which inclines to that of amber;[3178] but only when viewed by a morning[3179] light. The stones of Pontus are known by their lightness. Some of them are hard and reddish, while others, again, are soft and of a soiled appearance. According to Bocchus, these stones are found in Spain as well; in a spot where, according to him, fossil crystal has been discovered, in sinking to the water-level for wells.[3180] He tells us also that he once saw a chrysolithos twelve[3181] pounds in weight. CHAP. 44.—LEUCOCHRYSOS: FOUR VARIETIES OF IT. There is also a stone known as “leucochrysos,”[3182] with a white vein running across it. To this class, too, belongs capnias;[3183] a stone also which resembles glass in appearance; and another which reflects a tint like that of saffron. These stones are imitated in glass, to such a degree of perfection, that it is impossible to distinguish them by the eye. The touch, however, detects the difference, the imitation being not so cold as the real stone. CHAP. 45.—MELICHRYSOS. XUTHON. To this class also belongs melichrysos,[3184] a stone which has all the appearance of pure honey, seen through transparent gold. India produces these stones, and, although hard, they are very brittle, but not unpleasing to the sight. The same country, too, produces xuthon,[3185] a stone much used by the lower classes there. CHAP. 46.—PÆDEROS, SANGENON, OR TENITES. At the very head of the white stones is pæderos;[3186] though it may still be questionable to which of the colours it in reality belongs. As to the name, it has been so much bandied about among other precious stones of conspicuous beauty, that it has quite assumed the privilege of being a synonymous term[3187] for all that is charming to the eye. Still, however, there is one[3188] stone in particular which fully merits all the commendation that might be expected for a stone with so prepossessing a name: for in itself it reunites the transparency of crystal, the peculiar green of the sky, the deep tints of purple, and a sort of bright reflex, like that of a golden-coloured wine; a reflex, indeed, that is always the last to meet the eye, but is always crowned with the lustrous hues of purple. The stone, in fact, has all the appearance of having been bathed in each of these tints, individually, and yet in the whole of them at once. There is no precious stone either that has a clearer water than this, or that presents a more pleasing sweetness to the eye. Pæderos of the finest quality comes from India, where it is known as “sangenon;” the next best being that of Egypt, called “tenites.” That of third-rate quality is found in Arabia, but it is rough upon the surface. Next, we have the stone of Pontus, the radiance of which is softer than in that of Thasos, which, in its turn, is of a more mellowed colour than the stones of Galatia, Thrace, and Cyprus. The defects commonly found in these stones are, a want of brilliancy, a confusion with colours which do not properly belong to them, and the other imperfections which are found in stones in general.[3189] CHAP. 47.—ASTERIA. Next among the white stones is “asteria,”[3190] a gem which holds its high rank on account of a certain peculiarity in its nature, it having a light enclosed within, in the pupil of an eye as it were. This light, which has all the appearance of moving within the stone, it transmits according to the angle of inclination at which it is held; now in one direction, and now in another. When held facing the sun, it emits white rays like those of a star, and to this, in fact, it owes its name.[3191] The stones of India are very difficult to engrave, those of Carmania being preferred. CHAP. 48.—ASTRION. Of a similar white radiance is the stone that is known as “astrion,”[3192] closely resembling crystal in its nature, and found in India and upon the coasts of Pallene.[3193] In the centre of it there shines internally a brilliant star, with a refulgence like that of the moon when full. Some will have it that this stone receives its name from the fact that, when held opposite to the stars, it absorbs the light they emit and then returns it. The finest stones, they say, are those of Carmania, there being none more entirely free from all defects. They add, also, that a stone of inferior quality is known as “ceraunia,”[3194] and that, in the worst of all, the light is very similar to that given by a lamp. CHAP. 49.—ASTRIOTES. Astriotes,[3195] too, is a stone that is highly esteemed, and Zoroaster, they say, has sung its wondrous praises as an adjunct of the magic art. CHAP. 50.—ASTROBOLOS. Sudines says, that astrobolos[3196] resembles the eye of a fish in appearance, and that it has a radiant white refulgence when viewed in the sun. CHAP. 51.—CERAUNIA; FOUR VARIETIES OF IT. Among the white stones also, there is one known as “ceraunia,”[3197] which absorbs the brilliancy of the stars. It is of a crystalline formation, of a lustrous azure colour, and is a native of Carmania. Zenothemis admits that it is white, but asserts that it has the figure of a blazing star within. Some of them, he says, are dull, in which case it is the custom to steep them for some days in a mixture of nitre and vinegar; at the end of which period the star makes its appearance, but gradually dies away by the end of as many months. Sotacus mentions also two other varieties of ceraunia, one black and the other red; and he says that they resemble axes in shape. Those which are black and round,[3198] he says, are looked upon as sacred, and by their assistance cities and fleets are attacked and taken: the name given to them is “bætyli,” those of an elongated form being known as “cerauniæ.”[3199] They make out also that there is another kind, rarely to be met with, and much in request for the practices of magic, it never being found in any place but one that has been struck by lightning.[3200] CHAP. 52.—IRIS; TWO VARIETIES OF IT. The next name mentioned by these authors is that of the stone called “iris;”[3201] which is found, in a fossil state, in a certain island of the Red Sea, forty miles distant from the city of Berenice. It is partly composed of crystal, and hence it is that some have called it “root of crystal.” It takes its name “iris” from the properties which it possesses; for, when struck by the rays of the sun in a covered spot, it projects upon the nearest walls the form and diversified colours of the rainbow; continually changing its tints, and exciting admiration by the great variety of colours which it presents. That it is hexahedral in form, like crystal, is generally agreed; but some say that it is rough on the sides and of unequal angles; and that, when exposed to a full sun, it disperses the rays that are thrown upon it, while at the same time, by throwing out a certain brightness[3202] before it, it illumines all objects that may happen to be adjacent. The stone, however, as already stated, only presents these colours when under cover; not as though they were in the body of the stone itself, but, to all appearance, as if they were the result of the reflected light upon the surface of the wall. The best kind is the one that produces the largest arcs, with the closest resemblance to the rainbow. “Iritis” is the name of another stone, similar to the last in all other respects, but remarkable for its extreme hardness. Horus says, in his writings, that this stone, calcined and triturated, is a remedy for the bite of the ichneumon, and that it is a native of Persia. CHAP. 53.—LEROS. The stone called “leros”[3203] is similar in appearance, but does not produce the same effects. It is a crystal, with streaks of white and black running across it. CHAP. 54.—ACHATES; THE SEVERAL VARIETIES OF IT. ACOPOS; THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM IT. ALABASTRITIS; THE REMEDIES DERIVED FROM IT. ALECTORIA. ANDRODAMAS. ARGYRODAMAS. ANTIPATHES. ARABICA. AROMATITIS. ASBESTOS. ASPISATIS. ATIZÖE. AUGETIS. AMPHIDANES OR CHRYSOCOLLA. APHRODISIACA. APSYCTOS. ÆGYPTILLA. Having now described the principal precious stones, classified according to their respective colours, I shall proceed to mention the rest of them in their alphabetical order. (10.) Achates[3204] was a stone formerly in high esteem, but now held in none. It was first found in Sicily, near a river of that name; but has since been discovered in numerous other localities. In size it exceeds any other stones of this class, and the varieties of it are numerous, the name varying accordingly. Thus, for example, we have iaspachates,[3205] cerachates,[3206] smaragdachates,[3207] hæmachates,[3208] leucachates,[3209] dendrachates,[3210] marked with small shrubs, as it were; autachates,[3211] which when burnt has a smell like that of myrrh; and coralloachates,[3212] spotted all over, like sapphiros, with drops of gold, and commonly found in Crete, where it is also known as “sacred” achates. This last, it is thought, is good for wounds inflicted by spiders and scorpions; a property which I could really believe to belong to the stones of Sicily, for, the moment they breathe the air of that province, scorpions lose their venom. The stones, too, that are found in India are possessed of similar properties, and of other great and marvellous properties as well; for they present the appearance in them of rivers,[3213] woods,[3214] beasts of burden, and forms even, like ivy[3215] and the trappings of horses. Medical men, too, make grinding-hones[3216] of these stones, and indeed the very sight of them is beneficial for the eyes: held in the mouth, they allay thirst. Those found in Phrygia have no green in them, and those of Thebes in Egypt are destitute of red and white veins. These last are good as a counterpoison to the venom of the scorpion, and the stones of Cyprus are held in similar repute. Some persons set the highest value upon those stones which present a transparency like that of glass. They are found also in Trachinia, in the vicinity of Mount Œta, upon Mount Parnassus, in the Isle of Lesbos, in Messene, where they resemble the flowers that grow in the hedges, and at Rhodes. The magicians make other distinctions in reference to these stones: those, they tell us, which have spots upon them like the spots on the lion’s skin, are efficacious as a protection against scorpions; and in Persia, they say, these stones are used, by way of fumigation, for arresting tempests and hurricanes, and for stopping the course of rivers, the proof of their efficacy being their turning the water cold, if thrown into a boiling cauldron. To be duly efficacious, they must be attached to the body with hairs from a lion’s mane. The hair, however, of the hyæna is held in abomination for this purpose, as being a promoter of discord in families. The stone that is of an uniform colour renders athletes invincible, they say: the way of testing it is to throw it, along with colouring matter, into a pot full of oil; after being kept for a couple of hours gently on the boil, if genuine, it will impart an uniform colour of vermilion to the mixture. Acopos[3217] is a stone like nitre[3218] in appearance, porous, and starred with drops of gold: gently boiled with oil and applied as an unguent, it relieves lassitude, if we choose to believe it. Alabastritis[3219] is a stone which comes from Alabastron in Egypt and Damascus in Syria: it is of a white colour, spotted with various other tints. Calcined with fossil salt and pulverized, it is a cure for affections of the mouth and teeth, it is said. Alectoria[3220] is the name given to a stone that is found in the crop of poultry, like crystal in appearance, and about as large as a bean in size: Milo[3221] of Crotona, some will have it, was thought to be in the habit of carrying this stone about him, a thing that rendered him invincible in his athletic contests. Androdamas[3222] has the shining colour of silver, like adamas;[3223] it is always quadrangular, like small cubes in shape. The magicians are of opinion that it was thus named from the fact that it subdues anger and violence in man. Whether argyrodamas[3224] is the same stone or not, authors do not inform us. Antipathes[3225] is a black stone, and not transparent: the mode of testing it, is by boiling it in milk, to which, if genuine, it imparts a colour like that of myrrh. A person might probably expect to find some extraordinary virtues in this stone, seeing that, among so many other substances possessed of antipathetic properties, it is the only one that bears this name. The magicians will have it that it possesses the power of counteracting fascinations. Arabica[3226] is a stone which closely resembles ivory in appearance, and, indeed, might easily be taken for it, were it not for its superior hardness: persons who have this stone about them, it is thought, will experience a cure of diseases of the sinews. Aromatitis,[3227] too, is a stone that is found in Arabia, as also in the vicinity of Phiræ in Egypt: it is always full of small stones, and like myrrh in colour and smell, a thing that makes it much in request with ladies of rank.[3228] Asbestos[3229] is found in the mountains of Arcadia, and is of an iron colour. Democritus informs us that aspisatis[3230] is a native of Arabia, that it is of a fiery colour, and that patients should wear it attached to the body with camels’ dung; he says, too, that it is found in the nests of certain birds[3231] in Arabia. The same writer also mentions another stone of this name, that is found at Leucopetra in the same country, of a silver colour, radiant, and an excellent preservative against delirium. In India, he says, and on Mount Acidane in Persia, there is a stone found that is known as “atizoë,”[3232] of a silver lustre, three fingers in length, like a lentil in shape, possessed of a pleasant smell, and considered necessary by the Magi at the consecration of a king. Augetis[3233] is thought by many to be identical with callaina.[3234] Amphidanes,[3235] which is also known as “chrysocolla,”[3236] is a stone found in that part of India where the ants[3237] throw up gold, and in it there are certain square pieces, like gold in appearance. The nature of this stone, it is asserted, is similar to that of the magnet; in addition to which, it is said to have the property of increasing gold. Aphrodisiaca[3238] is a stone of a reddish white colour. Apsyctos,[3239] when heated by fire, retains the warmth so long as seven days; it is black and ponderous, and is streaked with red veins. It is good too, it is thought, as a preservative against cold. According to Iacchus, Ægyptilla[3240] is a kind of white and black sarda, intersected with veins; but the stone commonly known by that name is black at the lower part, and azure on the surface. It takes its name from the country that produces it. CHAP. 55.