1204. Its peculiar beauty is derived from the curved forms and tenuity

of substance obtained in blowing. (Fig. 358.) There are six kinds of Venetian glass. (1) Vessels of colourless or _transparent glass_, or of single colours, generally blue or purple. (2) _Gilt_ or _enamelled glass_. (3) _Crackled glass_, having a surface rough and divided irregularly into ridges. (4) Variegated or _marbled opaque glass_, called _schmeltz_; the most common variety is a mixture of green and purple, sometimes resembling jasper, sometimes chalcedony; other varieties are imitations of lapis lazuli and tortoise-shell; and _avanturine_, which is obtained by mingling metallic filings or fragments of gold leaf with melted glass. (5) _Millefiori_, or _mosaic glass_, in imitation of the old Roman process. (6) _Reticulated_, _filigree_, or _lace glass_. The varieties contain fine threads of glass, generally coloured, but sometimes milk-white, included in their substance. The lightness and strength of the Venetian glass are due to its not containing lead like our modern flint glass. Venetian _mirrors_ were for a long period widely celebrated. The oldest example of the German _drinking-cups_, ornamented with paintings in enamel, is of the date of 1553. The designs are commonly armorial bearings. From the beginning of the 17th century the Bohemian manufactories supplied _vases_ enriched with ornamental subjects, particularly with portraits engraved upon the glass. The art of _wheel engraving upon glass_ flourished in France under Louis XVI. In modern times this kind of ornamentation is produced by the agency of hydrofluoric acid. “Coarse glass-making in England was, in Sussex, of great antiquity.” (_Fuller._) “The first making of Venice glasses in England began in London, about the beginning of the reign of Queen Elizabeth, by one Jacob Vessaline, an Italian.” (_Stow._) =Glass-glazed Wares.= (See GLAZED WARES.) =Glaucous= (γλαυκός). Of a sea-green colour, or a greyish blue. [Illustration: Fig. 359. Flemish stone-ware Cruche, 17th century.] =Glazed Wares.= Almost immediately after the invention of Ceramic manufacture, the application of _glaze_ or _coloured enamel_ must have improved it. What we term _glaçure_ is a light varnish which enlivens and harmonizes the porous surface of terra-cotta. In its simple state it is a mixture of silex and lead, and in this state it is transparent, as we find it on _antique vases_; when vitrifiable, and mixed with tin, as in the case of _majolicas_, it is called enamel; and when of vitrifiable and earthen substance, such as can only be melted at the temperature required for the baking of the paste itself, it is known as GLAZE, or _couverte_, and can be identified in the Persian faiences and Flemish stone-ware. (Figs. 359, 360.) (See _Burty_, _Chefs-d’œuvre of the Industrial Arts_.) [Illustration: Fig. 360. German enamelled stone-ware Cruche, date first half of the 16th century.] =Glazing.= In oil painting, the application of thin layer of colour to finally modify the tone. In pottery, a vitreous covering over the surface. (See GLAZED WARES.) =Globe=, held in the hand, is the emblem of power. =Globus=, R. A military manœuvre employed by a body of Roman soldiers when surrounded by superior forces; it consisted in forming a circle facing in every direction. [Illustration: Fig. 361. Glory. Vesica Piscis in Ely Cathedral.] =Glory=, =Nimbus= or =Aureole=, the Christian attribute of sanctity, is of pagan origin, common to images of the gods, and Roman, even Christian, emperors. Satan in miniatures of the 9th to 13th century wears a glory. The earliest known Christian example is a gem of St. Martin of the early part of the 6th century. The glory round the head is properly the nimbus or aureole. The oblong glory surrounding the whole person, called in Latin “vesica piscis” (Fig. 361), and in Italian the “mandorla” (almond) from its form, is confined to figures of Christ and the Virgin, or saints who are in the act of ascending into heaven. When used to distinguish one of the three divine Persons of the Trinity, the glory is often cruciform or triangular: the square nimbus designates a person living at the time the work was executed. In other instances it is circular. Coloured glories are variously symbolical. (_Mrs. Jameson_, “_The Poetry of Sacred and Legendary Art_.”) =Gloves.= In the 14th century already _gloves_ were worn, jewelled on the back, as a badge of rank. “They were worn in the hat,” says Steevens, “as the favour of a mistress, or the memorial of a friend, and as a mark to be challenged by an enemy.” A glove of the 17th century is described “of a light buff leather, beautifully ornamented with spangles and needlework in gold and silver threads, with a gold lace border, and silk opening at the wrist.” Gloves were called “cheirothecæ,” hand-coverers, by the Greeks and Romans; they were made without separate fingers, the thumb only being free. A legend current at Grenoble affirms that St. Anne, the mother of the Virgin Mary, was a knitter of gloves. =Gluten.= In wax painting, the compound with which the pigments are mixed. =Glyphs=, Arch. The flutings of an ornament or grooving forming the segment of a circle. (See DIGLYPH, TRIGLYPH.) =Glyptics.= The art of engraving on precious stones. =Glyptotheca=, Gr. and R. (1) A gallery for sculpture. (2) A collection of engraved stones. =Gnomon=, Gr. and R. The iron pin or index, which, by the projection of its shadow, marks the hour upon a sun-dial. =Goal.= (See META.) =Goat.= The emblem of lasciviousness. =Gobelins.= Celebrated Royal French manufactory of tapestry, named from the successors of Jean Gobelin, who brought the art to Paris in the 15th century from Rheims. [See _Burty_, _Chefs-d’œuvre of Industrial Art_.] =Godenda=, O. E. A pole-axe, having a spike at its end; 13th century. =Goderonné=, =Gouderonné= (Needlework). A fluted pattern of embroidery in vogue in the 16th century. [Illustration: Fig. 362. Egyptian Diadem of gold and lapis lazuli of the ancient Empire, found in the tomb of Queen Aah-Hotep.] =Gold.= It is probable that the earliest recorded mark upon units of value was the image of a sheep or an ox; hence money in Latin is called _pecunia_, from _pecus_, cattle, the original form of barbaric wealth, for which gold was the substitute. The wealth of Abraham in silver and gold, as well as in cattle, is mentioned in Genesis. No coins of gold or silver have been found in EGYPT or NINEVEH, although beautiful specimens of the goldsmith’s art have been recovered from the tombs of both countries. The HEBREWS, taught by the Egyptians, made their ark, mercy-seat, altar of incense, seven-branched candlestick, and other golden ornaments, even in the desert of Sinai. The seven-branched candlestick is represented in sculpture on the arch of Titus at Rome. At BABYLON and NINEVEH gold is said to have been lavishly applied in gilding sculpture, and even walls; but it is suggested that an alloy of copper, the _aurichalcum_ of the Greeks, was the metal in reality used for this purpose. The heroes of the Greek epic had golden shields and helmets; breastplates and other large pieces of golden armour are among the recent discoveries at Mycenæ; at Kourioum in the island of Cyprus also great stores of golden ornaments of a very early age have been discovered. In SCYTHIAN tombs in Russia also, about Kertch, beautiful relics of Grecian work in gold have been found, showing that in the very earliest ages the skill and taste applied to this art were not less than those of later times. The gold jewellery of ancient India also excelled that of modern date, but none, before or since, ever equalled the great age of GREEK art. Pausanias describes a statue of Athene, made by Pheidias, and kept in the Parthenon at Athens, of ivory and gold—_chryselephantine_—delicately worked all over; and a still larger statue of Jupiter, of the same materials. Native gold alloyed with one-fifth silver was greatly prized by the Greek artists, who gave it the name of _electrum_. Examples of this electrum are rare; there is a vase at St. Petersburg. The ROMANS used to pay enormous prices for their household plate; for an example, the bowl of Pytheas, on which were represented Ulysses and Diomed with the palladium, fetched 10,000 denarii, or about 330_l._ _per ounce_. Few specimens of Roman art have escaped destruction. (Fig. 7.) Of the age of BYZANTINE splendour we are told that the Emperor Acadius, early in the 5th century, sat on a throne of massive gold, his chariot being also of gold, &c. In the 9th century the throne of Theophilus was overshadowed by a tree of gold, with birds in the branches, and at the foot two lions all gold. The lions roared and the birds piped in the branches. A remarkable wealth of ancient goldsmith’s work has been found in IRELAND, consisting principally of personal ornaments. In the 9th and 10th centuries the Irish workmanship was unsurpassed in Europe. It consisted principally of objects for religious use, and is characterized by a filagree of extraordinary richness, akin to the intricate traceries of the Irish illuminated work on MS. of the same date and derivation. In the 10th and 11th centuries there was a great revival of art throughout Europe. In GERMANY, the abbey of Hildesheim, under Bishop Bernward, became the centre of a school of goldsmiths, and some beautiful specimens of hammered gold, by the bishop’s hand, are preserved. [Illustration: Fig. 363. Greek Ear-ring of gold, and part of a necklace. (_See also Fig. 276._)] =Gold=, in Christian art. (See YELLOW.) =Gold, Cloth of=, is mentioned in the Pentateuch, and was common throughout the East in all ages. It was originally wrought, not in rounded wire but flat, as the Chinese, the Indians, and the Italians (their _lama d’oro_) weave it now. The early Roman kings wore tunics of gold, and the Romans used it as a shroud for burial. King Childeric, A. D. 482, was buried at Tournai in a mantle of golden stuff. It was much favoured in England for church vestments, and by royalty, especially by Edward IV. and Henry VIII. and the nobility of their time. (The different varieties are described in their order. See ACCA, ARESTE, BATUZ, CHRYSO-CLAVUS, CICLATOUN, DORNECK, SAMIT.) =Goldbeater’s Skin=, prepared from a membrane found in the stomach of the ox, is used to separate leaf-gold in the process of gold-beating. =Golden Fleece.