10. VOLVA FRIABLE, DISAPPEARING.

------------------------------------------------------------------------ CLASS, FUNGI ---------- SUB-CLASS BASIDIOMYCETES COHORT _HYMENOMYCETES_. _Gr._—a membrane, a fruit-bearing surface; _Gr._—a mushroom. (So called from the hymenium or fruit-bearing surface.) Fungi composed of membranes, fleshy, woody or gelatinous, growing on wood or on the ground. The hymenium or spore-bearing surface exposed at an early stage. The spores are borne on basidia, spread over the surface. The common mushroom is typical of the family. All the members resemble it, more or less, in organization and reproductive organs. These latter, in the mushroom, are spread over lamellæ or gills. The spores, after ripening and dissemination, germinate and produce a mycelium or thread-like vine, which in turn develops the spore-producing part of the plant. Hymenomycetes is divided into the following six Families:— _a._ HYMENIUM FIGURATE. I. Spread over the surface of lamellæ or AGARICACEÆ. gills. II. Lining the interior of tubes or pores. POLYPORACEÆ. III. Clothing the surface of spines or HYDNACEÆ. protuberances of various forms. _b._ HYMENIUM EVEN. IV. Horizontal and mostly on the under THELEPHORACEÆ. surface. V. Vertical and produced all over the CLAVARIACEÆ. surface. VI. Superior, gelatinous fungi. TREMELLACEÆ. FAMILY I.—=AGARICACEÆ.= In the Agaricaceæ the hymenium is spread over lamellæ or gills which radiate from a center or stem. The gills are composed of a double membrane, and are simple or branched. The parts of an Agaric may all be present as in Amanitæ, or severally absent in other genera. When the young fungus is entirely enclosed in a wrapper or case, this case is called the _universal veil_. When this veil is ruptured by the growth of the stem, that part which remains attached to the base is called the _volva_. The membrane reaching from the stem to the margin of the cap is the _partial veil_; when it ruptures by the expansion of the cap and all or a portion adheres to and about the stem it forms the _annulus or ring_. In some species one or both veils may be present, or one or both may be absent. The stem is _central_ when supporting the cap at its center; _excentric_ when at one side of the center; _lateral_ when it supports the cap from the side. If the stem is absent, the cap is said to be _sessile_; if the cap is horizontal and supported by a broad base it is _dimidiate_; if attached to its place of growth by its back it is _resupinate_. Genera are largely distinguished by the manner in which the gills are attached to the stem. These distinguishing attachments are shown in the plates illustrating genera and in Plate IV. Gill-shapes. For convenience Agaricaceæ is divided by the color of the spores into five series: white, pink, brown, purple, black. The last two, owing to the similarity of hue, are by some writers (preferably) included in the black-spored series. Spore color is a valuable assistant in determining species. _Series I._ =LEUCOSPORÆ.= _Gr._—white; _Gr._—seed. Spores white, rarely dingy or inclining to reddish. In the genus Russula the spores of some species are white, in some cream-color, and in several pale ochraceous. Variations from pure white are found in the spores of Tricholoma personatum and a few other species. Gill-color is not a guide to spore-color. Purple, yellow, brown, pinkish gills may produce white spores. ╔═════════════╤════════════╤════════════╤══════════════╤══════════════╗ ║ LEUCOSPORAE │RHODOSPORAE │OCHROSPORAE │PORPHYROSPORAE│MELANOSPORAE. ║ ║ (WHITE) │ (PINK) │ (BROWN) │ (PURPLE) │ (BLACK) ║ ╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢ ║ AMANITA │ │ │ │ ║ ║ AMANITOPSIS │ VOLVARIA │ACETABULARIA│ CHITONIA │ ║ ╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢ ║ LEPIOTA │ │ │ AGARICUS │ COPRINUS ║ ║ │ │ │ (PSALLIOTA) │ ║ ╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢ ║ │ PLUTEUS │ BOLBITIUS │ PILOSACE │ ║ ╠═════════════╪════════════╪════════════╪══════════════╪══════════════╣ ║ ARMILLARIA │ │ PHOLIOTA │ STROPHARIA │ GOMPHIDIUS ║ ║ │ │CORTINARIUS │ │ ║ ╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢ ║ TRICHOLOMA │ ENTOLOMA │ HEBELOMA │ HYPHOLOMA │ PANÆOLUS ║ ║ LACTARIUS │ │ INOCYBE │ │ ANELLARIA ║ ║ RUSSULA │ │ │ │ ║ ╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢ ║ HYGROPHORUS │ │ │ │ ║ ║ CLITOCYBE │ CLITOPILUS │ FLAMMULA │ │ ║ ║ XEROTUS │ │ PAXILLUS │ │ ║ ║ NYCTALIS │ │ │ │ ║ ╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢ ║ LENZITES │ │ │ │ ║ ║ LENTINUS │ │ │ │ ║ ║ PLEUROTUS │ CLAUDOPUS │ CREPIDOTUS │ │ ║ ║ PANUS │ │ │ │ ║ ║ TROGIA │ │ │ │ ║ ║SCHIZOPHYLLUM│ │ │ │ ║ ╠═════════════╪════════════╪════════════╪══════════════╪══════════════╣ ║ COLLYBIA │ LEPTONIA │ NAUCORIA │ PSILOCYBE │ ║ ║ MARASMIUS │ │ │ │ ║ ║ HELIOMYCES │ │ │ │ ║ ╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢ ║ MYCENA │ NOLANEA │ PLUTEOLUS │ PSATHYRA │ PSATHYRELLA ║ ║ HIATULA │ │ GALERA │ │ ║ ╟─────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────╢ ║ OMPHALIA │ ECCILIA │ TUBARIA │ DECONICA │ MONTAGNITES ║ ╚═════════════╧════════════╧════════════╧══════════════╧══════════════╝ Plate I. LEUCOSPORAE. _Hymenophore distinct from fleshy stem._ AMANITA. LEPIOTA. AMANITOPSIS. _Hymenophore confluent and homogeneous with fleshy stem._ ARMILLARIA. TRICHOLOMA. Lactarius. Russula. CLITOCYBE. Hygrophorus. Xerotus. Nyctalis. PLEUROTUS. Lentinus. Lenzites. Panus. Trogia. Schizophyllum. _Hymenophore confluent with, but heterogeneous from cartilaginous stem._ COLLYBIA. Marasmius. Heliomyces. MYCENA. Hiatula. OMPHALIA. PLATE II. CHART OF GENERA IN WHITE SPORED SERIES LEUCOSPORAE. =AMANITA.