—BALANITES. BATRACHITIS. BAPTES. BELI OCULUS. BELUS. BAROPTENUS OR BARIPPE. BOTRYITIS. BOSTRYCHITIS. BUCARDIA. BRONTEA. BOLOS. Of balanites[3241] there are two kinds, the one of a greenish hue, and the other like Corinthian bronze in appearance; the former comes from Coptos, and the latter from Troglodytica. They are both of them intersected by a flame-like vein, which runs through the middle. Coptos, too, sends us batrachitis;[3242] one kind of which is like a frog in colour, another has the tint of ebony, and a third is blackish inclining to red. Baptes[3243] is a soft stone, and of a most excellent smell. Beli oculus[3244] is a stone of a whitish hue, surrounding a black pupil in the middle, which shines amid a lustre like that of gold. This stone, in consequence of its singular beauty, has been consecrated to the deity[3245] held in the highest veneration by the people of Assyria. According to Democritus, there is also a stone called belus, and found at Arbela; it is about the size of a walnut, and looks[3246] like glass. Baroptenus or barippe is black, and covered with knots of a white and blood-red colour: the use of it as an amulet is avoided, as being apt to produce monstrosities. Botryitis[3247] is sometimes black and sometimes purple-red,[3248] and resembles a bunch of grapes[3249] in form, when making its first appearance. Zoroaster says, that bostrychitis[3250] is a stone which is more like the hair of females than anything else. Bucardia[3251] resembles an ox-heart in appearance, and is only found at Babylon. Brontea[3252] is a stone like the head of a tortoise, which falls with thunder, it is supposed: if too, we are to believe what is said, it has the property of quenching the fire in objects that have been struck by lightning. Bolos[3253] is the name of a stone found in Iberia,[3254] similar to a clod of earth in appearance. CHAP. 56.—CADMITIS. CALLAIS. CAPNITIS. CAPPADOCIA. CALLAICA. CATOCHITIS. CATOPTRITIS. CEPITIS OR CEPOLATITIS. CERAMITIS. CINÆDIA. CERITIS. CIRCOS. CORSOÏDES. CORALLOACHATES. CORALLIS. CRATERITIS. CROCALLIS. CYITIS. CHALCOPHONOS. CHELIDONIA. CHELONIA. CHELONITIS. CHLORITIS. CHOASPITIS. CHRYSOLAMPIS. CHRYSOPIS. CEPONIDES. Cadmitis differs only from the stone that is known as ostracitis[3255] in being sometimes surrounded with blisters of an azure colour. Callais[3256] is like sapphiros[3257] in colour, only that it is paler and more closely resembles the tint of the water near the sea-shore in appearance. Capnitis,[3258] in the opinion of some, is a peculiar species of stone: it is covered with numerous spiral streaks, of a smoky colour, as already[3259] stated in the appropriate place. Cappadocia[3260] is a native of Phrygia, and resembles ivory in appearance. Callaica[3261] is the name given to a stone like a clouded callaina;[3262] a number of them are always found united, it is said. Catochitis[3263] is a stone found in Corsica, of larger size than the other precious stones; and of a more wonderful nature, if the story is true, that it retains the hand like gum, when placed upon it. Catoptritis[3264] is found in Cappadocia, and, from its whiteness, reflects figures like a mirror. Cepitis[3265] or cepolatitis is a white stone, with veins upon it uniting together. Ceramitis[3266] has a colour like that of earthenware. Cinædia[3267] is a stone found in the brain of a fish[3268] of a corresponding name. It is white and oblong, and possessed of marvellous virtues, if we are to put faith in what is said, that it announces before-hand whether the sea will be tranquil or stormy.[3269] Ceritis[3270] is a stone like wax: circos[3271] resembles the plumage of the hawk: corsoides[3272] is like white hair in appearance. Coralloachates[3273] is very similar to coral, marked with drops of gold; and corallis, a native of India and Syene, resembles minium[3274] in appearance. Crateritis[3275] is in colour a medium between chrysolithos[3276] and amber, and is remarkable for its hardness. Crocallis[3277] is a gem like the cherry in its tints. Cyitis[3278] is a stone found in the vicinity of Coptos; it is white, and to all appearance has an embryo stone within, the rattling of which may be heard on shaking it. Chalcophonos[3279] is a black stone, but when struck it clinks like brass: tragic actors are recommended to carry it about them. Of chelidonia[3280] there are two varieties, both resembling the swallow in colour: one of them is purple on one side, and the other is purple besprinkled with black spots. Chelonia[3281] is the eye of the Indian tortoise, and is the most marvellous of all the stones, if we believe the lying stories told by the magicians. For, according to them, this stone, placed upon the tongue after rinsing the mouth with honey, will ensure power of divination, if this is done at full moon or new moon, for one whole day. If, however, this plan is adopted while the moon is on the increase, the power of divination will be acquired before sun-rise only, and if upon other days, from the first[3282] hour to the sixth. Chelonitis,[3283] too, is a stone that resembles the tortoise[3284] in appearance, and the many virtues of which are talked of for calming storms and tempests. As to the one that has all the appearance of being sprinkled with spots of gold, if thrown with a scarabæus into boiling water, it will raise a tempest, they say. Chloritis[3285] is a stone of a grass-green colour: according to the magicians, it is found in the crop of the motacilla,[3286] being engendered with the bird. They recommend also that it should be set in iron, for the purpose of working certain portentous marvels which they promise, as usual. Choaspitis is a stone so called from the river Choaspes,[3287] of a brilliant, golden colour mixed with green. Chrysolampis[3288] is a native of Æthiopia, and is pale by day, but of a fiery lustre by night. Chrysopis[3289] has all the appearance of gold.[3290] Ceponides[3291] is found at Atarna, a borough, and once a city, of Æolis. It is transparent, presents numerous tints, and has sometimes the appearance of glass, sometimes of crystal, and sometimes of iaspis. Indeed, the stones of this kind that are tarnished even, are possessed of such singular brilliancy as to reflect objects like a mirror. CHAP. 57.—DAPHNEA. DIADOCHOS. DIPHYES. DIONYSIAS. DRACONITIS. Daphnea[3292] is mentioned by Zoroaster as curative of epilepsy. Diadochos[3293] is a stone that resembles the beryl. Of diphyes[3294] there are two kinds, the white and the black, male and female, with a line dividing the characteristics of either sex. Dionysias[3295] is hard and black, and covered with red spots. Triturated in water, this stone imparts to it the flavour of wine, and it is generally thought to be a preservative against intoxication. Draconitis[3296] or dracontia is a stone produced from the brain of the dragon;[3297] but unless the head of the animal is cut off while it is alive, the stone will not assume the form of a gem, through spite on the part of the serpent, when finding itself at the point of death: hence it is that, for this purpose, the head is cut off when it is asleep.[3298] Sotacus, who tells us that he once saw a stone of this kind in the possession of a king, says that persons go in search of it in a chariot drawn by two horses; and that, the moment they see the serpent, they strew narcotic drugs in its way, and then cut off its head when asleep. According to him, this stone is white and pellucid, and admits of no polishing or engraving. CHAP. 58.—ENCARDIA OR ARISTE. ENORCHIS. EXEBENUS. ERYTHALLIS. EROTYLOS. AMPHICOMOS, OR HIEROMNEMON. EUMECES. EUMITHRES. EUPETALOS. EUREOS. EUROTIAS. EUSEBES. EPIMELAS. The stone encardia[3299] is also called “ariste.”[3300] There are three varieties of it; one of a black colour, with a figure in relief upon it like a heart; a second of a green colour, and like a heart in shape; and a third, with a black heart upon it, the rest of the stone being white. Enorchis[3301] is a white stone, the fragments of which, when it is split asunder, resemble the testes in shape. Exebenus, Zoroaster tells us, is a white, handsome stone, employed by goldsmiths for polishing gold. Erythallis,[3302] though a white stone, assumes a red hue when viewed at an inclined angle. Erotylos,[3303] also known as “amphicomos”[3304] and “hieromnemon,”[3305] is highly praised by Democritus for its use in the art of divination. Eumeces[3306] is a stone of Bactriana, like silex in appearance; placed beneath the head, it produces visions in the night of an oracular description. Eumithres[3307] is called by the Assyrians “gem of Belus,”[3308] the most sacred of all their gods; it is of a leek-green colour, and greatly in request for superstitious purposes. Eupetalos[3309] is a stone that has four different tints, azure, fiery, vermilion, and apple-colour. Eureos[3310] is similar to an olive-stone in form, streaked like a shell, and moderately white. Eurotias[3311] has all the appearance of concealing its black colour beneath a coat of mould. Eusebes[3312] is the stone, it is said, of which the seat was made in the Temple of Hercules at Tyrus, from which the pious [only] could raise themselves without difficulty. Epimelas[3313] is a white gem, with a black hue reflected from its surface. CHAP. 59.—GALAXIAS. GALACTITIS, LEUCOGÆA, LEUCOGRAPHITIS, OR SYNNEPHITIS. GALLAICA. GASSINADE. GLOSSOPETRA. GORGONIA. GONIÆA. Galaxias,[3314] by some called “galactitis,”[3315] is a stone that closely resembles those next mentioned, but is interspersed with veins of blood-red or white. Galactitis[3316] is of the uniform colour of milk; other names given to it are, leucogæa,[3317] leucographitis,[3318] and synnephitis,[3319] and, when pounded in water, both in taste and colour it marvellously resembles milk. This stone promotes the secretion of the milk in nursing women, it is said; in addition to which, attached to the neck of infants, it produces saliva, and it dissolves when put into the mouth. They say, too, that it deprives persons of their memory: it is in the rivers Nilus and Acheloüs that it is produced. Some persons give the name of “galactitis” to a smaragdus surrounded with veins of white. Gallaica is a stone like argyrodamas,[3320] but of a somewhat more soiled appearance; these stones are found in twos and threes clustered together. The people of Media send us gassinade,[3321] a stone like orobus in colour, and sprinkled with flowers, as it were: it is found at Arbela. This stone, too, conceives,[3322] it is said; a fact which it admits when shaken; the conception lasting for a period of three months. Glossopetra,[3323] which resembles the human tongue, is not engendered, it is said, in the earth, but falls from the heavens during the moon’s eclipse; it is considered highly necessary for the purposes of selenomancy.[3324] To render all this however, still more incredible, we have the evident untruthfulness of one assertion made about it, that it has the property of silencing the winds. Gorgonia[3325] is nothing but a coral, which has been thus named from the circumstance that, though soft in the sea, it afterwards assumes the hardness of stone: it has the property of counteracting fascinations,[3326] it is said. Goniæa,[3327] it is asserted, and with the same degree of untruthfulness, ensures vengeance upon our enemies. CHAP. 60.—HELIOTROPIUM. HEPHÆSTITIS. HERMUAIDOION. HEXECONTALITHOS. HIERACITIS. HAMMITIS. HAMMONIS CORNU. HORMISCION. HYÆNIA. HÆMATITIS. Heliotropium[3328] is found in Æthiopia, Africa, and Cyprus: it is of a leek-green colour, streaked with blood-red veins. It has been thus named,[3329] from the circumstance that, if placed in a vessel of water and exposed to the full light of the sun, it changes to a reflected colour like that of blood; this being the case with the stone of Æthiopia more particularly. Out of the water, too, it reflects the figure of the sun like a mirror, and it discovers eclipses of that luminary by showing the moon passing over its disk. In the use of this stone, also, we have a most glaring illustration of the impudent effrontery of the adepts in magic, for they say that, if it is combined with the plant[3330] heliotropium, and certain incantations are then repeated over it, it will render the person invisible who carries it about him. Hephæstitis[3331] also, though a radiant stone, partakes of the properties of a mirror in reflecting objects. The mode of testing it is to put it into boiling water, which should immediately become cold. If exposed to the rays of the sun, it should instantly cause dry fuel to ignite:[3332] Corycus[3333] is the place where it is found. Hermuaidoion[3334] is so called from the resemblance to the male organs which it presents, on a ground that is sometimes white, sometimes black, and sometimes of a pallid hue, with a circle surrounding it of a golden colour. Hexecontalithos[3335] receives its name from the numerous variety of colours which, small as it is, it presents: it is found in Troglodytica.[3336] Hieracitis[3337] is entirely covered with mottled streaks, resembling a kite’s feathers alternately with black. Hammitis[3338] is similar in appearance to the spawn of fish: there is also one variety of it which has all the appearance of being composed of nitre,[3339] except that it is remarkably hard. Hammonis cornu[3340] is reckoned among the most sacred gems of Æthiopia; it is of a golden colour, like a ram’s horn in shape, and ensures prophetic dreams, it is said. Hormiscion[3341] is one of the most pleasing stones to the sight; it is of a fiery colour, and emits rays like gold, tipped at the extremity with a whitish light. Hyænia[3342] is derived from the eyes of the hyæna, it is said, the animal being hunted to obtain it; placed beneath the tongue, if we believe the story, it will enable a person to prophesy the future. Hæmatitis,[3343] of the very finest quality, comes from Æthiopia, but it is found in Arabia and Africa as well. It is a stone of a blood-red colour, and we must not omit to mention the assurance given [by the magicians], that the possession of it reveals treacherous designs on the part of the barbarians. Zachalias of Babylon, in the books which he dedicated to King Mithridates, attributing the destinies of man to certain properties innate in precious stones, is not content with vaunting the merits of this stone as curative of diseases of the eyes and liver, but recommends it also as ensuring success to petitions addressed to kings. He also makes it play its part in lawsuits and judgments, and even goes so far as to say that it is highly beneficial to be rubbed with it on the field of battle. There is another stone of the same class, called “menui” by the people of India, and “xanthos”[3344] by the Greeks: it is of a whitish, tawny colour. CHAP. 61.—IDÆI DACTYLI. ICTERIAS. JOVIS GEMMA. INDICA. ION. The stones called Idæi dactyli,[3345] and found in Crete, are of an iron colour, and resemble the human thumb in shape. The colour of icterias[3346] resembles that of livid skin, and hence it is that it has been thought so excellent a remedy for jaundice. There is also another stone of this name, of a still more livid colour; while a third has all the appearance of a leaf. This last is broader than the others, almost imponderous, and streaked with livid veins. A fourth kind again is of the same colour, but blacker, and marked all over with livid veins. Jovis gemma[3347] is a white stone, very light, and soft: another name given to it is “drosolithos.”[3348] Indica[3349] retains the name of the country that produces it: it is a stone of a reddish colour, and yields a purple liquid[3350] when rubbed. There is another stone also of this name, white, and of a dusty appearance. Ion[3351] is an Indian stone, of a violet tint: it is but rarely, however, that it is found of a deep, full, colour. CHAP. 62.