= An Order of Knighthood instituted on the 10th of January, 1429, by Philip, Duke of Burgundy. The COLLAR is composed of double steels, interwoven with flint-stones, emitting sparks of fire, at the end whereof hangs on the breast a Golden Fleece. The fusils are joined two and two together, as if they were double BB’s (the cyphers of Burgundy). The _flint-stones_ are the ancient arms of the Sovereigns of Burgundy, with the motto “_Ante ferit quam flamma micet_.” (See Fig. 342.) The motto of the Order is “_Pretium non vile laborum_.” There are four great officers, viz. the Chancellor, Treasurer, Register, and a King of Arms, called _Toison d’Or_. The BADGE consists of a Golden Fleece, suspended from a flint-stone, which is surrounded with flames of gold. =Golden Spur.= An Order of Knighthood said to have been instituted by Pius IV., at Rome, in 1559. They are sometimes spoken of as the CHEVALIERS PIES or PIORUM, and must be distinguished from those who are created knights on the coronation or marriage days of Emperors and Kings, and who receive at the same time the _Spurs of Honour_. These alone are entitled to the appellation of EQUITES AURATI. [Cf. _Peter de Bellet_, _Favin_, &c.] =Golden Stole= of Venice. (See STOLA D’ORO.) =Golione=, O. E. A kind of gown. =Gondola=, It. A Venetian pleasure-boat or barge. =Gonfalon= or =Gonfanon=, Fr. (1) A richly-worked pointed banner carried upon a lance; 13th century. (2) An ecclesiastical banner. =Gonfalonier=. The bearer of a gonfalon. =Goniometer= (γωνία, an angle, &c.). An instrument for measuring the angles of crystals. =Gonjo=, O. E. (14th century). Said to be the _gorget_. =Gopouras=, Hind. The pyramid-shaped door of the Hindoo temples. _Dwararab’ha_, or door of splendour, was the name given to a door with one or two tiers; _dwarasala_, or door of the dwelling, a door with two or four tiers; _dwaraprasada_, or propitious door, a door with three to five tiers; _dwaraharmya_, or door of the palace, a door with five to seven tiers; lastly, _dwaragopouras_, or door-tower with seven to sixteen tiers. =Gorged=, Her. Wearing a collar. =Gorget=, Fr. A defence or covering for the neck. [Illustration: Fig. 364. Gorgoneia.] =Gorgoneia.= Masks of the Gorgon’s head, which were fixed as bosses upon walls or shields. =Gossamer=, O. E. (properly _God’s summer_). The name is attributed to an old legend that the fine filaments so called are the fragments of the winding-sheet of the Virgin Mary, which fell away from her as she was taken up to heaven. =Gothamites=, O. E. The inhabitants of the village of Gotham in Northumberland, renowned for their stupidity. A reprint of the tale called “The Wise Men of Gotham” appeared in 1840. =Gouache=, Fr. This term is applied to the use in water-colour painting of opaque colours more or less mixed and modified with white. The process is extremely ancient, known to the Chinese and Indians of the earliest times, and to the Greeks and Romans. It was the method used by mediæval illuminators. Its result is a velvety reflection of the light. [Illustration: Fig. 365. Gourd-shaped bottle. Anatolian.] =Gourd of Noah.= A piece of ancient blue faience from Asia Minor. According to the tradition current in the country, these vessels, which are in great veneration, would go back to such remote antiquity that it was by one of them that Noah was betrayed into the first act of inebriety recorded in history. (_Jacquemart._) =Gouttée=, =Guttée=, Her. Sprinkled over with drops of gold, silver, blue (tears), red (blood), or black (_poix_). =Gown= (British _gwn_, Norman _gunna_). The men wore gowns in the Middle Ages, the women at all times. =Grabatus=, R. (κράβατος). A sort of low framework, consisting of a network of cords, used to support a mattress; it was the least comfortable kind of bed; whence the French word _grabat_ to denote a sorry kind of bed. =Gradient=, Her. Walking. =Gradus=, R. A flight of steps leading to a temple; the tiers of seats in a theatre or amphitheatre, &c. =Græcostasis.= A part of the Roman forum, where the Greek ambassadors stood to hear the debates. =Graffiti=, It. Lines drawn with a graver upon clay or plaster. (See SGRAFFITI.) =Grafted=, Her. Inserted and fixed. =Grand-garde=, Plate armour to cover the breast and left shoulder, worn outside the usual armour in jousting at tournaments. =Grand Quarters=, Her. The four primary divisions of a shield when it is divided per cross or quarterly. =Graphite.= Plumbago. =Graphometer.= A mathematical instrument, called also a semicircle. =Graphotype.= A method of producing book illustrations for printing along with type, without the art of an engraver. =Grass-green.= (See CHRYSOCOLLA.) =Graver= or =Burin=. An engraving-tool. (See CHALCOGRAPHY.) =Grazioso=, It. In Music, an intimation to perform the music smoothly and gracefully. =Greaves.= Plate armour for the legs. =Grece=, O. E. A step, or flight of stairs. (See GRYSE.) =Greeces=, Her. Steps. =Greek Lace.= A kind of cutwork, described under LACE (q.v.). =Green=, in Christian art, or the emerald, is the colour of spring; emblem of hope, particularly hope in immortality; and of victory, as the colour of the palm and the laurel. =Green.= (See CARBONATES OF COPPER, OXIDES OF COPPER, SCHEELE’S GREEN, SAP GREEN, CHROME GREEN, &c.) =Green Bice.= Green cinnabar. (See CHROME GREEN.) =Green Earth= (burnt terra verde) is a brown pigment, very useful for landscape painting in oil colours; it is not affected by exposure to strong light or impure air. =Green Lakes.= (See PURPLE LAKES.) =Green Verditer.= (See VERDITER.) =Gregorian Calendar.= The calendar as reformed by Pope Gregory XIII. in 1582. =Gregorian Music.= A collection of chants, originally compiled by Gregory I. (the Great), A. D. 600. “It was observed by St. Gregory, a great musician of his time, that the _Ambrosian Chants_, handed down traditionally to a great extent, had become corrupted; he therefore subjected them to revision, and added other modes and scales to those four which Ambrose had retained. This was done by taking away the upper tetrachord from the Ambrosian scales, and placing it below the lower tetrachord.” (See _Music_, by the Rev. J. R. Lunn, B.D., in _Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_.) =Grey=, in Christian art, the colour of ashes, signified mourning, humility, and innocence accused. =Greybeards=, O. E. Stone-ware drinking-jugs, with a bearded face on the spout. =Gridiron= (It. _la graticola_). The attribute of St. Lawrence. =Griffin.= (See GRYPHUS.) =Grinding.= Pigments are generally ground in poppy or nut oil, which dry best and do not deaden the colours. It is essential that these oils be in the purest state, bright and clear. A good oil ought to be so dry in five or six days that the picture can be repainted. =Griphus=, Gr. and R. (γρῖφος). Literally, a fishing-net, and thence a riddle propounded by guests at a banquet. =Grisaille=, Fr. A style of painting _in grey_, by which solid bodies are represented as if in relief; adapted for architectural subjects. [Illustration: Fig. 366. Groat of Edward III.] =Groat.= An old English silver coin, equal to 4_d._ In England, in the Saxon times, no silver coin larger in value than a penny was struck, nor after the Conquest till the reign of Edward III., who about 1351 coined _grosses_ or great pieces, which went for 4_d._ each; and so the matter stood till the reign of Henry VII., who in 1504 first coined shillings. =Grogram= (Fr. _gros-grains_). A coarse woollen cloth with large woof and a rough pile. Grogram gowns were worn by countrywomen, 15th to 17th centuries. _Fairholt_ says that the mixed liquor called _grog_ obtained its name from the admiral who ordered it to be given to the sailors; who from wearing a grogram coat was called “Old Grog.” =Groin=, Arch. The angular curve formed at the intersection of a vaulted roof; the line made by the intersection of arched vaults crossing each other at any angle. (See Fig. 173.) =Grolier Scroll.= A beautiful and elaborate style of decoration for bookbinding, introduced by _Grolier_, a celebrated patron of bookbinding, in the 15th century. =Groma= and =Gruma=, R. A quadrant; an instrument used by land-surveyors. In the plural, _grumæ_ denotes the intersection of two roads cutting each other at right angles. [Illustration: Fig. 367. Grotesque from a stall in Rouen Cathedral.] =Grotesques=, Arch. (It. _grottesco_, the style in which grottoes were ornamented). Figures of a monstrous, comic, or obscene character, which were spread in profusion over the façades of churches by mediæval artists (_ymaigiers_); in stone and in wood; on choir-stalls and the wood-work and wainscoting of interiors. Figs. 367, 368 represent figures upon the stalls and columns in Rouen Cathedral. [Illustration: Fig. 368. Grotesque decoration from the Cathedral at Rouen.] =Grounds= or =Priming=. In painting, the first coat of colour laid all over the canvas, upon which the picture is to be painted. =Grus=, Lat. (_a crane_). A constellation of the southern hemisphere. =Gry.