= (A name given to some esculent fungi by Galen, perhaps from Mount Amanus.) Universal veil (volva), which is at first continuous (completely enveloping the young plant), distinct from the skin of the cap. Hymenophore or cap, the part which bears the spore-bearing surface, distinct and easily separable from the stem, which leaves a socket in the flesh when it is removed. _All growing upon the ground._ _Fries._ (Plate VII.) [Illustration: SECTION OF AMANITA PHALLOIDES.] =Pileus= somewhat fleshy, convex then expanded. =Gills= free. Universal veil at first enclosing the entire plant, which as it grows bursts through, generally carrying the upper part on the pileus, where it appears as patches or scales, the remainder enclosing the stem at the base as a volva, either in a cup-like form, closely adherent or friable and evanescent. The partial veil in youth extends from the stem to the margin of the pileus, enclosing the gills; when ruptured it depends from the stem as a ring. =Stem= furnished with a ring, and different in substance from that of the pileus. =Spores= white. On the ground. The nearest allied genus, Amanitopsis, is separated by the absence of a ring, and Lepiota by its lack of a volva; Volvaria, Acetabularia and Chitonia, possessing volvas, are distinguished by the color of their spores. Amanitæ are the most beautiful and conspicuous of fungi. While there are comparatively few species of them, the individual members are plentiful in appearing from spring until the coming of frost. They are solitary or gregarious in growth. Occasionally two or three are found together. They frequent woods, groves, copse, margins of woods and land recently cleared of trees. They are seldom found in open fields. A careful study of all their botanic points should be the first duty of the student of fungi. Familiarity with every characteristic of the Amanitæ will insure against fatal toadstool poisoning, for it is the well-grounded belief of those who have made thorough investigation that, with the exception of Helvella esculenta, now Gyromitra esculenta, the Amanitæ, alone, contain deadly poisons. _No Amanita, or piece of one, should be eaten before its identity is fully established and its qualities ascertained by referring to the descriptions herein given or to the opinion of an expert._ They are the aristocrats of fungi. Their noble bearing, their beauty, their power for good or evil, and above all their perfect structure, have placed them first in their realm; and they proudly bear the three badges of their clan and rank—the volva or sheath from which they spring, the kid-like apron encircling their waists, and patch-marks of their high birth upon their caps. In their youth, when in or just appearing above the ground, they are completely invested with a membrane or universal veil, which is distinct and free from the skin of the cap. As the plant grows the membrane stretches and finally bursts. It sometimes ruptures in one place only and remains about the base of the stem as the volva. When such a rupture occurs the caps are smooth. In most species portions of the volva remain upon the cap as scruff or warts—pointed or rough—or as feathery adornment; any or all of which may in part or whole vanish with age or be washed away by rain. Extending from the stem to the margin of the cap, and covering the gills, is the partial =veil=—a membranaceous, white texture of varying thickness. As the cap expands this veil tears from it. Portions frequently remain pendant from the edges, the rest contracts to the stem as a ring, or droops from it as a surrounding ruffle, or, if of slight consistency, may be fugacious and disappear, but marks, remains, or the veil itself will always be traceable upon the stem. The Amanitæ are of all colors, from the brilliant orange of the A. Cæsarea, the rich scarlet or crimson of the A. muscaria, to the pure white of the A. phalloides in its white form. Their stems are usually long, and taper from the base toward the top. In some forms the base is distinctly bulbous. The =volva= at the base is attached to the stem at its lower extremity. It may be visible as a cup or ruptured pouch with spreading mouth, or it may be of such friable texture as to appear like mealy scales. Often, when the plant is pulled from the ground, the volva remains, but the marks of its attachment will appear and should be carefully looked for. Their =gills= are commonly white, are of equal length and radiate from near the stem, which they do not reach, to the circumference of the cap. They are white, unless tinged with age, excepting upon A. Cæsarea and A. Frostiana where they are yellow.