—LEPIDOTIS. LESBIAS. LEUCOPHTHALMOS. LEUCOPŒCILOS. LIBANOCHRUS. LIMONIATIS. LIPAREA. LYSIMACHOS. LEUCOCHRYSOS. Lepidotis[3352] is a stone of various colours, and resembles the scales of fish in appearance. Lesbias, so called from Lesbos which produces it, is a stone found in India as well. Leucophthalmos,[3353] which in other respects is of a reddish hue, presents all the appearance of an eye, in white and black. Leucopœcilos[3354] is white, variegated with drops of vermilion of a golden hue. Libanochrus[3355] strongly resembles frankincense, and yields a liquid like honey. Limoniatis[3356] would appear to be the same as smaragdus; and all that we find said about liparea[3357] is, that employed in the form of a fumigation, it allures all kinds of wild beasts. Lysimachos resembles Rhodian marble, with veins of gold: in polishing it, it is reduced very considerably in size, in order to remove all defects. Leucochrysos[3358] is a kind of chrysolithos interspersed with white. CHAP. 63.—MEMNONIA. MEDIA. MECONITIS. MITHRAX. MOROCHTHOS. MORMORION OR PROMNION. MURRHITIS. MYRMECIAS. MYRSINITIS. MESOLEUCOS. MESOMELAS. What kind of stone memnonia[3359] is, we do not find mentioned. Medea[3360] is a black stone, said to have been discovered by the Medea[3361] of fable: it has veins of a golden lustre, and yields a liquid like saffron in colour and with a vinous flavour. Meconitis[3362] strongly resembles poppies. Mithrax[3363] comes from Persia and the mountains of the Red Sea: it is of numerous colours, and reflects various tints when exposed to the sun.[3364] Morochthos[3365] is a stone of a leek-green colour, from which a milk exudes. Mormorion[3366] is a transparent stone from India, of a deep black colour, and known also as “promnion.” When it has a mixture of the colour[3367] of carbunculus, it is from Alexandria; and when it shares that of sarda,[3368] it is a native of Cyprus. It is found also at Tyrus and in Galatia; and, according to Xenocrates, it has been discovered at the foot of the Alps. These stones are well adapted for cutting in relief.[3369] Murrhitis[3370] has just the colour of myrrh, and very little of the appearance of a gem: it has the odour also of an unguent, and smells like nard when rubbed. Myrmecias[3371] is black, and has excrescences upon it like warts. Myrsinitis[3372] has a colour like that of honey, and the smell of myrtle. “Mesoleucos”[3373] is the name given to a stone when a white line runs through the middle; and when a black vein intersects any other colour, it is called “mesomelas.”[3374] CHAP. 64.—NASAMONITIS. NEBRITIS. NIPPARENE. Nasamonitis is a blood-red stone, marked with black veins. Nebritis, a stone sacred to Father Liber,[3375] has received its name from its resemblance to a nebris.[3376] There is also another stone of this kind, that is black. Nipparene[3377] bears the name of a city and people of Persia, and resembles the teeth of the hippopotamus. CHAP. 65.—OICA. OMBRIA OR NOTIA. ONOCARDIA. ORITIS OR SIDERITIS. OSTRACIAS. OSTRITIS. OPHICARDELON. OBSIAN STONE. Oica is the barbarian name given to a stone which is pleasing for its colours, black, reddish yellow, green, and white. Ombria,[3378] by some called “notia,”[3379] falls with showers and lightning, much in the same manner as ceraunia[3380] and brontea,[3381] the properties of which it is said to possess. There is a statement also, that if this stone is placed upon altars it will prevent the offerings from being consumed. Onocardia[3382] is like kermesberry in appearance, but nothing further is said about it. Oritis,[3383] by some called “sideritis,”[3384] is a stone of globular form, and proof against the action of fire. Ostracias,[3385] or ostracitis, is a testaceous stone, harder than ceramitis,[3386] and similar in all respects to achates,[3387] except that the latter has an unctuous appearance when polished: indeed, so remarkably hard is ostracitis, that with fragments of it other gems are engraved. Ostritis[3388] receives its name from its resemblance to an oyster-shell. Ophicardelon is the barbarian name for a stone of a black colour, terminated by a white line on either side. Of Obsian[3389] stone we have already spoken in the preceding Book. There are gems, too, of the same name and colour, found not only in Æthiopia and India, but in Samnium as well, and, in the opinion of some, upon the Spanish shores that lie towards the Ocean. CHAP. 66.—PANCHRUS. PANGONUS. PANEROS OR PANERASTOS. PONTICA; FOUR VARIETIES OF IT. PHLOGINOS OR CHRYSITIS. PHŒNICITIS. PHYCITIS. PERILEUCOS. PÆNITIS OR GÆANIS. Panchrus[3390] is a stone which displays nearly every colour. Pangonus[3391] is no longer than the finger: the only thing that prevents it from being taken for a crystal, is, its greater number of angles. What kind of stone paneros[3392] is, Metrodorus does not inform us; but he gives some lines, by no means without elegance, that were written upon this stone by Queen Timaris, and dedicated to Venus; from which we have reason to conclude that certain fecundating virtues were attributed to it. By some writers it is called panerastos.[3393] Of the stone called “pontica”[3394] there are numerous varieties: one is stellated, and presents either blood-red spots, or drops like gold, being reckoned in the number of the sacred stones. Another, in place of stars, has streaks of the same colour, and a fourth presents all the appearance of mountains and valleys. Phloginos,[3395] also called “chrysitis,”[3396] strongly resembles Attic ochre,[3397] and is found in Egypt. Phœnicitis[3398] is a stone so called from its resemblance to a date. Phycitis receives its name from its resemblance to sea-weed.[3399] Perileucos[3400] is the name given to a gem, in which a white colour runs down from the margin of the stone to the base. Pæanitis,[3401] by some called “gæanis,”[3402] conceives, it is said, and is good for females at the time of parturition: this stone is found in Macedonia, near the monument[3403] of Tiresias there, and has all the appearance of congealed water. CHAP. 67.—SOLIS GEMMA. SAGDA. SAMOTHRACIA. SAURITIS. SARCITIS. SELENITIS. SIDERITIS. SIDEROPŒCILOS. SPONGITIS. SYNODONTITIS. SYRTITIS. SYRINGITIS. Solis gemma[3404] is white, and, like the luminary from which it takes its name, emits brilliant rays in a circular form. Sagda is found by the people of Chaldæa adhering to ships, and is of a leek-green colour. The Isle of Samothrace gives its name to a stone[3405] which it produces, black and imponderous, and similar to wood in appearance. Sauritis[3406] is found, they say, in the belly of the green lizard, cut asunder with a reed. Sarcitis[3407] is a stone, like beef in appearance. Selenitis[3408] is white and transparent, with a reflected colour like that of honey. It has a figure within it like that of the moon, and reflects the face of that luminary, if what we are told is true, according to its phases, day by day, whether on the wane or whether on the increase: this stone is a native of Arabia, it is thought. Sideritis[3409] is a stone like iron, the presence of which in lawsuits creates discord. Sideropœcilos,[3410] which is a variety of the same stone, is a native of Æthiopia, and is covered with variegated spots. Spongitis has its name from its resemblance to sponge. Synodontitis is a stone found in the brain of the fish known as “synodus.”[3411] Syrtitis is a stone that used formerly to be found on the shores of the Syrtes,[3412] though now it is found on the coasts of Lucania as well: it is of a honey colour, with a reflected tint of saffron, and contains stars of a feeble lustre within. Syringitis[3413] is hollow throughout, like the space between the two joints in a straw. CHAP. 68.—TRICHRUS. THELYRRHIZOS. THELYCARDIOS OR MULC. THRACIA; THREE VARIETIES OF IT. TEPHRITIS. TECOLITHOS. Trichrus[3414] comes from Africa: it is of a black colour, but yields three different liquids, black at the lower part, blood-red in the middle, and of an ochre colour at the top. Thelyrrhizos[3415] is of an ashy or russet colour, but white at the lower part. Thelycardios[3416] is like a heart in colour, and is held in high esteem by the people of Persia, in which country it is found: the name given to it by them is “mulc.” Of thracia[3417] there are three varieties; a green stone, one of a more pallid colour, and a third with spots like drops of blood. Tephritis[3418] is crescent-shaped, with horns like those of the new moon, but it is of an ashy colour. Tecolithos[3419] has all the appearance of an olive stone: it is held in no estimation as a gem, but a solution of it will break and expel urinary calculi. CHAP. 69.—VENERIS CRINES. VEIENTANA. Veneris crines[3420] is the name given to a stone that is remarkably black and shining, with an appearance like red hair within. Veientana is an Italian stone, found at Veii: it is black, divided by a line of white. CHAP. 70.—ZATHENE. ZMILAMPIS. ZORANISCÆA. Zathene, according to Democritus, is a native of Media. It is like amber in colour, and, if beaten up with palm-wine and saffron, it will become soft like wax, yielding a very fragrant smell. Zmilampis is found in the river Euphrates: it resembles marble of Proconnesus in appearance, and is of a sea-green colour within. Zoraniscæa is found in the river Indus: it is a stone used by magicians, it is said, but I find no further particulars relative to it. CHAP. 71. (11.)—PRECIOUS STONES WHICH DERIVE THEIR NAMES FROM VARIOUS PARTS OF THE HUMAN BODY. HEPATITIS. STEATITIS. ADADUNEPHROS. ADADUOPHTHALMOS. ADADUDACTYLOS. TRIOPHTHALMOS. There is also another method of classifying stones; according to the resemblance which they bear to various other objects. Thus, for example, the different parts of the body give the following names to stones:—Hepatitis[3421] is so called from the liver; and steatitis[3422] from its resemblance to the fat of various animals. Adadunephros, adaduophthalmos, and adadudactylos, mean “kidney of Adad,” “eye of Adad,” and “finger of Adad,” a god[3423] of the Syrians so called. Triophthalmos[3424] is a stone found in conjunction with onyx, which resembles three human eyes at once. CHAP. 72.—PRECIOUS STONES WHICH DERIVE THEIR NAMES FROM ANIMALS. CARCINIAS. ECHITIS. SCORPITIS. SCARITIS. TRIGLITIS. ÆGOPHTHALMOS. HYOPHTHALMOS. GERANITIS. HIERACITIS. AETITIS. MYRMECITIS. CANTHARIAS. LYCOPHTHALMOS. TAOS. TIMICTONIA. Other stones, again, derive their names from various animals. Carcinias[3425] is so called from the colour of the sea-crab; echitis,[3426] from the colour of the viper; scorpitis,[3427] from either the colour or the shape of the scorpion; scaritis, from the fish called scarus;[3428] triglitis, from the sur-mullet;[3429] ægophthalmos, from the eye of the goat; hyophthalmos, from the eye of the swine; geranitis, from the neck of the crane; hieracitis, from the neck of the hawk; and aëtitis, from the colour of the white-tailed eagle. Myrmecitis[3430] presents the appearance of an ant crawling within, and cantharias,[3431] of a scarabæus. Lycophthalmos[3432] is a stone of four different colours; on the exterior it is ruddy and blood-red, and within it is black, surrounded with a line of white, closely resembling the eye of the wolf in every respect. Taos[3433] is a stone with colours like those of the peacock. Timictonia, I find, is the name of a stone, like the asp in colour. CHAP. 73.—PRECIOUS STONES WHICH DERIVE THEIR NAMES PROM OTHER OBJECTS. HAMMOCHRYSOS. CENCHRITIS. DRYITIS. CISSITIS. NARCISSITIS. CYAMIAS. PYREN. PHŒNICITIS. CHALAZIAS. PYRITIS. POLYZONOS. ASTRAPÆA. PHLOGITIS. ANTHRACITIS. ENHYGROS. POLYTHRIX. LEONTIOS. PARDALIOS. DROSOLITHOS. MELICHRUS. MELICHLOROS. CROCIAS. POLIAS. SPARTOPOLIAS. RHODITIS. CHALCITIS. SYCITIS. BOSTRYCHITIS. CHERNITIS. ANANCITIS. SYNOCHITIS. DENDRITIS. Hammochrysos[3434] resembles sand in appearance, but sand mixed with gold. Cenchritis[3435] has all the appearance of grains of millet scattered here and there. Dryitis[3436] resembles the trunk of a tree, and burns like wood. Cissitis,[3437] upon a white, transparent surface, has leaves of ivy running all over it. Narcissitis[3438] is distinguished by veins on the surface, and has a smell like that of the narcissus. Cyamias[3439] is a black stone, but when broken, produces a bean to all appearance. Pyren[3440] is so called from its resemblance to an olive-stone: in some cases it would appear to contain the back-bone[3441] of a fish. Phœnicitis[3442] resembles a palm-date in form. Chalazias[3443] resembles a hailstone, both in form and colour: it is as hard as adamant, so much so, indeed, that in the fire even it retains its coolness, it is said. Pyritis,[3444] though a black stone, burns the fingers when rubbed by them. Polyzonos[3445] is a black stone traversed by numerous zones of white. Astrapæa[3446] has rays like flashes of lightning, running across the middle on a ground of white or blue. In phlogitis,[3447] there is, to all appearance, a flame burning within, but not reaching the surface of the stone. In anthracitis,[3448] there are sometimes sparks, to all appearance, flying to and fro. Enhygros[3449] is always perfectly round, smooth, and white; but when it is shaken a liquid is heard to move within, just like the yolk within an egg. Polythrix[3450] presents the appearance of hair upon a green surface; but it causes the hair to fall off, it is said. Leontios and pardalios[3451] are names given to stones, from their resemblance to the skin of the lion and panther. Drosolithos[3452] has received its name from its colour. Melichrus is a honey-coloured stone, of which there are several varieties. Melichloros[3453] is a stone of two colours, partly honey-coloured, partly yellow. Crocias[3454] is the name given to a stone which reflects a colour like that of saffron; polias, to a stone resembling white hair in colour; and spartopolias, to a stone more thinly sprinkled with white. Rhoditis is like the rose in colour, chalcitis resembles copper, and sycitis[3455] is in colour like a fig. Bostrychitis[3456] is covered with branches of a white or blood-red colour, upon a ground of black; and chernitis[3457] has, on a stony surface, a figure like that of two hands grasping each other. Anancitis[3458] is used in hydromancy, they say, for summoning the gods to make their appearance; and synochitis,[3459] for detaining the shades from below when they have appeared. If white dendritis[3460] is buried beneath a tree that is being felled, the edge of the axe will never be blunted, it is asserted. There are many other stones also, of a still more outrageously marvellous nature, to which, admitted as it is that they are stones, barbarous names have been given: we have refuted, however, a quite sufficient number of these portentous lies already. CHAP. 74. (12.)—PRECIOUS STONES THAT SUDDENLY MAKE THEIR APPEARANCE. COCHLIDES. New species of precious stones are repeatedly brought into existence, and fresh ones are found all at once, destitute of names. Thus, for example, there was a stone formerly discovered in the gold-mines of Lampsacus, which, on account of its extraordinary beauty, was sent to King Alexander, as we learn from Theophrastus.[3461] Cochlides,[3462] too, which are now so common, are rather artificial productions than natural, and in Arabia there have been found vast masses of them; which are boiled, it is said, in honey, for seven days and nights without intermission. By doing this, all earthy and faulty particles are removed; after which, the mass, thus cleansed and purified, is adorned by the ingenuity of artists with variegated veins and spots, and cut into such shapes as may be most to the taste of purchasers. Indeed, these articles, in former times, were made of so large a size, that they were employed in the East as frontals for the horses of kings, and as pendants for their trappings.