= A measure containing ⅒ of a _line_. A _line_ is ⅒ of a _digit_, a _digit_ is ⅒ of a foot, and a (philosophical) foot is ⅓ of a pendulum whose vibrations, in the latitude of 45°, are each equal to one second of time, or ¹⁄₆₀ of a minute. [Illustration: Fig. 369. Heraldic Griffin.] =Gryphus=, =Griffin=, Gen. (γρύψ). A fabulous animal, represented with the body of a lion, and the head and wings of an eagle. In ancient art it was applied in the decoration of friezes, one of the finest specimens being that at the temple of Antoninus and Faustina at Rome. It was a heraldic symbol among the Scythians, and is the ancient crest of the city of London. As an emblem this monster symbolizes the destroying power of the gods. =Gryse=, =Grece=, =Tredyl=, or =Steyre=, O. E. A step, a flight of stairs. =Guacos= or =Huacos=, Peruv. The consecrated burial-places of the ancient Peruvians. [Illustration: Fig. 370. Passant guardant.] =Guardant=, Her. Looking out from the field, as the lions in Fig. 370. =Guazzo=, It. A hard and durable kind of distemper painting, used by the ancients, calculated to resist damp and to preserve the colours. [Illustration: Fig. 371. Gubbio Cup, 1519. Louvre Museum.] =Gubbio=. A celebrated Italian botega of ceramic art, founded in 1498 by Giorgio Andreoli, the reputed inventor of the secret of metallic lustres. Fig. 371 is a cup bearing upon a fillet the inscription “_Ex o Giorg._,” “of the fabric of Giorgio.” =Gubernaculum=, R. (_guberno_, to direct). A rudder; originally an oar with a broad blade, which was fixed, not at the extremity, but at each side of the stern. A ship had commonly two rudders joined together by a pole. =Guelfs= or =Guelphs=. (See GHIBELLINES.) [Illustration: Fig. 372. Badge of the Gueux.] =Gueux, Badge of the.= The celebrated Netherlandish confraternity of the Gueux (or Beggars), which had its origin in a jest spoken at a banquet, assumed not only the dress, but the staff, wooden bowl, and wallet of the professional beggar, and even went so far as to clothe their retainers and servants in mendicant garb. The badge represents two hands clasped across and through a double wallet. =Guidon=, Fr. (1) The silk standard of a regiment; (2) its bearer. =Guige=, Her. A shield-belt worn over the right shoulder. =Guild=, O. E. (Saxon _guildan_, to pay). A fraternity or company, every member of which was _gildare_, i. e. had to pay something towards the charges. Merchant guilds first became general in Europe in the 11th century. (See _Anderson’s History of Commerce_, vol. i. p. 70.) [Illustration: Fig. 373. Base ornamented with guilloche.] =Guilloche.= A series of interlaced ornaments on stone, resembling network. [Illustration: Fig. 374. Band with the guilloche ornament.] =Guilloched.= Waved or engine-turned. =Guimet’s Ultramarine.= A valuable substitute for the more costly preparation. It is transparent and durable. =Guimet’s Yellow= is the deutoxide of lead and antimony, useful in enamel or porcelain painting. =Guinea.= An English coin first struck _temp._ Car. II., and so called because the gold was brought from the coast of _Guinea_ (the Portuguese _Genahoa_). It originally bore the impress of an elephant. The sovereign superseded it in 1817. =Guisarme.= An ancient weapon of the nature of a pike or bill. (See _Meyrick_.) =Guitar= (Spanish _guitarra_). A stringed musical instrument, played as a harp with the fingers. =Gules=, Her. (Fr. _gueules_). Red, represented in engraving by perpendicular lines. =Gum-arabic= dissolved in water constitutes the well-known vehicle for water-colour painting—_gum-water_. =Gunter’s Line.= A line of logarithms graduated on a ruler, for practical use in the application of logarithms to the ordinary calculations of an architect, builder, &c. Other similar instruments invented by the great mathematician (+ 1626) are _Gunter’s Quadrant_ and _Gunter’s Scale_, used by seamen and for astronomical calculations. =Gurgustium=, R. A cave, hovel, or any dark and wretched abode. =Gussets= were small pieces of chain mail at the openings of the joints beneath the arms. =Guttæ=, Arch. (drops). Small conical-shaped ornaments, used in the Doric entablature immediately under the mutule beneath the triglyph. (See Fig. 265.) =Guttée=, Her. (See GOUTTÉE.) Sprinkled over. =Gutturnium=, R. (_guttur_, the throat). A water-jug or ewer; it was a vessel of very elegant form, and was used chiefly by slaves for pouring water over the hands of the guests before and after a meal. (See ABLUTIONS.) =Guttus=, R. (_gutta_, a drop). A vessel with a very narrow neck and mouth, by means of which liquids could be poured out drop by drop; whence its name. It was especially used in sacrifices, and is a common object upon coins of a religious character. =Gutty=, Her. Charged or sprinkled with _drops_. =Gwerre=, O. E. The choir of a church. =Gymmers=, O. E. Hinges. (The word is still used.) =Gymnasium=, Gr. (γυμνάσιον; γυμνὸς, stripped). A large building used by the Greeks, answering to the Roman _palæstra_, in which gymnastics were taught and practised. There were also attached to it assembly rooms for rhetoricians and philosophers. =Gynæceum=, Gr. (from γυνὴ, a woman). That part of the Greek house which was set apart for the women. (See DOMUS.) =Gypsum= (Gr. γύψος). The property of rapid consolidation renders gypsum very available for taking casts of works of art, &c. It is much employed in architectural ornaments. The gypsum of Paris is called _Montmartrite_, and forms the best _Plaster of Paris_, as it resists the weather better than purer sorts. It contains 17 per cent. of carbonate of lime. (See also ALABASTER.) =Gyron=, Her. A triangular figure, one of the subordinaries. [Illustration: Fig. 375. Gyronny.] =Gyronny=, Her. A field divided into gyrons. H. =H=, as an old Latin numeral, denotes 200, and with a dash above it (H̅) 200,000. =Habena=, R. (_habeo_, to hold). A term with numerous meanings, all of which were connected more or less with the idea of a thong or strap. In the singular, it signifies a halter; in the plural, _habenæ_, reins. =Habergeon=. A coat of mail, or breastplate. =Habited=, Her. Clothed. =Hackbut= or =Hagbut=. Arquebus with a hooked stock. =Hackney Coach= (from the French _coche-à-haguenée_). The _haguenée_ was a strong kind of horse formerly let out on hire for short journeys. =Hadrianea=, R. Small buildings in which Christians were allowed to meet, in virtue of an edict granted in their favour by the Emperor Hadrian. =Hæmatinon=, R. (αἱμάτινον, of blood). A kind of glassy substance of a beautiful red, and susceptible of taking a fine polish. It was used to make small cubes for mosaic or small works of art. =Hagiographa= (_sacred writings_). A name applied to those books of Scripture which, according to the Jewish classification, held the lowest rank in regard to inspiration. These are the books of Ruth, Psalms, Job, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Lamentations, Daniel, Esther, Ezra, and Chronicles. =Hair.= The _Assyrian_ monarchs are represented with beard elaborately plaited, and hair falling in ringlets on the shoulder, which may have been partly artificial, like that of the Persian monarchs, who, according to Xenophon, wore a wig. Both the hair and beard were dyed, and the eyes blackened with kohl, &c. (_Layard._) The _Egyptians_ kept the head shaved, and wore wigs and beard-boxes. The _Hebrews_ generally wore the hair short, but the horse-guards of King Solomon “daily strewed their heads with gold dust, which glittered in the sun.” (_Josephus._) The ancient _Greeks_ wore their hair long. The _Athenians_ wore it long in childhood, had it cut short at a solemn ceremony when they became eighteen years of age, and afterwards allowed it to grow, and wore it rolled up in a knot on the crown of the head, fastened with golden clasps (_crobylus_, _corymbus_). Women wore bands or coifs (_sphendone_, _kekryphalus_, _saccus_, _mitra_). Youths and athletes are represented with short hair. The favourite colour was blonde (_xanthus_); black was the most common. The ancient _Romans_ also wore long hair; about 300 B.C. the practice of wearing it short came in (_cincinnus_, _cirrus_). The Roman women anciently dressed their hair very plainly, but in the Augustan period adopted some extravagant fashions. Each of the gods is distinguished by his peculiar form of hair: that of Jupiter is long and flowing; Mercury has close curling hair, &c. The _Danes_, _Gauls_, and _Anglo-Saxons_ wore long flowing hair, and the shearing of it was a punishment: when Julius Cæsar conquered the Gauls, he cut off their long hair. Among the early _Frankish_ kings long hair was the privilege of the blood royal. From the time of _Clovis_ the French nobility wore short hair, but as they grew less martial the hair became longer. François I. introduced short hair, which prevailed until the reign of Louis XIII., which was followed by the period of periwigs and perukes of Louis XIV. The variations from the Conquest to the last generation in _England_ are so striking and frequent that each reign may be distinguished by its appropriate head-dress. (Consult _Fairholt’s Costume in England_, _Planché’s Cyclopædia of Costume_, &c.) =Hair-cloth.= (See CILICIUM.) =Hair Pencils= or =Brushes= are made of the finer hairs of the marten, badger, polecat, camel, &c., mounted in quills or white iron tubes. The round brushes should swell all round from the base, and diminish upwards to a fine point, terminating with the uncut ends of the hair. (See FITCH.) =Halbert.= A footman’s weapon in the form of a battle-axe and pike at the end of a long staff. =Halcyon.= The ancient name of the _Alcedo_ or king-fisher; hence— =Halcyon Days=, i. e. the calm and peaceful season when the king-fisher lays its eggs in nests close by the brink of the sea; i. e. seven days before and as many after the winter solstice. “Seven winter dayes with peacefull calme possest _Alcyon_ sits upon her floating nest.” (_Sandy’s Ovid, Met._ b. xi.) =Hall-marks.= The Goldsmiths of London formed their company in 1327, and were incorporated by charter in 1392. The hall-marks, in the order of their introduction, are as follows:—1. The leopard’s head, called the king’s mark. 2. The maker’s mark, originally a rose, crown, or other emblem with or without initials. 