[B] Their caps are umbrella-shaped, flat or convex. Their flesh is white, does not change color when bruised. They are scentless and almost tasteless when fresh, when old they have a slightly offensive odor and taste. Footnote B: A. Frostiana is not always yellow gilled. The family is not a large one, not over thirty members complete its circle. Every feature, every part of its several members, should be thoroughly known before the intimacy of eating. While at least nine of the family are not only edible but delicate and sapid, far better will it be to leave all alone than to make a mistake. A piece of a poisonous variety the size of a dime will often cause serious disorders if eaten. Many persons have died from eating very small quantities. Because of its ovate or button-like form when young, it is frequently mistaken for the common field mushroom; even experienced mycophagists have been deceived by it. No other poison has so puzzled scientists. Other varieties of fungi may interfere with digestion, but to the Amanitæ all deaths from toadstool-eating are traceable. Its subtle alkaloid is absorbed by the system, and in most cases lies unsuspected for from six to twelve hours, then its iron grip holds to the death. For centuries it has defied all remedies. The problem has been partially solved. At Shenandoah, Pa., August 31, 1885, a family of five were poisoned by toadstools; two died, three lived. Noting the sad account in the newspapers, I at once wrote to Shenandoah for specimens of the fungi eaten and a description of the treatment. I promptly received from Dr. J.E. Schadle (now Professor Schadle), the physician in charge of the cases, a box containing two harmless varieties and several fine specimens of the Amanita phalloides, all of which were gathered on the same spot and by the same person who gathered the toadstools doing the poisoning. They told the tale. A remarkably full and interesting account of the cases was sent to me by Dr. Schadle. After exhausting all other remedies, and after two of the five had died, he administered subcutaneously, by hypodermic injection, sulphate of atropine—a product of the deadly nightshade analagous to belladonna—1⁄180 to 1⁄60 of a grain at a dose. It proved to be an antidote and saved the lives of the remaining three. The action of atropine in arresting the deadly work of poisoning by amanitine had been foreshadowed by Schmidberg and Koppe, and dwelt upon in numerous published articles by Mr. Julius A. Palmer, to whom more than any other is due the branding of the murderous members of the Amanita family; but for the first time atropine was used upon the human system to ward their blows. All of the species herein described are found in the United States. Of the twenty-seven, nine are edible, nine are either known to be deadly or are so closely allied to deadly species that it is unsafe to class them as other than poisonous until absolute proof is obtained of their harmlessness. The remaining nine I have not seen, neither is there any record of their qualities. ANALYSIS OF SPECIES. * Volva opening at the top or splitting all around, leaving a manifest, free border at the base of the stem. Pileus naked or with broad membranaceous patches. ** Volva splitting regularly all round the lower portion, persistent, more or less closely embracing the base of the bulbous stem. The upper portion being adnate to the pileus appears on it by expansion as scattered, thick warts. *** Volva friable, entirely broken up into wart-like scales, therefore not persistent at the base of the stem, which is at first globose-bulbous, becoming less so as it lengthens. Pileus bearing mealy patches, soon disappearing or with small, hard, pointed warts. **** Volva rudimentary, flocculose, wholly disappearing. * _Volva bursting at top, etc._ =A. viro´sa= Fr.—_virus_, poison. Shining white. =Pileus= 3–4 in. broad, fleshy, _at first conical and acute_, afterwards bell-shaped, then expanded, naked, viscous in wet weather, shining when dry, _margin_ always even, but most frequently _unequal_, turned backward and inflexed. =Flesh= white, unchangeable. =Stem= 4–6 in. long, _wholly stuffed_, almost solid, split up into longitudinal fibrils, cylindrical from the bulbous base, often compressed at the apex, _torn into scales_ on the surface, springing from a _lax, wide, thick volva_, which bursts open at the apex. =Ring= close to the top, lax, silky, splitting up into floccose fragments. =Gills= free, thin, narrow, narrowing at both ends, but a little broader in front, not decurrent on the stem (although the apex of the stem is often striate), crowded, somewhat floccose at the edge. _Fries._ The pilei are most frequently oblique, extended and lobed on one side as in Hygrophorous conicus, scarcely ever depressed. The pileus rarely becomes yellow. The fragments of the veil often adhere to the edge of the gills. [Illustration: Grouped by F.D. Briscoe—Studies by C. McIlvaine. PLATE VI.] FIG. PAGE. FIG. PAGE.