[3463] All precious stones in general are improved in brilliancy by being boiled in honey, Corsican honey more particularly; but acrid substances are in every respect injurious to them. As to the stones which are variegated, and to which new colours are imparted by the inventive ingenuity of man, as they have no name in common use, they are usually known by that of “physis;”[3464] a name which claims for them, as it were, that admiration which we are more ready to bestow upon the works of Nature. But really, these artificial stones have names without end, and I could never think of recounting the infinite series of them, coined as they have been by the frivolous tendencies of the Greeks. Having already described the more noble gems, and indeed those of inferior quality which are found among the stones that are held in high esteem, I must content myself with knowing that I have pointed out those kinds which are the most deserving of mention. It will be as well, however, for the reader to bear in mind, that, according to the varying number of the spots and inequalities on their surface, according to the numerous intersections of lines and their multiplied tints and shades, the names of precious stones are subject to repeated changes; the material itself, for the most part, remaining just the same. CHAP. 75.—THE VARIOUS FORMS OF PRECIOUS STONES. We will now make some observations in reference to precious stones in general, following therein the opinions that have been expressed by various authors. Stones with a level surface are preferred to those which are concave or protuberant on the face. An oblong shape is the one that is most approved of, and, next to that, the lenticular[3465] form, as it is called. After this, the stone with a plane surface and circular is admired, those which are angular being held in the least esteem. There is considerable difficulty in distinguishing genuine stones from false; the more so, as there has been discovered a method of transforming genuine stones of one kind into false stones of another.[3466] Sardonyx, for example, is imitated by cementing together three other precious stones, in such a way that no skill can detect the fraud; a black stone being used for the purpose, a white stone, and one of a vermilion[3467] colour, each of them, in its own way, a stone of high repute. Nay, even more than this, there are books in existence, the authors of which I forbear to name,[3468] which give instructions how to stain crystal in such a way as to imitate smaragdus and other transparent stones, how to make sardonyx of sarda, and other gems in a similar manner. Indeed, there is no kind of fraud practised, by which larger profits are made. CHAP. 76. (13.)—THE METHODS OF TESTING PRECIOUS STONES. On the contrary, we will make it our business to point out the methods of detecting these false stones, seeing that it is only proper to put luxury even on its guard against fraud. In addition to the particulars which we have already given, when treating of each individual kind of precious stone, it is generally agreed that transparent stones should be tested by a morning light, or even, if necessary, so late as the fourth[3469] hour, but never after that hour. The modes of testing[3470] stones are numerous: first, by their weight, the genuine stone being the heavier of the two; next, by their comparative coolness, the genuine stone being cooler than the other to the mouth; and, next to that, by their substance; there being blisters perceptible in the body of the fictitious stone, as well as a certain roughness on the surface; filaments, too, an unequal brilliancy, and a brightness that falls short before it reaches the eye. The best[3471] mode of testing is to strike off a fragment with an iron saw; but this is a thing not allowed by the dealers, who equally refuse to let their gems be tested by the file. Dust of Obsian[3472] stone will not leave a mark upon the surface of a genuine stone: but where the gem is artificial, every mark that is made will leave a white scratch upon it. In addition to this, there is such a vast diversity in their degrees of hardness, that some stones do not admit of being engraved with iron, and others can only be cut with a graver blunted at the edge. In all cases, however, precious stones may be cut and polished by the aid of adamas[3473] an operation which may be considerably expedited by heating the graver. The rivers which produce precious stones, are the Acesinus[3474] and the Ganges; and, of all countries, India is the most prolific of them. CHAP. 77.—A COMPARATIVE VIEW OF NATURE AS SHE APPEARS IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES. THE COMPARATIVE VALUES OF THINGS. Having now treated of all the works of Nature, it will be as well to take a sort of comparative view of her several productions, as well as the countries which supply them. Throughout the whole earth, then, and wherever the vault of heaven extends, there is no country so beautiful, or which, for the productions of Nature, merits so high a rank as Italy, that ruler and second parent of the world; recommended as she is by her men, her women, her generals, her soldiers, her slaves, her superiority in the arts, and the illustrious examples of genius which she has produced. Her situation, too, is equally in her favour; the salubrity and mildness of her climate; the easy access which she offers to all nations; her coasts indented with so many harbours; the propitious breezes, too, that always prevail on her shores; advantages, all of them, due to her situation, lying, as she does, midway between the East and the West, and extended in the most favourable of all positions. Add to this, the abundant supply of her waters, the salubrity of her groves, the repeated intersections of her mountain ranges, the comparative innocuousness of her wild animals, the fertility of her soil, and the singular richness of her pastures. Whatever there is that the life of man ought not to feel in want of, is nowhere to be found in greater perfection than here; the cereals, for example, wine, oil, wool, flax, tissues, and oxen. As to horses, there are none, I find, preferred to those of Italy for the course;[3475] while, for mines of gold, silver, copper, and iron, so long as it was deemed lawful to work them,[3476] Italy was held inferior to no country whatsoever. At the present day, teeming as she is with these treasures, she contents herself with lavishing upon us, as the whole of her bounties, her various liquids, and the numerous flavours yielded by her cereals and her fruits. Next to Italy, if we except the fabulous regions of India, I would rank Spain, for my own part, those districts, at least, that lie in the vicinity of the sea.[3477] She is parched and sterile in one part, it is true; but where she is at all productive, she yields the cereals in abundance, oil, wine, horses, and metals of every kind. In all these respects, Gaul is her equal, no doubt; but Spain, on the other hand, outdoes the Gallic provinces in her spartum[3478] and her specular stone,[3479] the products of her desert tracts, in her pigments that minister to our luxuries, in the ardour displayed by her people in laborious employments, in the perfect training of her slaves, in the robustness of body of her men, and in their general resoluteness of character. As to the productions themselves, the greatest value of all, among the products of the sea, is attached to pearls: of objects that lie upon the surface of the earth, it is crystals that are most highly esteemed: and of those derived from the interior, adamas,[3480] smaragdus,[3481] precious stones, and murrhine,[3482] are the things upon which the highest value is placed. The most costly things that are matured by the earth, are the kermes-berry[3483] and laser;[3484] that are gathered from trees, nard[3485] and Seric tissues;[3486] that are derived from the trunks of trees, logs of citrus[3487]-wood; that are produced by shrubs, cinnamon,[3488] cassia,[3489] and amomum;[3490] that are yielded by the juices of trees or of shrubs, amber,[3491] opobalsamum,[3492] myrrh,[3493] and frankincense;[3494] that are found in the roots of trees, the perfumes derived from costus.[3495] The most valuable products furnished by living animals, on land, are the teeth of elephants; by animals in the sea, tortoise-shell; by the coverings of animals, the skins which the Seres[3496] dye, and the substance gathered from the hair of the she-goats of Arabia, which we have spoken of under the name of “ladanum;”[3497] by creatures that are common to both land and sea, the purple[3498] of the murex. With reference to the birds, beyond plumes for warriors’ helmets, and the grease that is derived from the geese of Commagene,[3499] I find no remarkable product mentioned. We must not omit, too, to observe, that gold, for which there is such a mania with all mankind, hardly holds the tenth rank as an object of value, and silver, with which we purchase gold, hardly the twentieth! HAIL to thee, Nature, thou parent of all things! and do thou deign to show thy favour unto me, who, alone of all the citizens of Rome, have, in thy every department,[3500] thus made known thy praise.[3501] SUMMARY.—Facts, narratives, and observations, one thousand three hundred. ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—M. Varro,[3502] the Register of the Triumphs,[3503] Mæcenas,[3504] Iacchus,[3505] Cornelius Bocchus.[3506] FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—King Juba,[3507] Xenocrates[3508] the son of Zeno, Sudines,[3509] Æschylus,[3510] Philoxenus,[3511] Euripides,[3512] Nicander,[3513] Satyrus,[3514] Theophrastus,[3515] Chares,[3516] Philemon,[3517] Demostratus,[3518] Zenothemis,[3519] Metrodorus,[3520] Sotacus,[3521] Pytheas,[3522] Timæus[3523] the Sicilian, Nicias,[3524] Theochrestus,[3525] Asarubas,[3526] Mnaseas,[3527] Theomenes,[3528] Ctesias,[3529] Mithridates,[3530] Sophocles,[3531] King Archelaüs,[3532] Callistratus,[3533] Democritus,[3534] Ismenias,[3535] Olympicus,[3536] Alexander[3537] Polyhistor, Apion,[3538] Horus,[3539] Zoroaster,[3540] Zachalias.[3541] FOOTNOTES: [1] It is in the last six Books of Pliny, and those only, we regret to say, that we are enabled to avail ourselves of the new readings of the Bamberg MS., which has been so admirably collated by M. Ian. In a vast number of passages previously looked upon as hopelessly corrupt, or else not at all suspected of being in a mutilated state, this MS. supplies words and clauses, the existence of which in the original was hitherto unknown; indeed by its aid the indefatigable Sillig has been enabled, if we may be allowed the term, almost to _rewrite_ the last six Books of Pliny. From a perusal of these new readings, as Dr. Smith has justly remarked, we have reason to infer “that the text of the earlier Books is still in a very defective state, and that much of the obscurity of Pliny may be traced to this cause.” [2] The Echeneis remora of Linnæus. See B. ix. c. 41. [3] He alludes to the “rostra,” or metal beaks, with which the prows of the ships of war were furnished. [4] An absurd tradition, no doubt, invented, probably, to palliate the disgrace of his defeat. [5] From the delay caused by the stoppage of the prætorian ship. [6] Caligula. [7] For Astura and Antium, see B. iii. c. 9. [8] And well it might surprise him. If there was any foundation at all for the story, there can be little doubt that a trick was played for the purpose of imposing upon Caligula’s superstitious credulity, and that the rowers as well as the diving sailors were privy to it. [9] “Limax.” A singular comparison, apparently. [10] In B. ix. c. 41. [11] See B. ix. c. 41, where he is speaking of a murex, a fish which bears no such affinity to the remora as to warrant our author’s expression, “Idem valere omnia ea genera.” [12] Properly meaning “delay.” “Remora” is another reading, and perhaps a better one, as the word is found in Plautus. [13] In B. ix. c. 41. [14] From λύειν τὰς ὠδίνας, “to release from the pains of childbirth.” [15] See B. ix. c. 67. [16] Ajasson remarks that it was owing probably to this opinion that it was formerly the belief, that by holding the breath a person could render himself proof against the shock of the torpedo; a precaution recommended by Kæmpfer, in his “Amenitates Exoticæ,” p. 514. Ed. 1712. [17] “Quâdam aurâ sui corporis adficiat membra” seems a preferable reading to “Quâdam aurâ corporis sui adficiat membra,” as given by the Bamberg MS., and adopted by Sillig. [18] See B. ix. c. 72, and the Note. [19] A fabulous story, Ajasson remarks, but one that was commonly believed in the 16th and 17th centuries. Gessner, however, a conscientious enquirer into the mysteries of Nature, asserts (_de Aquatilibus_, p. 563) that, to his own knowledge, the sight of this fish was productive of the symptoms here mentioned. Beckmann reckons the Aplysia depilans (with which the Sea-hare of the ancients is identified) in the number of the animal poisons, and remarks that (as we find stated by Cœlius Rhodiginus, B. xxvi. c. 30) the Emperor Titus was dispatched by the agency of this poison, administered to him by the direction of his brother Domitian. _Hist. Inv._ vol. I. p. 51. _Bohn’s Ed._ [20] Athenæus says, B. viii., that the Scarus pursues it and devours it. [21] “Quibus impactus est.” A curious expression; if indeed it is the correct reading. [22] See B. ix. c. 72. [23] Mituli. See B. ix. c. 74. [24] “Cetos.” [25] Ajasson remarks, in confutation of this story, that there are few rivers in Arabia of such a breadth. [26] See B. xi. c. 34. [27] Of this work, began by Ovid during his banishment in Pontus, and probably never completed, only a fragment of one hundred and thirty-two lines has come down to us. Pliny again makes reference to it, in the last Chapter of the present Book. [28] Or “Treatise on Fishes.” [29] See B. ix. c. 69, and B. xi. c. 61. [30] Quoted from the Halieuticon. [31] The wolf fish. The Perca labrax of Linnæus. See B. ix. cc. 24, 28, 74, 79, and B. x. c. 89. [32] From the Halieuticon of Ovid. [33] See B. ix. cc. 14, 35, 39, 48, 74, 79, 81. [34] From the Halieuticon. [35] From the Halieuticon. [36] See B. ix. cc. 21, 26, 67. [37] From the Halieuticon. [38] From the Halieuticon. See Note 31 above, if indeed the same fish is meant. See also B. xxxi. c. 44, and the Note. [39] From the Halieuticon. [40] See B. ix. c. 85. [41] In B. ix. c. 39. Aristotle, however, as there stated, was not of the same opinion. [42] See B. xx. c. 98. [43] “Novacula piscis.” Pliny is the only ancient author that mentions this fish. There are numerous varieties of it, among which the best known are the Coryphæna novacula of Linnæus, the Rason of the Mediterranean, highly esteemed as an article of food, and the Coryphæna pentedactyle of Bloch, identical with the _Hemiptéronote à cinq taches_, of Lacépède. [44] An absurdity, owing, no doubt, to its name. [45] Or “globe-fish.” The Mola, orbis marinus, or sun-fish of modern Natural History, the _Lune de mer_, or _poisson-lune_ of the French. Though the skin is harsh and tough, there is no firmness in its flesh, which is of a gluey consistency. [46] In reality it _has_ scales, but they are almost imperceptible, from their minuteness. [47] Or rather, as Dalechamps observes, “all belly.” [48] See B. ix. cc. 44, 45, and B. xviii. c. 87. [49] See B. ix. cc. 1, 21 and c. 53 of the present Book. There are two varieties of it, the Xiphias gladius of Bloch and Lacépède, and the Xiphias machæra of Shaw. [50] See B. v. c. 1. [51] Martial, B. iv. Ep. 30, speaks of this being the case at the fishponds of Baiæ, where the Emperor’s fish were in the habit of making their appearance when called by name. [52] A village of Caria, celebrated for its sanctuary of Zeus Stratios. Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. xii. c. 30, says that there was a spring of clear water, within the sanctuary, which contained fish with golden necklaces and rings. [53] “Inaures.” He probably means ornaments suspended from the gills, a thing which, in the case of eels, might be done. [54] “Senum delubrum.” Ælian speaks of tame fish in the Old Men’s Harbour (λιμὴν) at Chios. [55] In B. xxxi. c. 22. [56] The seat of the worship of the half-fish goddess Addirga, Atergatis, Astarte, or Derceto. See B. v. c. 19. The original names of Hierapolis (the Holy City) were Bambyce and Mabog. [57] See B. iii. c. 9. [58] A Greek name signifying “black-tails.” See c. 53 of this Book. Holland translates it “the black-tailed ruffe” or “sea-bream.” [59] See B. v. c. 38. [60] See B. v. c. 31, and B. xxxi. c. 43. [61] See B. iii. c. 14. [62] See B. v. cc. 3, 4. [63] See B. iii. cc. 16, 26. [64] Ajasson thinks that this may possibly be true to some small extent. [65] Identical with the fish called “orbis,” already mentioned in c. 5 of this Book. Ajasson remarks that though these fish have been known to weigh as much as three hundred pounds, there are many others which grow to a larger size, the sturgeon, and the silurus, for instance. [66] Ajasson thinks that this notion may possibly have been derived from the name, which not improbably was given to it from the spongy and oleaginous nature of the flesh. [67] See B. iii. c. 16. [68] Owing, perhaps, to the moisture of the atmosphere. [69] We learn from Festus, that he prohibited the use also of the scarus, a fish _with_ scales. [70] “Ad pulvinaria.” Literally, “At the cushions;” in reference to the practice of placing the statues of the gods upon pillows at the Lectisternia, which were sacrifices in the nature of feasts, at which images of the gods were placed reclining on couches, with tables and food before them, as if they were really partaking of the things offered in sacrifice. Livy, B. v. c. 13. gives an account of a Lectisternium celebrated with great pomp, which he asserts to have been the first instance of the practice. [71] In B. ix. c. 54. [72] See B. iii. c. 11. [73] Theophrastus reckons coral among the precious stones, and the Pseudo-Orpheus among the minerals. Pliny would seem to be at a loss whether to consider it as an animal or a vegetable. In reality it is the production of marine organized bodies of an arborescent habit, known as Corallina, with jointed stems, supported on a kind of root divided into branches, which are likewise jointed. [74] Because κειρεῖται, it is “cut short” in the sea, a far-fetched derivation, apparently. [75] Solinus informs us that Zoroaster attributed certain mysterious properties to coral. [76] A practice still retained, though the original intention of it has been lost sight of. As to the form of the coral now used by infants, see Note 2171 to B. xxviii. c. 7. [77] In reality, the Pastinaca or Sting-ray is _not_ venomous; but the wounds inflicted by the sting in its tail are highly dangerous, from their tendency to gangrene. [78] In B. ix. c. 72. As Ajasson remarks, it is quite possible that the sting of the Pastinaca might penetrate to the heart of a young tree, and so kill it; but that is no proof of its being poisonous. See also B. ix. cc. 40, 67. [79] Or Mustela, the sea-weasel, mentioned in B. ix. c. 29, and in c. 37 of the present Book. See also Note 2407 to B. ix. c. 29. Ajasson is of opinion that under the names of “Galeos” and “Mustela,” the ancients confounded the Squalus galeus and the Squalus mustelus of Linnæus. [80] See B. xix. c. 15, and B. xxii. c. 49. [81] As water, and are consequently amphibious. [82] The Castoreum of the ancients, the “castor” of our Materia Medica, is _not_ in reality produced from the testes of the beaver, as was supposed by the ancients, but from two oval pouches situate near the anus of the animal of either sex. There are four of these pouches in all, two containing a species of fat, and two larger ones including in their membranous cells a viscous fetid substance, which forms the castor of medicine. It is considered to be an antispasmodic. [83] “Folliculos.” A very appropriate term, as Ajasson remarks. [84] See B. xii. c. 49, and B. xxxiv. c. 14. [85] See B. xxv. c. 70. [86] Castor is still given to females to inhale, when suffering from hysteria. [87] See B. xx. c. 54. [88] See B. xxiv. c. 38. [89] See B. viii. c. 41, B. x. c. 95, and B. xi. cc. 24, 28. [90] See B. xxix. c. 32. [91] See B. viii. c. 35, and B. xvi. c. 80. [92] See B. xx. c. 81; B. xxii. c. 13; B. xxiii. c. 23, and B. xxiv. c. 73. [93] See B. xii. c. 57. [94] Or Mistletoe; see B, xvi. c. 92. [95] As to the identity of the “nitrum” of the ancients, see B. xxxi. c. 46 and the Notes. [96] See B. xx. c. 76. [97] Under the head of “testudines,” he includes the tortoises, terrapenes, and turtles, which form an order of reptiles, known in Natural History as Chelonia, and characterised by the body being enclosed between a double shield or shell, out of which protrude the head, tail, and four extremities. [98] See B. ix. cc. 11, 12. [99] Our tortoises so called. [100] Our Chelonides, or turtles. [101] The Emydes and Trionyches of Modern Natural History. [102] Or turtle. [103] See B. x. c. 86. [104] To make it of a yellow or golden colour, Dalechamps says. [105] Identified by Ajasson with the Emys lutaria of Modern Natural History. [106] Our Houseleek. See B. xxv. c. 102. [107] Because it is then powerless, and can make no effort to rise. [108] An absurd story, founded, no doubt, on the extremely slow pace of the tortoise. Ajasson remarks that it is the fresh-water tortoise, more particularly, that is so slow in its movements. [109] In B. xxi. c. 44. [110] Or Gilt-head. “Aurata.” See B. ix. c. 25. [111] In B. viii. c. 38. See also B. xxviii. c. 30. [112] Among others, in B. vii. c. 13, and B. xxviii. c. 23. [113] In B. xxviii. c. 23. [114] As to this point, see c. 12 of this Book, and the Notes. [115] He must mean the Sea-dragon, mentioned in B. ix. c. 43, and in c. 53 of the present Book; for he has already stated in B. xxix. c. 20, that the serpent called “draco” is destitute of venom. See also B. viii. cc. 13, 14, 22, 41, and B. x. cc. 5, 92, 95, 96. [116] See B. viii. c. 41, B. x. c. 95, and B. xi. cc. 24, 28, 29. [117] See B. ix. cc. 71, 86, and c. 53 of the present Book. [118] See Note 115 above. [119] Rondelet asserts, B. vi. c. 19, that he himself had cured the sting of the sea-dragon by an application of the liver of that fish. [120] See B. xxix. c. 32. [121] See B. viii. c. 35, B. xi. c. 43, and B. xvi. c. 80. [122] See B. xxiii. c. 29. [123] Nicander, in his Theriaca, classes the Elops among the innocuous serpents. In B. ix. c. 27, we are informed that one name given to the Acipenser was “Elops.” But see the remark made in c. 54 of this Book. [124] See B. xxiii. c. 80. [125] From c. 53 of the present Book, we learn that the Sarda was a kind of Pelamis, or young tunny, which was pickled, like our Anchovy. [126] See Note 115 above. [127] Tunny cut into slices, and pickled. See B. ix. c. 18. [128] See B. ix. cc. 40, 67, 74, 83. [129] See B. viii. c. 48, B. xi. cc. 19, 76, 116, B. xxv. c. 76. [130] See B. x. c. 86. [131] Under the name “magi,” he is probably speaking here, not of the ordinary magicians, but the Magi of the East, from whom Democritus largely borrowed. [132] A piece of wit on the part of our author, in which he seldom indulges. [133] See B. xi. c. 76. [134] From “rubus,” a “bramble.” [135] In B. viii. c. 48. It is not improbable that the “rubetæ” of the ancients were toads. [136] Projections of the bones in which the eyes are set, as Dalechamps remarks. [137] “Plenæ veneficiorum.” It was long a matter of doubt whether the toad is really poisonous, but it has been recently ascertained that the pustules on the skin contain a most active poison. [138] “Solium” and “oleum” are the readings here, but we adopt the conjecture of M. Ian, and substitute “ollam.” [139] “Averting dogs.” [140] The Enhydris, probably. See B. xxx. c. 8. [141] See B. xxvi. c. 33. [142] “Cancri fluviatiles.” Our crawfish, the Potamobios of Leach. [143] See B. xix. cc. 31, 36, 44, and B. xx. c. 48. [144] It is difficult to say whether he means the shrew-mouse here, the bite of which was supposed to be poisonous, or the serpent called Scytale, mentioned by Lucan, B. ix. l. 717. [145] See Note 143 above. [146] The Crab. This is giving the serpent credit for too much wisdom; an acquaintance, in fact, with the fantastic names which mankind have bestowed upon the signs of the Zodiac. [147] See B. ix. c. 32. [148] The same as the Orbis or Orthagoriscus of Chapters 5 and 9 of this Book, the Mola or sun-fish of the Mediterranean. See B. ix. c. 17. [149] Or sting-ray. See B. ix. c. 72. [150] There is considerable truth in this observation. [151] The sea-horse, the Syngnathus hippocampus of Linnæus. See B. ix. c. 1. [152] See B. xxi. c. 105. [153] The same, probably, as the “opocarpathon” of B. xxviii. c. 45, a substance which does not appear to have been identified with any degree of certainty. See also c. 31 of the present Book. [154] B. ix. c. 79. [155] Ajasson remarks that these statements are consistent with fact. [156] “Deep-sea” oysters. [157] In Asia Minor. See B. v. c. 32, where it is called “Grynia.” [158] In Lemnos. See B. iv. c. 23, and B. v. c. 32. [159] This is an error: the statement is made, not in B. ix., but in B. ii. c. 109. [160] See B. ix. c. 74. It is at the spawning season that this milky liquid is found in the oyster; a period at which the meat of the fish is considered unwholesome as food. We have a saying that the oyster should never be eaten in the months without an r; that the same, too, was the opinion in the middle ages is proved by the Leonine line: “Mensibus erratis vos ostrea manducatis.” “In the r’d months you may your oysters eat.” [161] See B. iii. c. 9. Horace speaks of the oysters of Circeii, B. ii. Sat. 4. l. 33. [162] There has been considerable discussion among the commentators as to the meaning of the word “spondylus” here. We are inclined to adopt the opinion of Venette, and to think that it means the so-called “meat” of the oyster. It must be short, and consequently plump and comparatively destitute of beard, and it must not be fleshy, as that would imply a degree of toughness not desirable in an oyster. The words “nec fibris laciniata ac tota in alvo,” only seem to be an amplification of the preceding ones, “spondylo brevi et non carnoso.” [163] Literally, “Having beautiful eyebrows.” [164] See B. ix. c. 79. [165] See B. v. c. 40. [166] See B. iii. c. 9. [167] “Dulciora.” [168] Those of Rutupæ, the present Richborough in Kent, were highly esteemed by the Romans. See Juvenal, Sat. 4. l. 141. [169] “Suaviora.” [170] The district in the vicinity of Bordeaux, now called Medoc. The oysters of Medulæ are mentioned in terms of praise by Ausonius, Epist. vii. and Epist. cxliii. [171] “Acriora.” [172] See B. iii. c. 4. [173] See B. v. c. 32. [174] See B. iii. c. 23. [175] See B. iii. c. 9. [176] They probably gave the name of “oyster” to some other shell-fish of large size. In Cook’s Voyages we read of cockles in the Pacific, which two men were unable to carry. [177] From τρὶς, “thrice,” and δάκνω, “to bite.” [178] Ajasson remarks that many persons are unable to digest oysters, in an uncooked state. [179] Ajasson remarks that calcined oyster-shells formed an ingredient in the famous lithontriptic of Mrs. Stephens, a so-called remedy which obtained for her a considerable reward, voted by the English Parliament in the middle of last century. [180] A statement purely imaginary, Ajasson thinks; the liquid of this class of shell-fish containing no element whatever to fit it for an antidote. [181] Or antidote. [182] In B. xxvi. c. 66. [183] Many varieties of sea-weed are now known, Ajasson says, to possess this property, and are still used by savage nations for colouring the body. In Europe, the use of indigo, madder, and other tinctorial plants of a more decided character, has caused them to be entirely neglected for dyeing purposes. [184] Probably the Syngnathus hippocampus of Linnæus. See B. ix. c. 1. [185] As to the Nitrum of the ancients, see B. xxxi. c. 46. [186] Or Cuttlefish. See B. ix. c. 44. [187] See B. ix. c. 35. [188] See c. 17 of the present Book. [189] This seems to be the meaning of “conchyliorum” here, though in most instances Pliny uses it as synonymous with the purple. See B. ix. cc. 60, 61, 64. [190] See B. xxv. c. 70. [191] This assertion reminds us of the healing effects of the fish with which Tobit cured his father’s blindness. See Tobit, c. xi. v. 13. [192] See c. 13 of this Book. [193] Identified by Ajasson with the white Rascasse of the Mediterranean. Hardouin combats the notion that this was the fish, the gall of which was employed by Tobit for the cure of his father, and is inclined to think that the Silurus was in reality the fish; a notion no better founded than the other, Ajasson thinks. [194] In his “Messenia,” for instance. The fragment has been preserved by Ælian, Hist. Anim. B. xiii. c. 4. Ajasson remarks that the ancients clearly mistook the swimming bladder of the fish for the gall. [195] Or “heaven-gazer.” [196] The original has “ab oculo quem,”—but we have adopted the reading suggested by Dalechamps, “Ab oculis quos in superiore capite.” Ajasson says that the white rascasse has the eyes so disposed on the upper part of the head as to have the appearance of gazing upwards at the heavens. Hence it is that at Genoa, the fish is commonly known as the _prête_ or “priest.” [197] See B. ix. c. 32. [198] See Chapter 17 of the present Book. [199] “Albugines.” [200] Meaning, literally, “Fallen from Jupiter,” in reference to their supposed descent from heaven in showers of rain. [201] Cortex. [202] See B. xxxiv. cc. 22, 23. [203] “Ossiculo.” [204] Literally, “fish-glue.” We can hardly believe Pliny that any fish was known by this name. Hardouin takes the fish here spoken of to be identical with that mentioned in B. ix. c. 17, as being caught in the Borysthene, and destitute of bones. It is most probable, however, that the “ichthyocolla” of the ancients, or “fish-glue,” was the same as our isinglass, and that it was prepared from the entrails of various fish, the sturgeon more particularly, the Acipenser huso of Linnæus. [205] The best isinglass still comes from Russia. [206] “Nativi coloris.” See B. viii. c. 23. Beckmann says, in reference to the present passage: “We manufacture the wool of our brown sheep in its natural colour, and this was done also by the ancients.”