3. The annual letter, in the order of the alphabet from A to V, omitting J and U. This mark is changed every twenty years. 4. The lion _passant_, added in 1597. 5. Instead of the leopard’s head (1) for the king’s mark, the lion’s head _erased_, introduced in 1697 when the standard was changed, and, 6, a figure of Britannia substituted for the lion _passant_ (4) at the same time. Plate with this mark is called _Britannia_ plate. The old standard (of 11 oz. 2 dwt. pure gold in the lb.) was restored in 1719. 7. The head of the reigning sovereign in profile, ordered in 1784, when a fresh duty was laid upon plate. =Halling=, O. E. Tapestry. =Hallowmas=, Chr. The feast of All Souls, or the time about All Souls’ and All Saints’ Days, viz. the 1st and 2nd of November; and thence to CANDLEMAS, or the 2nd of February. =Halmos=, Gr. and R. A vessel of round form, supported on a raised stand entirely distinct from the vessel itself; it was used as a drinking-cup. =Halmote= or =Halimote=. The Saxon name for a meeting of tenants, now called a _court baron_. =Halteres= (Gr. ἁλτῆρες), in the gymnastic exercises of the Greeks and Romans, were masses of lead, iron, or stone held in the hands to give impetus in leaping, or used as dumb-bells. =Ham= (Scotch _hame_). A Saxon word for a place of dwelling, _a home_; hence “HAMLET.” “This word,” says Stow, “originally meant the seat of a freeholder, comprehending the mansion-house and adjacent buildings.” =Hama=, Gr. and R. (ἄμη or ἅμη). A bucket used for various purposes. =Hamburg White.= (See CARBONATE OF LEAD, BARYTES.) =Hames= or =Heames=, Her. Parts of horses’ harness. =Hammer= or =Martel=, Her. Represented much like an ordinary hammer. =Hamus= or =Hamulus=. A fish-hook. [Illustration: Fig. 376. Hanaper.] =Hanaper=, O. E. (Mod. _hamper_). A wicker basket. (Fig. 376.) Writs in the Court of Chancery were thrown into such a basket (_in hanaperio_), and the office was called from that circumstance the Haniper Office. It was abolished in 1842. =Handkerchiefs= embroidered in gold were presented and worn as favours in the reign of Elizabeth. Paisley handkerchiefs were introduced in 1743. [Illustration: Fig. 377. Bronze door-handle. Roman.] =Handle=, Gen. In antiquity the leaves of a door were fitted with handles like those of our own day. Fig. 377 represents a bronze handle consisting of a double ring. Of these, the inner one could be raised so as to allow a person’s hand to take hold of it, and draw the door his own way. This work of art is at the present time in the Museum of Perugia. =Handruffs=, O. E. Ruffles. =Handseax=. The Anglo-Saxon dagger. =Hanger=, O. E. A small sword worn by gentlemen with morning dress in the 17th century. =Hangers= or =Carriages=, O. E. Appendages to the sword-belt from which the sword hung, often richly embroidered or jewelled. =Hanselines= (15th century). Loose breeches. (See SLOP.) =Haphe=, Gr. and R. (ἁφὴ i.e. a grip). The yellow sand with which wrestlers sprinkled themselves over after having been rubbed with oil. The object of this sprinkling was to enable the wrestlers to take a firmer grasp one of the other. =Hara=, Gr. and R. A pig-sty, especially for a breeding sow. The term also denoted a pen for geese. =Hare=, Chr. In Christian iconography the hare symbolizes the rapid course of life. Representations of this animal are met with on lamps, engraved stones, sepulchral stones, &c. =Harlequin= (It. _Harlequino_, or little Harlay). The name is derived from that of a famous Italian comedian, who appeared in Paris in the time of Henri III., and from frequenting the house of M. de Harlay was so called by his companions. (_Ménage_.) =Harmamaxa=, Gr. and R. (ἁρμ-άμαξα). A four-wheeled carriage or litter covered overhead, and enclosed with curtains. It was generally large, and drawn by four horses, and richly ornamented. It was principally used for women and children. =Harmonica.= A musical instrument consisting of a number of glass cups fixed upon a revolving spindle, and made to vibrate by friction applied to their edges. These “musical glasses” are described in a work published in 1677. A _harpsichord-harmonica_ is a similar instrument, in which finger-keys like those of a pianoforte are used. (See the article in _Encyl. Brit._, 8th edition.) =Harmonium.= A musical instrument having a key-board like a pianoforte, and the sounds (which resemble those of organ pipes) produced by the vibration of thin tongues of metal. =Harp.= The EGYPTIANS had various kinds of harps, some of which were elegantly shaped and tastefully ornamented. The name of the harp was _buni_. Its frame had no front pillar. The harps represented on the monuments varied in size from 6½ feet high downwards, and had from 4 to 28 strings. A beautiful Egyptian harp, in the Louvre collection, is of triangular shape with 21 strings, but, like all the harps represented on the monuments, it has no fore-pillar. The strings were of catgut. ASSYRIAN sculptures also represent harps. These also had no front pillar, and were about 4 feet high, with ornamental appendages on the lower frame. The upper frame contained the sound-holes and the tuning-pegs in regular order. The strings are supposed to have been of silk. The GREEK harp, called _kinyra_, resembled the Assyrian, and is represented with 13 strings: it is an attribute of Polyhymnia. The ANGLO-SAXONS called the harp the _gleo-beam_, or “glee-wood;” and it was their most popular instrument. King David playing a harp is represented on an A.S. monument of the 11th century. It was the favourite instrument of the GERMAN and CELTIC bards, and of the SCANDINAVIAN skalds. It is represented with 12 strings and 2 sound-holes, and having a fore-pillar. A curious IRISH harp of the 8th century, or earlier, is represented in Bunting’s “Ancient Music of Ireland,” having no fore-pillar. The FINNS had a harp (_harpu_, _kantele_) with a similar frame, devoid of a front pillar. In CHRISTIAN ART a harp is the attribute of King David and of St. Cecilia. St. Dunstan is also occasionally represented with it. In Heraldry the harp is the device and badge of Ireland. The Irish harp of gold with silver strings on a blue field forms the third quarter of the royal arms. =Harpaga=, =Harpago=, Gr. and R. A general term, including any kind of hook for grappling; more particularly a military engine invented by Pericles, and introduced into the Roman navy by Duillius. It consisted of a joist about two yards and a half long, each face of which was coated with iron, and having at one end a harpoon of iron or bronze; the other end was fitted with an iron ring, to which a rope was attached, so as to enable it to be drawn back when it had once grappled a ship or its rigging. _Harpago_ or _wolf_ was the term applied to a beam armed with a harpoon, which was employed to break down the tops of walls, or widen a breach already made. [A flesh-hook used in cookery to take boiled meat out of the caldron.] =Harpastum=, R. A small ball employed for a game in which the players formed two sides. They stationed themselves at some distance from a line traced on the ground or sand where the _harpastum_ was placed. At a given signal each player threw himself upon the ball, in order to try and send it beyond the bounds of the opposite party. =Harpies=, Gen. (Ἅρπυιαι, i. e. the Snatchers). Winged monsters, daughters of Neptune and Terra, three in number, viz. _Aëllo_ (the tempest), _Ocypetê_ (swift-flying), and _Cêlêno_; representing the storm-winds. They had the faces of old women, a vulture’s body, and huge claws; they were the representatives of the Evil Fates, and the rulers of storms and tempests. In Christian iconography the Harpies symbolize the devil and repentance. [In the so called “Harpy tomb” in the British Museum they are represented carrying off Camiro and Clytia, the daughters of Pandarus of Crete, as a punishment for his complicity with Tantalus in stealing ambrosia and nectar from the table of the gods.] =Harpsichord.= A musical instrument intermediate between the _spinet_, _virginals_, &c., and the _pianoforte_, which supplanted it in the 18th century. It may be described as a horizontal harp enclosed in a sonorous case, the wires being struck with jacks armed with crow-quills, and moved with finger-keys. =Harquebus.= An improvement of the hand-gun introduced in the 15th century, applying the invention of the _trigger_. =Hart.= A stag in its _sixth_ year. =Hart= or =Hind=, in Christian art, originally typified solitude and purity of life. It was the attribute of St. Hubert, St. Julian, and St. Eustace. [Illustration: Fig. 378. Heraldic Hart.] =Hart=, Her. A stag with attires; the female is a hind. [Illustration: Fig. 379. Hasta—Roman ceremonial spear.] =Hasta= (Gr. ἔγχος). A spear used as a pike for thrusting, or as a missile for hurling from the hand, or as a bolt from an engine. Homer defines the spear as “a pole heavy with bronze.” The _hasta amentata_, for hurling, had a leathern thong for a handle (_amentum_) in the middle; _hasta pura_ was a spear without a head, and was a much-valued decoration given to a Roman soldier who had saved a citizen’s life; _hasta celibarium_ was a spear which, having been thrust into the body of a gladiator as he lay dead in the arena, was afterwards used at marriages to part the hair of the bride. A spear was set up before a place where sales by auction were going on, and an auction-room was hence called HASTARIUM. Different kinds of spear were the _lancea_ of the Greeks; the _pilum_, peculiar to the Romans; the _veru_, _verutum_, or “spit,” of the Roman light infantry; the _gæsum_, a Celtic weapon adopted by the Romans; the _sparrus_, our English spar or _spear_, the rudest missile of the whole class; and many others mentioned under their respective headings in this work. =Hasta Pura.= In Numismatics, a headless spear or long sceptre, an attribute of all the heathen deities; a symbol of the goodness of the gods and the conduct of providence, equally mild and forcible. =Hastarium=, R. A room in which sales were made _sub hasta publica_, that is, by public auction, under the public authority indicated by the spear. The term also denoted a list or catalogue of sale. =Hastile=, R. (_hasta_). The shaft of a spear, and thence the spear itself, a goad, &c. [Illustration: Fig. 380. Costume of a nobleman in Venice (16th century), showing the Hat of the period.] =Hat= (A.S. _haet_, a covering for the head). Froissart describes hats and plumes worn at Edward’s court in 1340, when the Garter order was instituted. Hats were originally of a scarlet-red colour, and made of “a fine kinde of haire matted thegither.” A remarkable series of changes in the fashion of hats is given in _Planché’s Encyclopædia of Costume_. Our illustration represents a young Venetian noble of the Middle Ages. (See also the illustrations to POURPOINT, BIRETTA, BOMBARDS, CALASH, CAPUCHON, CHAPEAU, CORONETS, &c.) =Hatchment=, Her. (for _atchievement_). An achievement of arms in a lozenge-shaped frame, placed upon the front of the residence of a person lately deceased, made to distinguish his rank and position in life. =Hauberk= (Germ. _Hals-berg_, a throat-guard). A military tunic of ringed mail, of German origin, introduced in the 12th century. =Haumudeys=, O. E. A purse. [Illustration: Fig. 381. Hauriant.] =Hauriant=, Her. Said of fishes upright, “sucking the air.” (Fig. 381.) =Hautboy.= A wind instrument of the reed kind. =Haversack= (Fr. _havre-sac_). A soldier’s knapsack. =Hawk=, Egyp. This bird symbolizes the successive new births of the rising sun. The hawk is the bird of Horus. It stood, at certain periods, for the word _God_, and, with a human head, for the word _soul_. The sun (_Ra_) is likewise represented with a hawk’s head, ornamented with the disk. =Head-piece.= An ornamental engraving at the commencement of a new chapter in a book. =Head-rail.= The head-dress worn by Saxon and Norman ladies. =Healfang=, A.S. The pillory, or a fine in commutation. “_Qui falsum testimonium dedit, reddat regi vel terræ domino_ HEALFANG.” =Heang-loo=, Chinese. An incense-burner. [Illustration: Fig. 382. Inscription, with hearts, found at Alise.] =Heart.= On numerous Christian tombs hearts maybe seen sculptured. Many archæologists have attempted to explain their meaning as symbols, but without entering on an unprofitable discussion of that question, it may be noticed that, in many cases, what archæologists have supposed to be hearts were nothing but ivy-leaves, which served as marks of separation between different words or sentences. Fig. 382 represents an inscription at Alise in which ivy-leaves figure, together with an ornament which some would insist were flames, if they were to take the leaves for hearts. When inscriptions, however, are defaced, the shape of the leaves is not nearly so distinguishable as in the figure. [One of the most frequent methods in which this emblem is introduced in Christian art is that the Saviour, or the Virgin Mary, is represented opening the breast to display the living heart—the natural symbol of Love, Devotion, or Sorrow. The Heart is an attribute of St. Theresa, St. Augustine, and other saints. The flaming heart is the emblem of charity. The heart pierced by seven daggers symbolizes the “seven sorrows” of Mary.] =Hecatesia=, Gr. (Ἑκατήσια). Festivals held at Athens in honour of Hecatê. =Hecatomb=, Gr. and R. (ἑκατόμβη). A sacrifice offered in Greece and Rome under special circumstances, and at which a hundred head of cattle (ἑκατὸν) were slain; whence the name of the festival. [The term was generally applied to _all_ great sacrifices, of much less extent than that implied by its etymological meaning.] =Hecatompylæ=, Gr. (ἑκατόμ-πυλαι). The city with a hundred gates; a name given to the Egyptian Thebes. =Hecatonstylon=, =Hecatonstyle=, Gr. and R. (ἑκατὸν and στῦλος). A portico or colonnade with a hundred columns. =Hecte= or =Hectæus=, Gr. = a sixth (R. _modius_). In dry measure, the sixth part of the medimnus, or nearly two gallons English. Coins of uncertain value bore the same name; they were sixths of other units of value. =Hegira= (Arabic _hajara_, to desert). The flight from Mecca, 16th July, A. D. 622, from which Mohammedan chronology is calculated. =Helciarius=, R. One who tows a boat. He was so called because he passed a rope round his body in the way of a belt, the rope thus forming a noose (_helcium_). =Helepolis=, Gr. and R. (ἑλέ-πολις, the taker of cities). A lofty square tower, on wheels, used in besieging fortified places. It was ninety cubits high and forty wide; inside were nine stories, the lower containing machines for throwing great stones; the middle, large catapults for throwing spears; and the highest other machines. It was manned with 200 soldiers. The name was afterwards applied to other siege engines of similar construction. =Helical=, Arch. (ἕλιξ, a wreath). A spiral line distinguished from _spiral_. A staircase is _helical_ when the steps wind round a cylindrical newel; whereas the _spiral_ winds round a cone, and is constantly narrowing its axis. The term is applied to the volutes of a Corinthian capital. (See HELIX.) =Heliochromy= (Gr. ἥλιος, the sun, and χρῶμα, colour). Process of taking coloured photographs. =Heliopolites=, Egyp. One of the nomes or divisions of Lower Egypt, capital An, the sacred name for Heliopolis near Cairo. =Heliotrope.= The _Hæmatite_ or _blood-stone_; a siliceous mineral of a dark green colour, commonly variegated with bright red spots. =Heliotropion=, Gr. A kind of sun-dial. (See HOROLOGIUM.) =Helix=, Arch. (ἕλιξ, anything spiral). A small volute like the tendril of a vine placed under the Corinthian abacus. They are arranged in couples springing from one base, and unite at the summit. =Hellebore.= A famous purgative medicine among the ancient Greeks and Romans. Philosophers prepared for work by drinking an infusion of the black hellebore, like tea. The best grew in the island of Anticyra in the Ægean Sea, and the gathering of it was accompanied by superstitious rites. [Illustration: Fig. 383. Helm of a Gentleman or Esquire.] =Helm=, =Helmet=, Her. Now placed as an accessory above a shield of arms. Modern usage distinguishes helms according to the rank of the wearer. The term _helm_ was applied by both Saxons and Normans, in the 11th century, to the conical steel cap with a nose-guard, which was the common head-piece of the day, and is depicted in contemporary illuminations, sculptures, and tapestries. Afterwards it was restricted to the _casque_, which covered the whole head, and had an aventaile or vizor for the face. The use of the _helm_ finally ceased in the reign of Henry VIII. [Illustration: Fig. 384. Helmet or Burgonet of the 16th century.] =Helmet.= The diminutive of HELM, first applied to the smaller head-piece which superseded it in the 15th century. (See GALEA, ARMET, BASCINET, BURGONET, CASQUE, CHAPELLE LE FER, &c.) =Hemi-= (Gr. ἡμι-). Half; used in composition of words like the Latin _semi_ or _demi_. =Hemichorion= (ἡμιχόριον). (See DICHOREA.) =Hemicyclium=, Gr. and R. (ἡμι-κύκλιον). A semicircular alcove, to which persons resorted for mutual conversation. The term was also used to denote a sun-dial. =Hemina=, Gr. and R. (ἡμίνα, i. e. half). A measure of capacity containing half a sextarius (equal to the Greek _cotyle_ = half a pint English). =Hemiolia=, Gr. and R. (ἡμι-ολία, i. e. one and a half). A vessel of peculiar construction employed especially by Greek pirates. [Illustration: Fig. 385. Sun-dial (Hemisphærium).] =Hemisphærium=, R. A sun-dial in the form of a hemisphere; whence its name. (Fig. 385.) =Hemlock=, the _Conium maculatum_ of botanists, was the poison used by the ancient Greeks for the despatch of state prisoners. Its effects are accurately described in Plato’s description of the death of Socrates. =Heptagon= (Gr. ἑπτὰ, seven, and γώνη, an angle). A seven-sided figure. =Hepteris=, Gr. and R. (ἑπτ-ήρης). A ship of war with seven ranks of oars. =Heræa.= Important Greek festivals, celebrated in honour of Hera in all the towns of Greece. At Argos, every fifth year, an immense body of young men in armour formed a procession, preceded by a HECATOMB of oxen, to the great temple of Hera, between Argos and Mycenæ, where the oxen were slaughtered, and their flesh distributed to the citizens. =Herald= (Germ. _Herold_). An officer of arms. The heralds of England were incorporated by Richard III. The college now consists of three kings of arms, six heralds, and four pursuivants. The office of Earl Marshal, the supreme head of the English heralds, is hereditary in the family of the Duke of Norfolk. There is another herald king styled “Bath,” who is specially attached to that order; he is not a member of the college. The chief herald of Scotland is styled Lord Lyon King of Arms; that of Ireland, Ulster King of Arms. _Chester herald_ is mentioned in the reign of Richard II., _Lancaster king of arms_ under Henry IV. (See MARSHAL, KINGS OF ARMS, &c.) =Heralds’ College.= A college of heralds was instituted in Rome by Numa Pompilius, and the office was held sacred among the most ancient Oriental nations. The institution was imported into England in the Middle Ages from Germany, a corporation of heralds, similar to the _collegium fetialium_ of Rome, having been established in England in 1483 by Richard III. (See _Pitiscus_, tom. i., and _Hofmann_, tom. ii.) =Hermæ=, Gr. and R. (Ἑρμαῖ). Hermæ, a kind of pedestals surmounted only by the head, or, in some cases, the bust of Hermes. Great reverence was felt for these statues. Houses at Athens had one before the doors; they were also placed in front of temples, near tombs, at street corners, or as mile-stones on the high roads. _Hermuli_, or small _Hermæ_, were a common ornament of furniture, as pilasters and supports. The same name is applied to similar statues having a man’s head. This statue was probably one of the first attempts of art at plastic representation. The _phallus_ and a pointed beard originally were essential parts of the symbol. In place of arms there were projections to hang garlands on. Then a mantle was introduced from the shoulders. Afterwards the whole torso was placed above the pillar; and finally the pillar itself was shaped into a perfect statue. All these gradations of the sculptor’s art are traceable in existing monuments. =Hermæa.