—_Hist. Inv._ vol. ii. p. 110, _Bohn’s Ed._ [207] The “calamites” above mentioned, so called from “calamus,” a reed. [208] The Bryonia Cretica of Linnæus; see B. xxiii. c. 16. [209] An eminent surgeon, born at Sidon in Phœnicia, who practised at Rome, probably in the first century B.C. [210] “Mutis,” “silent,” or “voiceless” frogs, as suggested by Gessner, Hist. Anim. B. ii., would almost seem to be a preferable reading here to “multis,” “many.” [211] Another reading is “tænia,” a fish mentioned by Epicharmus, Athenæus informs us, and considered by Ajasson to be probably identical with the Cepola rubescens, or Cepola tænia of Linnæus. [212] The same as the Batis of the Greeks, Hardouin thinks, the Raia batis, a kind of skate. [213] See B. ix. c. 28. [214] See the preceding Chapter. [215] See c. 13 of the present Book. [216] See B. ix. c. 71. [217] As to “nitrum,” see B. xxxi. c. 46. [218] See B. xxxi. c. 43. [219] See Note 189 to Chapter 23 of this Book. [220] “Canicula.” See B. ix. cc. 11, 70. [221] Or sting-ray. [222] Tunny cut in slices. See B. ix. c. 18. [223] See end of B. xxxi. [224] For the purpose, probably, of assuaging the pain of tooth-ache by their coolness. [225] See B. ix. cc. 40, 67. [226] “Cetum.” See B. ix. cc. 40, 74. [227] Ajasson is of opinion that here and in c. 19 Pliny has mistaken the _otter_ for a serpent, the mammiferæ only having eye or canine teeth. Aristotle, Hist. Anim. B. i. c. i., calls the otter by the name of “Enhydris.” See B. xxx. c. 8, where Pliny speaks of the “Enhydris” as a “male white serpent.” [228] Or seal. See B. ix. c. 15. [229] See B. ix. c. 42. Holland calls the mæna the “cackerel.” [230] Or sting-ray. [231] See B. ix. c. 1. [232] Much like the cod-liver oil, held in such high repute at the present day. [233] “Icthyocolla.” See Chapter 24 of the present Book. [234] Of course this assertion as to the nest of the kingfisher is altogether fabulous, and the sea-productions here described by Pliny were long considered, though destitute of leaves, flowers, and fruit, to belong to the vegetable kingdom. Peyssonnel, however, made the discovery that they belong to the animal kingdom, and that they owe their origin to a species of polyp. [235] Or kingfisher. See B. x. c. 47. [236] “Oculorum cicatrices.” [237] See end of B. xx. [238] See end of B. viii. [239] See B. ix. c. 42. [240] See B. ix. cc. 40, 67. The Bamberg MS. has here “rhine,” (the fish again mentioned in Chapter 53 of this Book) instead of “rana;” a reading which Sillig rejects. Hardouin conjectures that “raia” is the correct reading, the sea-frog having no sting or stickle in the tail. [241] See B. ix. c. 67. [242] Or sea-lizard, a fish again mentioned in Chapter 53 of this Book. Ælian also speaks of it, Hist. Nat. B. xii. c. 25; but it has not been hitherto identified. [243] See c. 25 of this Book. [244] See c. 13 of this Book. [245] See B. xxxi. c. 43. [246] See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. [247] It is not clear whether he means the gum ammoniac of B. xii. c. 49, and B. xxiv. c. 14, or the sal ammoniac of B. xxxi. c. 39. [248] “Saliva.” See the recipe of Sallustius Dionysius in Chapter 26 of this Book. [249] The Dryophites of Rondelet, Dalechamps says. [250] Identical with the Strombus of cc. 39, 46, and 53 of this Book. [251] See B. ix. c. 1. [252] Littré remarks that Pliny here seems to speak of the “Tethea” as a mollusk; whereas in c. 31, from his expression “Fungorum verius generis quam piscium,” he would appear to be describing a zoophyte. [253] See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. [254] See B. ix. cc. 24, 48, 67, 74, 75. [255] See B. xx. c. 38. [256] A rock fish, according to Athenæus, B. vii. Rondelet, B. vi. c. 7, identifies it with the fish called _girello_ by the people of Liguria, the _donzella_ of other districts. [257] Sliced tunny. See B. ix. c. 18. [258] A genus which comprises the “myes,” mentioned in B. ix. c. 56, according to Dalechamps. [259] See B. ix. c. 60. [260] See B. xxi. c. 105. [261] See B. xxviii. c. 45, and Chapter 20 of the present Book. [262] Identical with our mussel, probably. [263] Holland identifies this with the cockle, but it is probably a smaller kind of mussel. [264] See B. xxxiv. c. 50. [265] We learn from Chapter 53 of this Book, that one class of the “Chamæ,” or gaping cockles, was known as “Pelorides.” Horace also mentions them. [266] See B. xxxi. c. 46. [267] See Note 251 above. Sillig would here read “tetheum,” apparently, in the singular. [268] Described in B. xxvii. c. 29. [269] A city not far from the Canopic branch of the Nile. [270] “Dantur” seems a preferable reading to “datur.” [271] See B. ix c. 42. [272] Our crawfish, the Astacus potamobios of Leach. [273] See Chapter 13 of this Book. [274] See B. xix. c. 27, and B, xxv. c. 64. [275] See B. ix. cc. 23, 77. [276] See end of B. xxxi. [277] See B. ix. cc. 20, 24, 36. [278] See B. ix. cc. 24, 48, 67, 74, 75. [279] “Rhombus.” See B. ix. cc. 20, 36, 67, 79. [280] See Chapters 23, 34, 30 and 53 of this Book. [281] Rondelet, B. vi. c. 19, suggests “capite”—“in the head”—but the present reading is supported by the text of Plinius Valerianus, B. ii. c. 39, and of Marcus Empiricus, c. 28. [282] As to the identity of the Enhydris, see Chapters 19 and 26 of the present Book: also B. xxx. c. 8. [283] Probably the Βλεννὸς of Oppian, B. i. c. 108. Dalechamps identifies it with the mullet called “myxon,” apparently the same fish as the “bacchus” mentioned in Chapter 25 of this Book. Rondelet appears to identify it with some other sea-fish, small, and extremely rare. On the other hand, the fish mentioned by Oppian is thought by Littré to be the “gobius” of the Latins, (“gobio” or “cobio,” mentioned by Pliny in B. ix. c. 83, and in c. 53 of the present Book), which is generally considered the same as our gudgeon, and was a worthless fish, “vilis piscis,” as Juvenal says. One of the Linnæan orders of fishes is called “Blennius,” the blenny. [284] See B. ix. c. 28. [285] See B. ix. c. 68. [286] Or sea-lungs. See B. ix. c. 71, and B. xviii. c. 85. [287] Or crawfish. [288] “Pectines.” See B. ix. cc. 51, 52, 68, 74, 112. [289] Athenæus adds a fourth name, “solen;” and a fifth was “dactylus,” see B. ix. c. 87. According to Dalechamps, the name “donax” was given to one kind of scallop, from its fancied resemblance to a thick, hollow, river-reed, and that of “onyx” from the resemblance of its colour to that of the finger-nails. [290] It is not improbable that he may mean the same animal that has been mentioned in cc. 19 and 26 of this Book, the Enhydris. See also B. xxx. c. 8. [291] See B. xxix. c. 22. [292] See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. [293] See B. ix. c. 42, and Chapter 27 of this Book. [294] See B. ix. cc. 18, 19, and Chapter 53 of this Book. [295] Salted tunny. See B. ix. c. 18. [296] See B. ix. cc. 24, 48, 74, 75. [297] Our crawfish. [298] See B. ix. cc. 24, 32. [299] See B. ix. c. 24. [300] See Chapters 23, 24, 30, 32, and 53 of the present Book. Also B. xx. c. 53. [301] See B. ix. c. 42. [302] “Perca.” See B. ix. c. 24. [303] See Note 294 above. [304] See B. ix. c. 14. [305] In B. ix. c. 14. [306] Ajasson remarks that many writers have identified the Smaris with the Sardine or the Anchovy. In his opinion, however, it is neither; but he thinks that under this head were included seven or eight varieties of the Pickerel, the principal of which are, the Sparus smaris of Linnæus and Lacépède, the Sparus mana of Linnæus, or Sparus mendola of Lacépède, and the Sparus haffara of Lacépède and Linnæus. [307] See Chapter 22 of the present Book. [308] See B. ix. c. 1. [309] Literally, the “little serpent.” Some think that it is the Ophidium barbatum of Linnæus. Rondelet identifies it, B. xiv. c. 2, with the small fish called _donzella_ by the people of Montpellier. See c. 31, Note 256. [310] See B. xxx. c. 22. [311] See B. xiv. c. 8. [312] “Rubetæ.” See c. 18 of this Book; also B. viii. c. 48; B. xi. cc. 19, 76, 116, and B. xxv. c. 76. [313] See B. ix. c. 72; B. xxv. c. 77, and Chapter 3 of this Book. [314] Or seal-skin. See B. viii. c. 49, and B. ix. c. 15. [315] In B. xxvii. c. 33. [316] In B. xxvi. c. 66. [317] Or “sea-lungs.” See B. ix. c. 71, B. xviii. c. 5, and Chapters 32, 46, and 52 of the present Book. Ajasson remarks that this is still the common name of many kinds of Medusæ. [318] Our crawfish. [319] See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. [320] “Mituli.” See Chapter 31 of the present Book. [321] In B. viii. c. 49. [322] See Note 314 above. [323] See Chapter 13 of the present Book. [324] See B. ix. c. 29. [325] See B. ix. cc. 35, 76. [326] See B. ix. c. 1. [327] See B. ix. c. 28. [328] See B. ix. c. 24. [329] “Ablatis unguibus.” [330] “Rubeta.” [331] Our crawfish. [332] Because the nightingale sings at night, instead of sleeping. [333] See B. ix. cc. 2, 5, 6, 7, 15. [334] Or seal. [335] “Spondylus.” [336] See Chapter 29 of this Book. [337] See Chapters 30 and 31 of the present Book. [338] See B. xviii. c. 19. [339] “Crebriore anhelitu.” [340] See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. [341] Or sting-ray. See B. ix. cc. 37, 40, 67, 72. [342] Ichthyocolla. See Chapter 24 of this Book. [343] See Chapter 13 of this Book. [344] See B. ix. c. 30. [345] See B. ix. c. 46. [346] This seems to be the meaning of “naturâ dissidente,” if it is the correct reading. That, however, suggested by Dalechamps would seem to be preferable, “naturâ retinente,”—“it being the nature of its flesh to cling to the knife.” [347] See Chapter 24 of this Book. [348] “Calami.” [349] “Bloodsuckers.” [350] “Cucurbitæ medicinales.” [351] This does not appear to be considered the case at the present day. [352] A method still employed. [353] See B. x. c. 27. [354] “Invehunt virus remedio verso.” The reading is probably corrupt, but the meaning is pretty evident. [355] See B. xxix. c. 17, and c. 47 of this Book. [356] See B. ix. cc. 17, 25, 75. [357] See B. ix. c. 17. Ajasson says that it is also found of enormous size, in the Danube and in the Theisse. [358] See B. xxxiv. c. 33. [359] See B. ix. c. 42. [360] See Note 356 above. [361] “Cunila capitata.” See B. xx. c. 65. [362] See B. xxxiv. c. 55. [363] Tunny sliced and salted; see B. ix. c. 18. [364] See B. xxxi. c. 44. [365] See B. ix. cc. 24, 32. [366] See B. ix. c. 30. [367] See B. ix. c. 67. [368] See Note 359 above. [369] “Thymia.” [370] Ajasson thinks that the ancients knew but one kind of sea-scorpion, but in different states, the Cottus scorpius, probably, of Linnæus. [371] See Chapter 34 of this Book. [372] See Note 364 above. [373] See Note 359 above. [374] This fish has not been identified. It is possible, however, that it may be the same as the “glaucus” mentioned in B ix. c. 25. [375] See Note 371 above. [376] See B. xxvi. c. 92. [377] See B. ix. cc. 14, 40, 67. [378] An asserted remedy, founded, as Ajasson remarks, upon nothing but a pun, the resemblance between δελφὶς, a “dolphin,” and δελφὺς, the “womb.” [379] See Chapters 29 and 39 of this Book. [380] See B. ix. c. 42. [381] See B. xx. c. 65. [382] In other words, seal-oil. [383] Or sea-lungs. See Chapter 36 of this Book. [384] Or crawfish. [385] See B. ix. c. 17; also Chapter 43 of this Book. [386] Meaning Egypt, probably; see the passages referred to in the preceding note. [387] De Morb. Mulier. I. 128. [388] We would adopt the suggestion of M. Ian, and read “quinis cum,” in preference to “cum quinis;” “fire crabs with roots of lapathum and rue.” [389] See B. xx. c. 85. [390] See Chapter 13 of the present Book. [391] See B. xii. c. 57. [392] See B. ix. cc. 24, 48, 74, 75. [393] Or sting-ray. See B. ix. c. 72. [394] The callosity is here meant, Hardouin supposes, which covers the purple in the shell. See Chapter 41 of this Book. [395] “Salis flore.” See B. xxxi. c. 42. [396] “Cedrium.” See B. xvi. c. 21, and B. xxiv. c. 11. [397] See end of B. xxviii. [398] Or “sea-lungs.” See Chapter 36 of this Book. [399] See B. ix. c. 67. [400] See B. ix. c. 68. [401] See Note 392 above. [402] In Chapter 24 of this Book. [403] See the preceding Note. [404] See Chapter 42 of this Book. [405] In the case of infants, probably. [406] “Canicula.” See B. ix. cc. 11, 70. [407] Or “crawfish.” [408] “Crebro humefacto” seems a preferable reading to “cerebro humefacto” though supported by the Bamberg MS. [409] See B. xxii. c. 29, and B. xxx. c. 47. [410] See B. ix. c. 30. [411] Identified with the “erythinus” of B. ix. c. 23, and mentioned in the next Chapter. [412] See B. ix. c. 1. [413] Or Remora. See B. ix. c. 41. [414] See B. viii. c. 39. [415] See Note 392 above. [416] See B. ix. c. 23. [417] See Chapter 24 of this Book. [418] See B. ix. c. 1. [419] “Rubeta.” See B. viii. c. 48, B. xi. cc. 19, 76, 116, B. xxv. c. 76, and c. 18 of this Book. [420] See B. xv. c. 36, and B. xx. c. 22. [421] “Remedies for lassitude.” See B. xxiii. cc. 45, 80; B. xxvii. c. 13, and B. xxix. cc. 13, 37. [422] See B. xvi. c. 66, and B. xxiv. c. 50. [423] See B. xvi. c. 66, and B. xxiv. c. 50. [424] See B. xxiv. c. 50. [425] See B. ix. cc. 20, 44, 74, 78. [426] “Ablato priore lumine.” Hardouin justly ridicules this assertion. This ink, as Ajasson remarks, is intensely black. [427] See B. ix. c. 71, and Chapter 36 of this Book. [428] This _seems_ to be the meaning of “adeo ut baculum ita præluceat.” [429] Some MSS. have here “164,” the Bamberg MS. and others “144.” Owing to the corrupt state of the text in many parts of this Chapter, it is impossible to say which reading is correct. [430] “Invenire non potuimus” seems a preferable reading to “invenire potuimus.” [431] Modern Ceylon. See B. vi. cc. 23, 24, B. vii. c. 2, and B. ix. c. 54. [432] “Quæ nascuntur certa sunt.” A bold assertion. The various fishes now known amount to many thousands; and there are still vast numbers, no doubt, with which science has not hitherto become acquainted. [433] “Belluæ.” [434] He may possibly allude to the plants mentioned in B. xiii. cc. 48, 49, 50, 51, and 52; though Hardouin seems to think it impossible to discover what he means, seeing that he is speaking of sea-monsters, beings with animal life. See also B. ix. c. 3. [435] See B. ix. c. 3. [436] See B. ix. cc. 2, 5. [437] See B. ix. c. 3; probably the same as the “pristis” of B. ix. c. 2. [438] See B. ix. c. 4. [439] See B. ix. c. 4. [440] See B. ix. c. 4. [441] “Homines marini.” See B. ix. c. 4. [442] See B. ix. c. 3. [443] See B. ix. c. 5. [444] See B. ix. c. 4. [445] See B. ix. c. 88, and B. xi. c. 62. [446] See B. ix. c. 67. [447] See B. ix. c. 7. [448] See B. ix. c. 15. [449] Odyssey, B. iv. l. 436. [450] Turtles. See B. ix. c. 13. [451] See Chapter 13 of this Book. [452] See B. viii. c. 47; also Chapters 26 and 32 of this Book. [453] See B. ix. c. 70. [454] The name of a fish unknown. Sillig conjectures that Pliny may have had in view the fish called “dromades” by Aristotle. “Dromones” is another reading, a sort of small crab. [455] Littré translates this “horned ray.” [456] “Gladii.” See B. ix. cc. 1, 21; the same, probably as the “xiphias” mentioned at the end of this Chapter. [457] See B. ix. c. 1. [458] See B. viii. c. 39. [459] See B. viii. c. 37. [460] See B. ix. c. 18, 20. Holland says, “Some take ‘thynni’ for the milters and ‘thynnides’ for the spawners.” In this translation, however, he identifies the “thynnides” with the “pelamides,” or young