= Festivals of Hermes, celebrated by the boys in the gymnasia, of which Hermes was the tutelary deity. =Hermeneutæ=, Chr. (ἑρμηνευταί). Literally, interpreters. In the earliest ages of the Church, these were officials whose duty it was to translate sacred discourses or portions of Holy Scripture. =Herne-pan=, O. E. (for _iron-pan_). Skull-cap worn under the helmet. =Heroum=, Gr. (ἡρῷον, i. e. place of a hero). A kind of ÆDICULA (q.v.), or small temple, which served as a funeral monument. Several representations of Roman HEROA may be seen in the British Museum, representing funeral feasts in a temple, carved on the face of a sarcophagus (in the Towneley collection). =Herring-bone Masonry.= Common in late Roman or early Saxon walls, where the ornamental lines take a sloping, parallel, zigzag direction. =Herygoud=, O. E. A cloak with hanging sleeves. =Heuk= or =Huque=, O. E. (1) Originally a cloak or mantle worn in the Middle Ages; then (2) a tight-fitting dress worn by both sexes. (_Fairholt_; see also _Planché_, _Encyclopædia_.) There appears to be great uncertainty as to the character of this garment. =Hexaclinon=, Gr. and R. (ἑξά-κλινος). A dining or banqueting couch capable of holding six persons. =Hexaphoron=, Gr. and R. (ἑξά-φορον). A litter carried by six porters. =Hexapterygon=, Chr. (ἑξα-πτέρυγον). A fan used by Greek Catholics, and so named because it has on it figures of seraphim with six wings. (See FAN and FLABELLUM.) =Hexastyle=, Arch. (ἑξά-στυλος). A façade of which the roof is supported by six columns. =Hexeris=, Gr. (ἑξ-ήρης). A vessel with six ranks of oars. =Hiberna= or =Hyberna=, R. A winter apartment. The halls in a Roman country house were built to face different ways according to the seasons; _verna_ and _autumnalis_ looked to the east; _hyberna_, to the west; _æstiva_, to the north. =Hidage=, =Hidegild=, A.S. A tax payable to the Saxon kings of England for every _hide_ of land. The word is indifferently used to signify exemption from such a tax. =Hidalgo= (Span. _hijo d’algo_, son of somebody). An obsolete title of nobility in Spain. =Hieroglyphics=, Egyp. (ἱερὸς, sacred, and γλύφω, to carve). Characters of Egyptian writing, the letters of which are figurative or symbolic. There are three kinds of Egyptian writing, the _hieroglyphic_, the _hieratic_, and the _demotic_. Clement of Alexandria says that in the education of the Egyptians three styles of writing are taught: the first is called the epistolary (_enchorial_ or _demotic_); the second the _sacerdotal_ (_hieratic_), which the sacred Scribes employ; and the third the _hieroglyphic_. Other nations, as for instance the ancient Mexicans, have likewise employed hieroglyphics. =Hieromancy=, Gr. and R. Divination from sacrifices. =Hieron=, Gr. (ἱερὸν, i. e. holy place). The whole of the sacred enclosure of a temple, which enclosed the woods, the building, and the priests’ dwelling-place. =High-warp Tapestry.= Made on a loom, in which the warp is arranged on a vertical plane,, as the Gobelins. _Low-warp tapestry_ is made on a flat loom, as at Aubusson, Beauvais, and other places. It is made more rapidly, and is inferior in beauty to the former. =Hilaria.= A great Roman festival in honour of Cybele, celebrated at the vernal equinox. It consisted chiefly of extravagant merry-making to celebrate the advent of spring. =Hippocampus=, Gr. and R. A fabulous animal, which had the fore-quarters of a horse ending in the tail of a dolphin. [It is imitated from the little “sea-horse” of the Mediterranean, now common in aquariums; and in mural paintings of Pompeii is represented attached to the chariot of Neptune.] =Hippocentaur.= A fabulous animal, composed of a human body and head attached to the shoulders of a horse. (See also CENTAUR.) =Hippocervus=, Chr. A fantastic animal, half horse and half stag; it personifies the pusillanimous man who throws himself without reflection into uncertain paths, and soon falls into despair at having lost himself in them. =Hippocratia=, Gr. Festivals held in Arcadia in honour of Neptune, who, by striking the earth with his trident, had given birth to the horse. [Illustration: Fig. 386. Ground-plan of a Hippodrome.] =Hippodromus=, Gr. and R. The Greek name for an arena for horse and chariot races, in contradistinction to the stadium, which served for foot-racing. Fig. 386 represents the hippodrome at Olympia, taken from Gell’s _Itinerary of the Morea_. The following is the key to the plan:—1, 2, and 3 are _carceres_; A, the space included between the stalls or _carceres_; B, starting-place for the chariots; C, the colonnade; D, the arena; E, the barrier; F, the goal; G, the space occupied by the spectators. [The word was also applied to the races themselves.] (See also CIRCUS.) =Hippogryph.= A mythical animal represented as a winged horse with the head of a _gryphon_. =Hippopera=, Gr. and R. (ἱππο-πήρα). A saddle-bag for travellers on horseback. (See ASCOPERA.) =Hippotoxotes= (ἱππο-τοξότης). A mounted archer. The Syrians, Persians, Medes, Greeks, and Romans had mounted archers among their light cavalry. =Histrio.= An actor. The GREEK dramas were originally represented on the stage by one performer, who represented in succession the different characters. Æschylus introduced a second and a third actor. The actors were all amateurs, and it was not until a later period that the histrionic profession became a speciality. Sophocles and Æschylus both probably acted their own plays. The ROMAN name for an actor, _histrio_, was formed from the Etruscan _hister_, a dancer. The earliest _histriones_ were dancers, and performed to the music of a flute; then Roman youths imitating them introduced jocular dialogue, and this was the origin of the drama. After the organization of the theatres, the _histriones_ were subjected to certain disabilities; they were a despised class, and excluded from the rights of citizenship. The greatest of _histriones_ in Rome were Roscius and Æsopus, who realized great fortunes by their acting. =Hobelarii=, Med. Lat. (See HOBLERS.) =Hoblers=, A.S. Feudal tenants bound to serve as light horsemen in times of invasion. =Hob-nob=, O. E. (Saxon _habban_, to have; _næbban_, not to have). “Hit or miss;” hence a common invitation to reciprocal drinking. =Hock-day=, =Hoke-day=, or =Hock Tuesday.= A holiday kept to commemorate the expulsion of the Danes. It was held on the second Tuesday after Easter. _Hocking_ consisted in stopping the highway with ropes, and taking toll of passers-by. =Hocus-pocus.= Probably a profane corruption of the words _hoc est corpus_ used in the Latin mass. =Holocaust.= A sacrifice entirely consumed by fire. =Holosericum= (Gr. ὅλον, all; σηρικόν, silk). A textile _all silk_. =Holy Bread=, =Holy Loaf=, or =Eulogia= (Lat. _panis benedictus_). This was not the eucharistic bread (which was used in the wafer form for the Communion), but ordinary leavened bread, blessed by the priest after mass, cut up into small pieces and given to the people. =Holy-bread-skep=, O. E. A vessel for containing the holy bread. =Holy Water Pot=, Chr. A metal vessel frequently found at the doors of Roman Catholic churches, to contain the consecrated water, which was dispensed with the _aspergillum_. =Holy Water Sprinkler= or =Morning Star=, O. E. A military club or flail set with spikes, which _sprinkled_ the blood about as the _aspergillum_ sprinkles the holy water. [Illustration: Fig. 387. Holy Water Stone (Renaissance).] =Holy Water Stone= or =Stoup=, Chr. A stone receptacle placed at the entrance of a church for holding the holy water. =Honeysuckle Pattern.= A common Greek ornament, fully described by its name. (See FLEURON.) [Illustration: Fig. 388. Honiton Guipure.] =Honiton Guipure.= Lace was made in Devonshire, as well as in other parts of England, of silk and coarse thread until 1567, when the fine thread now used was introduced, it is said, by Flemings, who had escaped from the persecutions of the Duke of Alva. (See OLD DEVONSHIRE.) Honiton lace owes its great reputation to the sprigs made separately on a pillow, and afterwards either worked in with the beautiful pillow net or sewn on it. This net was made of the finest thread from Antwerp, the price of which in 1790 was 70_l._ per pound. (See MECHLIN LACE, 18th century.) Heathcoat’s invention, however, dealt a fatal blow to the trade of the net-makers, and since then Honiton lace is usually made by uniting the sprigs on a pillow, or joining them with a needle by various stitches, as shown in the engraving. =Honour=, Legion of. Instituted 3rd June, 1802, by Napoleon I. as first consul. =Hoodman-blind.= Old English for BLINDMAN’S BUFF (q.v.). =Hoods= (A.S. _Hod_) were probably introduced by the Normans. They are constantly represented, with great variation of fashion, in illustrations of the 11th to 18th century, as a part of the costume of both sexes. They were finally displaced by caps and bonnets in the reign of George II. (See CHAPERON, COWL.) =Hoops=, in ladies’ dress, were introduced in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, displacing the FARTHINGALE; and were finally abandoned in that of George III. =Hop-harlot=, O. E. A very coarse coverlet for beds. =Horatia Pila=, R. A pillar erected at the west extremity of the Roman forum to receive the trophy of the spoils of the three Curiatii brought back by Horatius. =Horns.= A portion of a lady’s head-dress, mentioned in the 13th century. They appear to have been formed by the foldings of the _gorget_ or _wimple_, and a disposition of the hair on each side of the head into the form of rams’ horns. For the horned head-dress of the 15th century, see the illustration to CORONET. =Horologium.= (1) _Sundials_ preceded all other instruments for the measurement of time. The _gnomon_ or _stocheion_ of the GREEKS was a perpendicular staff or pillar, the shadow of which fell upon a properly marked ground; the _polos_ or _heliotropion_ consisted of a perpendicular staff, in a basin in which the twelve parts of the day were marked by lines. (2) The _clepsydra_ was a hollow globe, with a short neck, and holes in the bottom; it measured time by the escape of water, and was at first used like an hour-glass to regulate the length of speeches in the Athenian courts. The escape of water was stopped by inserting a stopper in the mouth, when the speaker was interrupted. Smaller _clepsydrata_ made of glass and marked with the hours were used in families. A precisely similar history applies to the _horologia_ of ROME. =Horreum= (dimin. _horreolum_), R. (1) Literally, a place in which ripe fruits were kept; a granary, or storehouse for grain; _horreum publicum_ was the public granary. (2) Any storehouse or depôt; _horrea subterranea_, cellars. (3) It was applied to places in which _works of art_ were kept, and Seneca calls his library a _horreum_. =Horse.= In Christian art, the emblem of courage and generosity; attribute of St. Martin, St. Maurice, St. George, and others. The Chinese have a _sacred horse_, which is affirmed to have appeared from a river to the philosopher Fou-hi, bearing instruction in eight diagrams of the characters proper to express certain abstract ideas. =Horse-shoe=, Arch. A form of the stilted arch elevated beyond half the diameter of the curve on which it is described. (See ARCH.) =Hortus= (dimin. _hortulus_), R. A pleasure-garden, park, and thence a kitchen garden; _horti pensiles_ were hanging gardens. The most striking features of a Roman garden were lines of large trees planted in regular order; alleys or walks (_ambulationes_) formed by closely clipped hedges of box, yew, cypress, and other ever greens; beds of acanthus, rows of fruit-trees especially of vines, with statues, pyramids, fountains, and summer-houses (_diætæ_). The Romans were fond of the art of cutting and twisting trees, especially box, into figures of animals, ships, &c. (_ars topiaria_). The principal garden-flowers seem to have been violets and roses, and they had also the crocus, narcissus, lily, gladiolus, iris, poppy, amaranth, and others. Conservatories and hot-houses are frequently mentioned by Martial. An ornamental garden was also called _viridarium_, and the gardener _topiarius_ or _viridarius_. The common name for a gardener is _villicus_ or _cultor hortorum_. (Consult _Smith’s Dict. of Ant._) =Hospitium=, R. (_hospes_, a guest). A general term to denote any place in which a traveller finds shelter, board, and lodging. [The word had a very wide meaning of _hospitality_, regulated in all its details by the religious and social and politic sentiments of the nations.] =Hostia=, R. (_hostio_, to strike). A victim offered in sacrifice. =Hot Cockles=, O. E. A game common in the Middle Ages. =Hot-houses=, O. E. The name for Turkish baths; 16th century. =Houppeland=, O. E. A very full loose upper garment with large hanging sleeves; 14th century. It was probably introduced from Spain, and was something like a cassock. =House.= (See DOMUS.) =Houseling Bread=, O. E., Chr. (See SINGING-BREAD, HOWSLING BELL.) =Housia= or =Housse=, O. E. An outer garment, combining cloak and tunic; a tabard. =Howsling Bell=, O. E. The bell which was rung before the Holy Eucharist, when taken to the sick. =Howve= (Saxon, from the old German _hoojd_). A hood. A common phrase quoted by Chaucer, “to set a man’s _howve_,” is the same as to “set his cap,” _cap_ him or cheat him. =Huacos.= (See GUACAS.) =Huircas= or =Pinchas=, Peruv. Subterranean aqueducts of the ancient Peruvians, distinct from the _barecac_ or open conduits. =Hullings= or =Hullyng=. Old English name for hangings for a hall, &c. =Humatio=, R. (_humo_, to bury). The act of burying, and thence any mode of interment whatever. =Hume’s Permanent White.= SULPHATE OF BARYTES (q.v.). =Humerale.= (See ANABOLOGIUM, AMICE.) =Humettée=, Her. Cut short at the extremities. [Illustration: Fig. 389. Hunting Flask of Jaspered Ware, 1554–1556. Louvre Museum.] =Hunting Flask.= M. Jacquemart thinks that that represented in Fig. 389 may be reasonably attributed to Palissy. It is glazed in green, and diapered with little flames of a deeper shade. Upon the body, in relief, is the escutcheon of the celebrated Anne de Montmorency, round it the collar of St. Michael, and on each side the Constable’s sword supported by a mailed arm and the motto of his house, “A Planos” (unwavering). A mask of Italian style and rayonnated suns complete the decoration of this curious sealed earthenware. =Hurst=, Her. A clump of trees. =Hurte=, Her. A blue roundle. =Hutch=, O. E. (Fr. _huche_). A locker, which generally stood at the foot of the bed, to contain clothes and objects of value. It was commonly used for a seat. =Huvette=, Fr. A close steel skull-cap. =Hyacinth.= (1) A precious stone of a violet colour. (2) The colour formed of red with blue, blue predominating. (3) The flower hyacinth among the ancient Greeks was the emblem of death. =Hyacinthia=, Gr. A national festival, celebrated annually at Amyclæ by the Amyclæans and Spartans, in honour of the hero Hyacinthus, who was accidentally killed by Apollo with a quoit. =Hyalotype= (ὕαλος, glass, and τυπεῖν, to print). An invention for printing photographs from the negative on to glass, instead of paper. =Hycsos=, Egyp. (lit. impure). A people of unknown origin, nomad tribes, but not savages, as has hitherto been believed, who came from Sinai, Arabia, and Syria. They are known as _Poimenes_ (the Shepherds), _Mentiou Sati_, _Asian Shepherds_, and even _Scourges_, from their invasion of some part of Eastern Egypt. [Illustration: Fig. 390. Hydra with seven heads.] =Hydra=, Gr. (a water-serpent). A hundred-headed monster of Greek mythology, sprung, like the Chimæra, from Typhon and Echidna; he was killed by Hercules. In Heraldry the hydra is represented with only nine heads. The illustration (Fig. 390) is of the device adopted by Curtio Gonzaga, an Italian poet, to symbolize the constancy of his love, with the motto, “If I kill it, more strong it revives.” =Hydraletês=, Gr. (1) A mill for grinding corn, driven by water. (2) A waterfall or current of water. =Hydraulis=, Gr. (ὕδρ-αυλις). A water-organ. The hydraulic organ, invented about B.C. 200, was really a pneumatic organ; the water was only used to force the air through the pipes. It is represented on a coin of Nero in the British Museum. Only ten pipes are given to it, and there is no indication of any key-board. It had eight stops, and consequently eight rows of pipes; these were partly of bronze, and partly of reed. It continued in use so late as the 9th century of our era. [Illustration: Fig. 391. Hydria, or Water-jug, in black glaze.] =Hydria=, Gr. A large, heavy vessel, used principally for holding a store of water. It is represented urn-shaped, with a broad base and a narrow mouth, sometimes with one and sometimes with two handles at the top, and smaller ones on the belly. The name is applied to other pails of bronze or silver, &c. (Fig. 391.) =Hydriaphoria=, Gr. (water-bearing). (1) Funereal ceremonies performed at Athens in memory of those who had perished in the deluges of Ogyges, Deucalion, &c. (2) A service exacted from married alien women in Athens by the female citizens, when they walked in the great procession at the Panathenaic feasts, and the former carried vessels of water for them. =Hydroceramic= (vessels), Gr. Vessels made of a porous clay, in which liquids were put for the purpose of cooling them; they were a kind of _alcarazas_. =Hydroscope.= Another name for the clepsydra. (See HOROLOGIUM.) =Hypæthral=, Gr. and R. (lit. under the sky, or in the open air). The term was applied to any building, especially a temple, the _cella_ of which had no roof. On the roofs of Egyptian temples, hypæthral temples are arranged with regard to astronomical observations, by which the calendar was regulated. [Illustration: Fig. 392. Hypæthrum.] =Hypæthrum=, Gr. and R. A grating or _claustra_ placed over the principal door of a temple for the purpose of admitting light into a part of the _cella_. Fig. 392 shows one of the bronze doors of the Pantheon at Rome, with its _hypæthrum_. =Hyperthyrum=, Gr. and R. (over the door). A frieze and cornice arranged and decorated in various ways for the decoration of the lintel of a door. =Hypocastanum.= Greek for CHESNUT BROWN (q.v.). [Illustration: Fig. 393. Hypocausis of a Roman villa at Tusculum.] =Hypocaust=, Gr. and R. (ὑπό-καυσις and ὑπό-καυστον). A furnace with flues running underneath the floor of an apartment or bath, for heating the air. Fig. 393 represents the sectional elevation of a bath-room discovered in a Roman villa at Tusculum. Fig. 394 represents a _hypocausis_ discovered at Paris in the old Rue de Constantine, near Notre Dame. [Illustration: Fig. 394. Hypocausis discovered at Paris.] =Hypogeum=, Arch. A building underground; a sepulchral vault. They form a principal part of Egyptian architecture of every period. The Greek term is a synonym of the Latin CONDITORIUM (q.v.) =Hyporchema=, Gr. A lively dance, accompanied by a mimic performance, at the festivals of Apollo among the Dorians. A chorus of singers danced round the altars, and others acted comic or playful scenes. =Hypotrachelium= or =Cincture=, Arch. The part of the Doric capital included between the astragal and the lower annulets or fillets. =Hysteria=, Gr. (from ὗς, a pig). Greek festivals, in which swine were sacrificed in honour of Venus. I. =Ich Dien.