tunnies, mentioned in this Chapter and in B. ix. c. 18. [461] See B. ix. cc. 17, 25. [462] See B. ix. cc. 24, 32. [463] “Percæ.” See B. ix. c. 24. [464] See B. ix. c. 27. [465] “Aurata.” See B. ix. c. 25. [466] See B. ix. cc. 25, 28. [467] Considered by some to be the whiting. Littré identifies it with the Perca labrax of Linnæus. [468] See B. ix. c. 74; where it is called “apua.” [469] The “sea-fox.” See B. ix. c. 67. [470] “Anguilla.” See B. ix. cc. 2, 37, 38. [471] Or sea-spider. See B. ix. c. 72. [472] The same as the _bogue_ of the coasts of Narbonne, according to Rondelet, B. v. c. 11. [473] See Chapter 25 of the present Book. [474] See B. ix. c. 28. [475] Or frog-fish. See B. ix. c. 40. [476] “Sea-needles.” Identified by some with the horn-fish, horn-back, or needle-fish. [477] “Needle-fish.” [478] “Acorn-fish.” A shell-fish, according to Rondelet, B. i. c. 30, which frequents the clefts of rocks. [479] “Sea-raven.” According to some authorities, identical with the Trigla hirundo of Linnæus. Hardouin says that it is the fish called _capone_ by the people of Rome. [480] See B. ix. c. 71. [481] The same, probably, as the “gobio,” mentioned in B. ix. c. 83. [482] See B. ix. c. 28. [483] See B. ix. cc. 25, 28. [484] Thought by some to be a kind of mackerel, by others to be a tunny. Rondelet says, B. viii. c. 8, that it is a fish still called _coguiol_ by the people of Marseilles. [485] In the Hellespont. [486] Or Sexis, according to Pintianus. [487] Or “sea-lizards.” [488] See B. ix. c. 18. He surely does not intend to include this among his “one hundred and seventy-six different kinds of aquatic animals”! [489] Or young tunny. See B. ix. c. 18. [490] See B. ix. c. 18. [491] Rondelet says, B. v. c. 4, that it is a fish still known (in his time) as _cantheno_, by the people of Narbonne. Ovid, in his Halieuticon, l. 103, speaks of the unpleasant flavour of its juices. [492] See Chapter 24 of the present Book. [493] Of course, as Hardouin says, he does not include the shell-fishes in this assertion. The fish with this uncomplimentary name has not been identified. [494] “Urtica.” See B. ix. c. 68. [495] See B. ix. c. 51. [496] Or “chamæ;” different varieties of gaping cockles. [497] Or “monster” cockles. [498] Or “sweet” cockles. [499] See Chapter 27 of this Book. [500] See B. ix. c. 54. [501] Or “cochli.” As to the various kinds of cochleæ, see B. ix. c. 51. [502] “Five-fingered.” So called from some peculiarity in their shape. [503] Considered by some to be the striated mussel, the Pecten of Linnæus. [504] “Radii.” [505] This is not improbably the meaning of the very elliptical sentence, “Quibus radii cantant.” [506] See B. ix. c. 1. [507] The “dog’s-face,” literally. This fish has not been identified: indeed the reading is doubtful. [508] A kind of crab or crayfish. See B. xxvii. c. 2. [509] Literally, the “dog’s right hand.” This fish has not been identified: Hardouin suggests that it may have been a zoöphyte. [510] See B. ix. c. 43, and Chapters 17 and 26 of this Book. [511] Or “little dragon.” [512] The sea-scorpion, probably. [513] See B. ix. c. 23; also Chapters 31 and 50 of this Book. [514] Or Remora. See B. ix. c. 41; also Chapter 1 of this Book. [515] See B. ix. cc. 14, 74. [516] See B. ix. c. 32. [517] See Chapter 46 of the present Book. [518] See B. ix. c. 67. [519] Possibly the same as the “Conger” of B. ix. c. 24. [520] A fish similar, most probably, to the “gerricula” previously mentioned. Holland calls it a “pilchard” or “herring.” [521] A kind of squalus. See B. ix. c. 70. [522] See B. xxxi. c. 43. [523] Or “horse.” The crab, probably, mentioned in B. ix. c. 51. [524] See B. ix. c. 24. [525] Or sea-swallow. See B. ix. c. 43. [526] “Lungs of the sea.” The same as the Pulmones, or sea-lungs mentioned in B. ix. c. 71, and in Chapter 36 of this Book. [527] See B. ix. c. 1. [528] Or “sea-liver.” A sort of rock-fish, according to Athenæus. [529] The same as the “milvus” or “sea-kite,” mentioned in B. ix. c. 43. [530] See Chapter 31 of this Book. Instead of this fish and the preceding one, most of the editions mention the “elacatenes,” a cetaceous fish, according to Athenæus, much used for salting. [531] “Sea-lizards.” [532] See B. ix. c. 45. [533] “Locusta.” See B. ix. c. 50. [534] “Lucerna.” See B. ix. c. 43. [535] Neither this fish nor the “larinus” has been identified. [536] See B. ix. c. 72, and Chapter 3 of this Book. [537] See B. ix. c. 51. [538] See B. ix. c. 30. [539] See B. ix. c. 20. [540] See B. ix. c. 26. [541] See Chapter 8 of this Book. Holland translates this—“The blacke taile perch, (which some take for a ruffe, others for a sea-breame).” [542] See B. ix. c. 42. [543] A fish of the Nile, according to Ælian. “Meryx” is another reading, a kind of Scarus, it is thought. [544] See B. ix. c. 23. [545] A shell-fish. See B. ix. c. 56. [546] See Chapter 31 of this Book. [547] See Chapter 31 of this Book. [548] See B. ix. c. 61. [549] The “eye-fish.” A kind of lamprey has been suggested. [550] See Chapter 35 of this Book. [551] See B. ix. c. 21. [552] “Sea-ears.” A kind of oyster, Holland says. [553] See B. ix. c. 20. [554] He speaks of it as a kind of Pelamis, a little further on. [555] The sun-fish. See Chapter 5 of this Book. [556] The same, probably, as the “orbis.” See Chapters 5 and 9 of the present Book. [557] Or phagrus. See B. ix. c. 24. [558] See B. ix. c. 42. [559] A young tunny. See B. ix. c. 20. [560] A “choice bit.” See B. ix. c. 20. [561] See B. ix. c. 17. [562] This fish has not been identified. [563] See B. ix. c. 36. [564] Or sting-ray. See B. ix. c. 40. [565] See B. ix. c. 48. [566] See B. ix. c. 51. [567] See B. v. c. 39. [568] Probably the place of that name in Sicily, mentioned in B. ii. c. 94, and B. iii. c. 14. [569] See B. iii. c. 26. [570] See B. iii. c. 22. [571] “Pectunculus.” See Note 566 above. [572] See B. ix. c. 60. [573] An unknown fish. The reading is doubtful. [574] See B. ix. c. 66. [575] See B. ix. c. 66. [576] See B. ix. c. 40. [577] “Rhombus.” See B. ix. c. 36. [578] See B. ix. c. 29. [579] See B. ix. c. 36. [580] See B. ix. c. 30. [581] The same, perhaps, as the “pinnotheres” of B. ix. c. 66, a kind of shrimp. [582] See Chapter 17 of this Book. [583] See B. ix. c. 18. [584] See B. ix. c. 19. [585] See B. ix. c. 32. [586] Considered by Sillig to be the same as the “Saurus” of Chapter 28 of this Book; the “sea-lizard,” apparently. [587] It does not seem to have been identified; though Rondelet says that it is the same as the _Rascasse_ of the Mediterranean. [588] See B. xx. c. 53, and Chapters 23, 30, 32, 34, and 35 of this Book. [589] This fish has not been identified; indeed the reading is very doubtful. [590] See B. ix. c. 24. [591] A fish similar to the preceding one, probably; some kind of ombre, Littré thinks. [592] See B. ix. c. 67. [593] Probably the same as the “Myrus” of B. ix. c. 39. [594] See B. ix. c. 45. [595] See Chapter 30 of this Book. [596] See Chapter 32 of this Book. [597] A sort of mollusk, Littré thinks. There is a shell-fish known as the Spondylus gæderopus of Linnæus. [598] See Chapters 34, 45, and 46, of this Book. [599] See B. ix. c. 86. [600] See B. ix. c. 69. [601] See B. ix. c. 20. [602] A sort of tunny, probably. [603] See Chapter 6 of this Book. Probably the same as the “gladius” of this Chapter, and of B. ix. cc. 1, 21. [604] Considered by Littré to be the Shad. [605] See B. ix. c. 67. [606] See Chapter 30 of this Book. [607] See B. ix. c. 18. [608] See B. ix. c. 18. [609] See B. ix. c. 52, and Chapter 1 of this Book. [610] See B. ix. c. 1, and c. 49 of this Book. [611] See Note 603 above. [612] The Halieuticon, already mentioned in Chapter 5 of this Book. [613] At the town of Tomi, whither he was banished by Augustus Cæsar. [614] See B. ix. c. 24. [615] See B. ix. cc. 23, 77, and Chapters 31, 50, of this Book. [616] The same, probably, as the “iulis” mentioned in the preceding Chapter. [617] The “golden brow.” The same as the “Aurata” or “dorade” of B. ix. c. 25, and Chapters 16 and 53 of this Book. [618] An unknown fish; the reading is doubtful. [619] The “goat-fish.” It does not appear to have been identified. [620] Literally, the “black tail.” See the preceding Chapter. [621] According to Rondelet, a fish resembling the Coracinus. [622] See B. ix. c. 23. [623] See B. ix. c. 25. [624] See B. ix. c. 47. [625] See B. ix. c. 42. [626] See B. ix. c. 27. Ajasson is of opinion that the “helops” is the Russian sturgeon, the “acipenser,” the common sturgeon. [627] Resembling a “stake” in appearance. It bee been suggested that this is the Esox sphyræna. [628] “Perna.” Hardouin says that from the diminutive of this, “pernula,” the modern word “pearl” is derived. [629] A sort of “tursio,” Dalechamps says. See B. ix. c. 11. [630] See B. iii. c. 12. [631] See end of B. xix. [632] See end of B. viii. [633] See end of B. xii. [634] See end of B. xviii. [635] See end of B. xii. [636] See end of B. ix. [637] According to Suetonius, Fescennius Iacchus was a grammarian who taught in Cisalpine Gaul. See also B. xxxvii. c. 54. [638] See end of B. xxxi. [639] See end of B. v. [640] See end of B. xx. [641] See end of B. xxviii. [642] See end of B. xxx. [643] See end of B. xxxi. [644] See end of B. xxviii. [645] See end of B. ii. [646] See end of B. viii. [647] We now enter upon the Sixth division of Pliny’s work, containing an account of mineral substances of all descriptions.—_Dr. Bostock._ [648] “Ipsæ opes.” The metals were looked upon by the ancients as the only _true_ riches. It is in this sense that Ovid says, Metam. B. i.: “Effodiuntur opes, irritamenta malorum.” Pliny applies the term “pretia rerum” to metals, as forming the unit of value. [649] Electrum is described in c. 23, as gold mixed with a certain quantity of silver. The word “electrum” is also used to signify amber, as in B. iii. c. 30.—B. [650] “Æs;” by “æs” is here probably meant copper, as the author is speaking of what is dug out of the earth; it is more fully described in the first two Chapters of the next Book. According to the analysis of Klaproth, the æs of the ancients, when employed in works of art, cutting instruments, statues, vases, &c., was the “bronze” of the moderns, a mixture of copper and tin, in which the proportion of tin varied, from a little more than 2 to 1.14 per cent, according as the object was to procure a flexible or a hard substance. Agricola speaks of “æs” as synonymous with “cuprum,” and Pliny will be found several times in the present Book, speaking of “æs Cyprium,” meaning probably the finest kind of copper, and that without alloy.—B. [651] Pliny has already referred to this topic in B. ii. c. 63.—B. [652] Or shades below. [653] “Illa quæ non nascuntur repente.” [654] “Chrysocolla” is fully described in Chapter 26 of this Book.—B. [655] Meaning “gold glue,” or “gold solder.” [656] There is considerable variation in the text of this passage, as found in the different editions. In that of Dalechamps, the Variorum, and those of De Laet and Sillig, the sentence concludes with the words “nomen ex auro custodiens;” while in those of Valpy, Lemaire, Poinsinet, Ajasson, and others, we find substituted for them the words. “Non natura,” “Nomen natura,” “Nomine natura,” or “Nomen naturam.”—B. The first reading is warranted by the Bamberg MS. [657] “Auri sanies.” More properly speaking, “the corrupt matter discharged by gold.” See Chapter 26. [658] “Minium” is treated of in Chapter 36 of this Book.—B. [659] “Pretia rerum.” The value of the raw material. [660] Pliny here refers both to the art of producing figures in relief on drinking vessels made of the precious metals, and also of giving them particular forms. A well-known line of Juvenal, Sat. ii. l. 96, affords a striking illustration of the depraved taste which existed in his time.—B. Lampridius also speaks of vessels of silver “defiled with representations of a most libidinous character;” and Capitolinus speaks of “phallovitroboli,” glass drinking vessels shaped like a phallus. [661] “Murrhina” or “myrrhina.” are described in B. xxxvii. c. 8; they were, perhaps, onyxes or opals, though possibly the term was not strictly confined to these substances, but signified any transparent minerals, that exhibited a variety of colours. Salmasius, however, ridicules the idea of their being onyxes, and is of opinion that these vessels were made of porcelain; Exer. Plin. p. 144.—B. [662] See B. xxxvii. c. 9. [663] He alludes to the cups known as “chrysendeta,” adorned with circlets of gold, exquisite chasings, and groups of precious stones. See Juvenal, Sat. v. l. 42. [664] The “Smaragdus” is described in B. xxxvii. c. 13. [665] “Et aurum jam accessio est.” [666] “Sacrum famæ.” This is the reading given by the Bamberg MS. in substitution for “aurum, sacra fames” and other readings of a similar nature, in which Pliny was thought by the commentators to allude to the famous lines of Virgil— “Quid non mortalia pectora cogis, Auri sacra fames!” Had he alluded to the passage of Virgil, it is not probable that he would have used the expression in the plural, “celeberrimi auctores.” [667] Il. B. vii. ll. 472-5.—B. [668] Il. B. vi. l. 236. [669] We may infer that this was the reason why the figure of an ox or other animal was impressed on the earliest Roman coins.—B. [670] As Hardouin remarks, “This story is told by others, of Gyges, and not of Midas.” He refers to Cicero, De Off. B. iii. c. 9, in confirmation of his assertion.—B. Both Gyges and Midas were noted for their wealth. [671] “Sinistræ.” The play here upon the word “sinister” cannot be so well transferred into the English language; but it bears reference to the double meaning of the word, “on the left hand,” and “unlucky,” “ill-omened,” or, as we say “sinister.” We may remark, that rings were very generally employed by the Romans, not merely as ornaments, but as indications of office and rank.—B. [672] From Corinth, it was said: Damaratus of Corinth being the father of the first Tarquin. See B. xxxv. c. 5. [673] On the subject of “Bullæ,” golden balls, worn by the children of the nobles, see Dr. Smith’s Dict. Antiq. p. 168.—B. [674] As to the “Toga prætexta,” see B. viii. c. 74. [675] “Lorum.” This word literally signifies a leather strap or thong, and Pliny is supposed by Hardouin to mean simply, that, in this latter case the strap was worn without the bulla, which was in other cases attached to it. Juvenal, Sat. v. l. 164, speaks of the “lorum” of the children of the poor.—B. [676] Δακτύλιον, from δάκτυλος, a “finger.” [677] Festus says that this was the Oscan name for a ring. It would appear to be allied to the word “unguis,” which means a nail of the finger or toe, and would perhaps signify a “nail ornament.” [678] As meaning a seal or signet, for which purpose, as we shall find explained in the sequel, the ring was used. [679] This seems to be the meaning of “Vulgoque sic triumphabant.” [680] As to these crowns, see B. xxi. c. 4. [681] As to some other particulars connected with this usage, see the end of B. xxviii. c. 7. [682] And yet, as Hardouin remarks, before his time, when Scipio was besieging Carthage, the bodies of the Roman tribunes, when selected for burial by Hasdrubal, were distinguished by their rings of gold. The object of Marius, no doubt, was to ingratiate himself with the upper classes. [683] A.U.C. 651. [684] Known as the “anulus pronubus,” or “engaged ring,” according to Dalechamps. [685] “Codicillos.” Il. B. vi. l. 168. [686] See B. xiii. c. 21. [687] Od. B. viii. ll. 424, 443, 447. [688] See the Iliad, B. iii. and B. vii. l. 175, _et seq._ [689] His meaning is, that although κληρὸι were used, lots or balls made of earth, we do not read that the impressions on them were made by the aid of signet-rings. [690] “Fabricæ deûm.” He alludes to the forge of Vulcan, described in the Eighteenth Book of the Iliad, l. 400, _et seq._ [691] This seems to be the meaning of “In primordio factitâsse.” [692] The “fibulæ” were the brooches of the ancients, consisting of a pin, and of a curved portion furnished with a hook. See Dr. Smith’s Dict. Antiq. p. 417. [693] As the meaning of this passage has been the subject of much discussion with commentators, we give it in full, as found in the Edition of Sillig. “Et quisquis primus instituit, cunctanter id fecit, lævis manibus latentibusque induit, cum, si honos securus fuisset, dextrâ fuerit ostentandus. Quodsi impedimentum potuit in eo aliquod intelligi, etiam serior is usus argumentum est, et majus in lævâ fuisset, quâ scutum capitur.” Sillig is of opinion that Pliny is here alluding to the reason given by Ateius Capito (quoted in Macrobius, Saturn. B. vii. c. 13), for wearing the ring on the left hand. It was so worn, he says, from an apprehension that the precious stone with which it was set, might receive injury from the continual use made of the right hand. [694] Under the folds of the toga. [695] Il. B. xvii. l. 52. [696] The reading in most MSS. is the “fourth consulship.” This, however, is an error which has been rectified by the Bamberg and some other MSS. Pompey was but _thrice_ consul. M. Crassus was the person generally accused of the act of robbery here alluded to. [697] Who took the golden torc (torques) from the Gaul whom he slew; whence his name. [698] “Cum auro pugnare solitos.” [699] “Quod equidem in augurio intellectum est, cum Capitolinus duplum reddidisset.” The meaning of this passage is obscure, and cannot with certainty be ascertained. Holland renders it, “To the light and knowledge whereof we come by means of revelation from Augurie, which gave us to understand, that Jupiter Capitolinus had rendered again the foresaid summe in duple proportion.” Littré gives a similar translation. Ajasson translates it, “This, at least, is what we may presume, from the fact of there being discovered double the amount expected;” following the explanation given by Hardouin. [700] The “ædituus,” or “temple keeper.” See B. xxxvi. 4. [701] Beneath which there was poison concealed, Hardouin says. Hannibal killed himself in a similar manner; also Demosthenes, as mentioned in the next Chapter. [702] The adopted son of the great Marius. This event happened in his consulship, B.C. 82. After his defeat by Sylla at Sacriportus, he retired into the fortified town of Præneste, where he had deposited the treasures of the Capitoline temple. The temple, after this conflagration, was rebuilt by order of Sylla. [703] Called the “Fasti;” probably because this was the first word of the title. [704] “Dies fasti.” These were the days on which the courts sat, and the Prætor, who was the chief judge, gave his decisions. The word “fasti” is derived from the ancient Latin “for,” or from the old Greek word φάω, both signifying “to speak:” consequently the “dies fasti” were “the speaking days,” and the “dies nefasti” the “non-speaking days,” in allusion to the restrictions put upon the judgments of the Prætor. [705] This complex state of the Roman Calendar long remained one of the sources from which the priesthood and the patrician order derived their power and influence over the plebeians. Having no other method of ascertaining what days were “fasti,” and what were “nefasti,” the lower classes were obliged either to apply to the priests and nobles for information, or to await the proclamation by the priests of the various festivals about to take place. [706] Appius Claudius Cæcus, the Censor and jurisconsult, who constructed the Appian Way. [707] A.U.C. 440, or B.C. 314. [708] In the war, probably, with the twelve nations of Etruria, who were conquered by the Consul Fabius A.U.C. 444. See Livy, B. ix. [709] The father of the former C. Pœtilius Libo, was Consul A.U.C. 428: the father of the latter, Cneius Domitius Calvinus, was Consul A.U.C. 432. [710] “Anulos abjectos.” [711] The “phaleræ” were bosses of metal, often gold, attached to the harness of the horse. See B. vii. c. 29. [712] He would probably imply hereby that, as he states subsequently, at this period gold rings were not as yet worn by _all_ the members of the senate. [713] A.U.C. 449. [714] “Ædiculam æream”—of brass or bronze. [715] For the explanation of this term, see B. vii. c. 60. [716] See B. x. c. 2. Livy tells us that this shrine or temple was built in the area or place of Vulcan. [717] Livy, B. xxiii. speaks of _one_ modius as being the real quantity. Florus, B. ii. c. 16, says _two_ modii: but Saint Augustin, De Civit. Dei. B. iii. c. 19, and most other writers, mention _three_ modii. [718: Q. Servilius Cæpio. He and M. Livins Drusus had been most intimate friends, and each had married the other’s sister. The assassination of Drusus was supposed by some to have been committed at the instigation of Cæpio. The latter lost his life in an ambush, B.C. 90. [719: See B. xxviii. c. 41. [720: See B. ii. c. 85. [721: M. Calpurnius Flamma. See B. xxii. c. 6. [722: A patrician family; branches of which were the Cincinnati, the Capitolini, the Crispini, and the Flaminini. [723: This is an erroneous assertion, both as to the East, and as to Egypt. See instances to the contrary in Genesis, c. xli. v. 42; and in Esther, c. iii. verses 10, 12, and c. viii. verses 2, 8, 10. [724: “Literis contenta solis.” [725: The Thirty-seventh Book. See also his remarks in B. ii. c. 63: “We tear out earth’s entrails in order to extract the gems with which we may load our fingers. How many hands are worn down that one little joint may be ornamented!” Martial, Epigr. B. v. Ep. 11, speaks of his friend Stella as wearing on the joint of one finger sardonyxes, emeralds, and jaspers. [726] “Violari.” See B. xxxvii. c. 1. [727] A fashion much followed at the present day. [728] This also is a not uncommon fashion at the present day. [729] From the “Trinummus” of Plautus, A. iv. s. 4, we learn that the ring worn by slaves was called “condalium.” From the “Truculentus” of Plautus we learn also that these rings were sometimes made of bronze. The “jus anuli,” or right of wearing a gold ring, was never conceded to slaves. [730] See B. iv. c. 23. In the Origines of Isidorus Hispalensis, B. xix. c. 32, we find mention made of “A Samothracian gold ring, with an iron bezil, so called from the place of its invention.” Pliny has already made allusion to the luxurious habits of the slaves, in B. xiii. c. 4; and B. xviii. c. 2; a subject upon which Juvenal enlarges in his Third Satire. [731] The reasons are mentioned by Ateius Capita, as quoted by Macrobius, Saturnal. B. vii. c. 13: also by Apion the Grammarian, as quoted by Aulus Gellius, B. x. c. 10. [732] The ring of each finger had its own appropriate name. [733] The “dactyliotheca,” or “ring-box.” [734] Juvenal, Sat. i. l. 26, _et seq._, speaks of the summer rings of the Roman fops, and their fingers sweating beneath the weight. [735] Martial, Epigr. B. xiv., speaks of the numerous accidents to which a weighty ring was liable. [736] Hannibal, too, for instance, as mentioned in Note 701 to the preceding Chapter. [737] He alludes, probably, to forgeries perpetrated through the agency of false signets. [738] Plautus, Cicero, Horace, and Martial, each in his own age, bears testimony to the truth of this statement. [739] Or remembrancer; a slave whose duty it was to remind his master of the name of each member of his household; see B. xxix. c. 8. Athenæus, B. vi., speaks of as many as twenty thousand slaves belonging to one household. Demetrius, the freedman of Pompey, mentioned in B. xxxv. c. 58, had a retinue of slaves equal to an army in amount. [740] Meaning “Marci puer,” or “Luci puer”—“Marcius’ boy,” or “Lucius’ boy.” [741] Suetonius says, c. 73, that Tiberius, in his last illness, awoke after a long lethargy, and demanded his signet-ring, which his son-in-law, Caligula, had removed from his finger, under the supposition that he was dead. Macro, to avoid any unpleasant results in the way of punishment, caused the emperor to be smothered with the pillows and bedclothes. [742] This famous and somewhat improbable story of the ring of Polycrates is told by Valerius Maximus, B. vi. c. 9; Herodotus, B. iii.; and Cicero, De Finibus, B. iv. Pliny again mentions it in B. xxxvii. cc. 2, 4. [743] He was crucified by Oroetes, the Persian satrap of Sardis. [744] “Anulo exsiliente.” [745] In Chapter 13 of this Book. [746] The laticlave tunic. See B. viii. c. 73, and B. ix. c. 63. [747] “Præcones.” [748] See the list of writers at the end of B. ix. [749] “Equus militaris.” [750] See B. xxix. c. 8. The “Decuriæ” of “judices,” or “judges,” were so called, probably, from ten (decem) having been originally chosen from each tribe. As to the Decuriæ of the judices, see Smith’s Dict. Antiq. pp. 531-2. The account given by Pliny is confused in the extreme. [751] “Turmæ.” Squadrons of thirty “equites” or horsemen; ten of which squadrons were attached to each legion. [752] Before the time of Augustus, there were but _three_ decuries. [753] A law introduced by Aurelius Cotta, B.C. 70, enacted that the Judices should be chosen from the three classes—of Senators, Equites, and Tribuni ærarii, or Tribunes of the treasury, these last being taken from the body of the people, and being persons possessed of some property. [754] Members selected by lot. [755] “Nongenti.” [756] Tacitus says that this took place the year before, in the consulship of C. Sulpicius, and D. Haterius. See the Annales, B. iii. c. 86. [757] Brother of the Emperor Galba. [758] “Aucupatus.” [759] Suetonius says that Tiberius instructed the ædiles to prohibit stews and eating-houses: from which we may conclude, Hardouin says, that C. Sulpicius Galba was an ædile. [760] Or, in other words, belonging to the equestrian order. The Roman equites often followed the pursuits of bankers, and farmers of the public revenues. [761] A law passed in the time of Julius Cæsar, B.C. 69, which permitted Roman equites, in case they or their parents had ever had a Census equestris, to sit in the fourteen rows fixed by the Lex Roscia Theatralis. [762] Caligula. [763] Conjointly with L. Vitellius. [764] Or farmers of the public revenues; the “publicans” of Scripture. In reality, they were mostly members of the equestrian order, and the words “equites” and “publicani” are often used as synonymous. [765] “This passage seems to be the addition of some ignorant copyist. It is indeed a remarkable fact, that we have _no_ inscription in which we see the Equites named _after_ the people as well as the Senate.”—Laboulaye, _Essai sur les lois Criminelles des Romains_: Paris, 1845, p. 224. [766] According to Livy, B. i. c. 15, the Celeres were three hundred Roman knights whom Romulus established as a body-guard. Their name, probably, was derived from the Greek κέλης, a “war-horse,” or “charger,” and the body consisted, no doubt, of the patricians in general, or such of them as could keep horses. Another origin assigned to the appellation is “Celer,” the name of a chieftain, who was a favourite of Romulus. The adjective “celer,” “swift,” owes its origin, probably, to the title of these horsemen. [767] A title derived, possibly, as Delafosse suggests, “a flectendis habenis,” from “managing the reins.” [768] Called “Trossum” or “Trossulum,” it is supposed. The remains of a town are still to be seen at Trosso, two miles from Montefiascone in Tuscany. The Greek word τρωξαλλὶς, a “cricket,” and the Latin “torosulus,” “muscular,” have been suggested as the origin of this name. Ajasson suggests the Latin verb “truso,” to “push on,” as its origin. [769] See the end of this Book. [770] From the ambiguous nature of the name, it being in later times an expression of contempt, like our word “fop,” or “beau.” In this latter sense, Salmasius derives it from the Greek τρυσσὸς, “effeminate.” [771] This concluding passage is omitted in most editions. [772] See B. vii. c. 29. [773] Dionysius of Halicarnassus is therefore probably wrong in his assertion that torcs of _gold_ were given to Siccius Dentatus, a Roman citizen, as the reward of valour. [774] See B. vii, c. 29. [775] On this subject, see B. xvi. c. 3, and B. xxi. c. i. [776] A.U.C. 323, or 431 B.C. [777] Situate about fourteen miles from Rome, and on the road to the town called La Colonna. [778] A.U.C. 479, and B.C. 275. In the following year Merenda himself was consul, with Manius Curius Dentatus. [779] “Testamento prælegavit.” Properly speaking, “prælegare” was “to bequeath a thing to be given before the inheritance was divided.” The crown thus left by Piso was to be three pounds in weight. [780] Oxen, namely. The smaller victims had the head encircled with chaplets. [781] The clasps by which the “sagum” or military cloak was fastened on the shoulders. [782] See the beginning of Chapter 4 of the present Book. [783] Isidorus Hispalensis, Orig. B. xix. c. 30, says that bracelets were formerly so called from the circumstance of being conferred on warriors as the reward of bravery—“ob virtutem.” Scævola, Ulpian, and others speak of “viriolæ” as ornaments worn by females. [784] See B. xxxvii. c. 6. [785] In allusion to the use of gold as an ornament for the shoes and sandal-ties. [786] A dress worn over the tunic, and which came as low as the ankles or feet. The stola was the characteristic dress of the Roman matrons of rank; other females being restricted to the use of the toga, which did not reach so low. [787] Between the matrons of rank whose feet were not to be seen at all, and the plebeian females, whose feet _were_ seen, but comparatively unadorned. [788] In the same way that the gold ring was the distinguishing mark of the Equites, so would the gold ankle-jewels be the characteristic of this new order of females. In the use of the word “Equestrem,” Ajasson absolutely detects an indelicate allusion, and rallies our author on thus retaining “the aroma of the camp!” [789] “Pædagogiis.” The origin of our word “page.” The pages of the Romans were decorated with gold ankle-jewels and other ornaments for the legs. [790] Or Horus, the god of silence. Ajasson is of opinion that this impression on the seal was symbolical of the secrecy which ought to be preserved as to written communications. [791] To the Emperor’s presence. [792] The _first_ crime having been committed by him who introduced the use of gold rings. See the beginning of c. 4 of this Book. [793] The golden denarius was known also as the “aureus” or “gold coin.” It was worth 25 silver denarii. As to the modern value of the money used by the ancients, see the Introduction to Vol. III. The golden denarius is mentioned also in B. xxxiv. c. 17, and in B. xxxvii. c. 3. [794] A.U.C. 479. [795] Meaning, literally, the “little pound,” in reference to the diminished weight of the “as.” [796] Meaning “two pounds,” or in other words, “two asses.” See B. xxxiv. c. 2. As to the weight of the “libra,” or pound, see the