= I serve. The popular belief that Edward the Black Prince adopted this motto and the “Prince of Wales’s feathers,” at the battle of Cressy, from the blind King of Bohemia, is not sustained by investigation. It was at the battle of Poitiers that he first adopted this crest, joining to the family badge the old English word _Ic den_ (Theyn), “I serve,” in accordance with the words of the Apostle, “The heir, while he is a child, differeth nothing from a servant.” (_Mrs. Palliser_; _Historic Devices_.) =Ichnography.= The art of making maps or plans. =Iconic= (sc. _statues_), Gr. and R. (εἰκονικὰ, i. e.) Portrait-statues; especially statues raised in honour of athletes who had been victorious in the contests. =Iconoclasts=, Chr. Image-breakers. The name originated in the 8th or 9th century in the Eastern Empire, from which finally Theophilus banished all the painters and statuaries in 832. It has been since generally applied to those who, at various outbreaks of fanaticism, have destroyed ecclesiastical objects of art, and is especially applicable to the disciples of Savonarola in 1497, and to the Puritans of Scotland and England during the civil wars. =Iconography= (i. e. image-description). The science that deals with statues and images, bas-reliefs, busts, medals, &c. Thus we have an Egyptian, Greek, Roman, mediæval iconography, &c. The best work on this science is “Christian Iconography; or the History of Christian Art in the Middle Ages,” by M. Didron. The second volume contains a manual on the subject by a painter of the 12th century. =Iconostasis=, Chr. The screen of the chancel in ancient churches, so called because it was there that images (εἰκόνες) were displayed for the adoration of the faithful. =Ideal= and =Real.= “Any work of art which represents, not a material object, but the mental conception of a material object, is in the primary sense of the word _ideal_; that is to say, it represents an _idea_, not a _thing_. Any work of art which represents or realizes a material object is, in the primary sense of the term, _un-ideal_.” (_Modern Painters_, vol. ii. chap. 13.) In a practical sense an _ideal_ picture or statue (e. g. the Medici Venus) is not the portrait of an individual model, but the putting together of selected parts from several models. Raphael said, “To paint a beautiful woman I must see several, and I have also recourse to a certain _ideal_ in my mind;” and Guido said, “The beautiful and pure _idea_ must be in the mind, and then it is no matter what the model is.” =Ides=, =Idus=, R. One of the monthly divisions in the Roman year; it fell on the 15th in months of thirty-one days, excepting January, August, and December; in months with only twenty-nine or thirty days, the _ides_ fell on the 13th. The _kalends_ are the first of every month; the _nones_ are the 7th of March, May, July, and October, and the 5th of all the other months; and the ides always fall eight days later than the nones; and the days are reckoned backwards: thus the 13th of January is the ides of January, and the 14th of January the 19th day _ante diem_ (or before) the February kalends. The morrow of the ides was looked upon as an unlucky day (_nefas_). =Illapa=, Peruv. One of the divisions of the temple of the Sun (_Inti_) among the ancient Peruvians, so called because it was dedicated to the thunder (_Illapa_). (See INTI.) =Illumination.= This art originated simply in the application of _minium_ (or red lead) as a colour or ink, to decorate a portion of a piece of writing, the general text of which was in black ink. The term was retained long after the original red lead was superseded by the more brilliant _cinnabar_, or vermilion. Ornaments of all kinds were gradually added, and the term includes the practice of every kind of ornamental or ornamented writing. From the 3rd century Greek and Roman specimens exist of golden lettering upon purple or rose-coloured vellum, and the art prevailed wherever monasteries were founded. Anglo-Saxon and Irish MSS. of the 6th and 7th centuries exhibit a marvellous perfection, characterized by wonderfully minute interlacements of the patterns. Nearly all the best specimens of illumination were destroyed on the dissolution of monasteries. (Consult “_The Art of Illuminating_,” _by W. R. Timms_.) =Imagines a vestir=, It. Wooden images set up in Italian churches, with the heads and extremities finished, and the bodies covered with real drapery. =Imagines Majorum=, R. Portraits of ancestors, or family portraits; they usually consisted of waxen masks, which were kept in the cases of an _armarium_ or in an _ædicula_; or small statues which were carried before the corpse in a funeral procession. =Imbrex=, R. A ridge-tile of semi-cylindrical form, and thus distinct from the _tegula_, which was a flat tile. It was called _imbrex_ from its collecting the rain (_imber_). _Imbrex supinus_ was the name given to a channel or gutter formed of ridge-tiles laid on their backs. =Imbrications.= Architectural ornaments which take the form of fishes’ scales, or of segmental ridge-tiles (_imbrices_) which overlap; whence the name given to them. =Imbricatus=, R. Covered with flat and ridge-tiles (_tegulæ_ and _imbrices_). =Imbrothered=, O. E. Embroidered. =Imbrued=, Her. Stained with blood. =Immissarium=, R. (_immitto_, to send into). A stone basin or trough; any receptacle built upon the ground for the purpose of containing water supplied from the _castellum_. [Illustration: Fig. 395. Device of Philip and Mary. Arms of Tudor and Aragon Impaled (_Rayonnant_).] =Impale=, Her. To conjoin two separate coats of arms on one shield (as a husband’s and wife’s, &c.). The device of Queen Mary (Fig. 395) is the _impalement_ of the double Tudor rose with the arms of Catherine of Aragon. =Impannata=, It. Oiled paper. =Impasto=, It. The thickness of the body of pigment laid on to a painting. Rembrandt, Salvator Rosa, and others used a thick _impasto_; Raphael, Guido, and others, one extremely thin. =Imperial.= Anything adapted by its excellence for royal uses, or distinguished in size, is generally so called. (1) O. E. A sort of precious silk, wrought partly with gold, used by royalty and for ecclesiastical purposes, brought to England from Greece in the 12th century. (2) The largest kind of slate for roofing. (3) Paper 27 inches by 23. (4) Sp. The roof of a coach; hence, in English, a trunk made to fit the top of a carriage. (5) Russian. A gold coin of 10 silver roubles. =Impluviata=, R. A cloak of square shape and brown in colour, worn as a protection against rain. =Impluvium=, R. (1) A cistern on the floor of the atrium in a Roman house, into which the rain was conducted. (2) The aperture in the roof of the atrium. (See DOMUS.) =Impost=, Arch. The horizontal mouldings on a pillar, from which an arch is projected. =In antis=, Arch. A name given to those temples, the pronaos or entrance porch of which was formed by two antæ or pilasters, and two columns. (See ANTÆ.) =Inauguratio=, R. Generally the term applies to the ceremony by which the sanction of the gods was invoked upon any decree of man, such as the admission of a new member into a corporation or college, or the choice of the site of a theatre, city, or temple, &c. =Inaures=, R. (_auris_, the ear; Gr. _enotion_). Ear-rings. Among the Greeks and Romans they were worn only by women. (See EAR-RINGS.) =Incensed=, =Inflamed=, Her. On fire. (See FOCULUS.) =Incisura=, R. (_incido_, to cut). Hatchings made by means of a brush. =Incitega=, R. A kind of tripod or stand for vessels rounded or pointed at the bottom. =Incle=, =Inkle=. A sort of tape used as a trimming to a dress. =Incrustation.= The word has a general signification, “a coat of one material applied to another.” Technically it should be applied to marble alone; thus a thin slab of marble is _incrusted_ upon a body of slate or stone, metals are DAMASCENED, fused pigments are ENAMEL, and woods are VENEERED. =Incubones=, R. Genii who were supposed to guard treasure hidden under the earth. =Incunabula.= (1) Swaddling clothes for infants. (2) Ancient specimens of printing are so called. =Incus=, R. (_incudo_, to beat on). An anvil. [Illustration: Fig. 396. Indented.] =Indented=, Her. One of the dividing and border lines. It resembles the teeth of a saw. [Illustration: Fig. 397. Printed Calico (Indian) illustrating the treatment of flowers.] =Indian Art.= The study of the forms and principles of Indian Art is indispensable to an appreciation of the true principles of ornamental design in general. The excellence of Indian manufactures is due to the system of Guilds rigidly adhered to for ages, which has resulted in the production of a race of hereditary craftsmen unequalled for their skill and taste in execution and design. Their pottery is distinguished above all others for purity and simplicity of form, obvious fitness to purpose, and individual freedom of design. Its origin antedates the Institutes of Manu, and is lost in antiquity. Indian gold and metal work is supposed by Dr. Birdwood to owe its origin to Greek influence, but has acquired in its development a purely Oriental character. The Hindoos exhibit the greatest skill in the Oriental arts of damascening and enamelling, as well as in lacquer work and wood and ivory carving. All their designs are deeply symbolical, and closely interwoven with the primitive religious impulses of humanity. India was probably the first country in which the art of weaving was brought to perfection, and the fame of its cloudy gauzes and its gold and silver brocades is more ancient than the Code of Manu. The art is repeatedly mentioned in the Vedas. The purity of Indian Art is endangered in modern days by the