introduction of the flint and steel. (See FIRE-LOCK.)

=Materiatio=, R. (_materia_, materials). The timber-work of a roof, consisting of two principal rafters (_canterii_), a tie-beam (_tignum_), a ridgepiece (_calcimen_), beams (_trabes_), struts (_capreoli_), purlines (_templa_), and common rafters (_asseres_). =Materis=, R. A Celtic javelin with a broad head. =Matralia=, R. (i. e. pertaining to a mother). The festival of _Matuta_ (the Ino of the Greeks), which was held at Rome every year on the third of the ides of June (11th of June). Prayers were offered by the Roman matrons on behalf of their nephews, they being afraid to pray for their own children, since those of Matuta had turned out so unfortunately. =Matronalia=, R. A festival of the Roman matrons held on the calends of March, at which matrons offered sacrifices to Mars and Juno Lucina. =Mattucashlash.= An ancient Scotch weapon, sometimes called the _armpit dagger_, being worn on the arm ready to be used on coming to close quarters. =Maule.= (See MALLEUS.) =Maunde=, O. E. A basket. [Illustration: Fig. 451. Mausoleum of Hadrian at Rome. In its original state.] =Mausoleum=, R. The tomb of Mausolus, king of Caria, at Halicarnassus, ranked among the seven wonders of the world. The name was afterwards applied to tombs of an imposing size and splendour, such as the tomb of Augustus in the Field of Mars, and that of Hadrian, on the banks of the Tiber, now known as Fort St. Angelo. A representation of it, in its original state, is shown in Fig. 451. =Mauve= is the colour of a peach blossom; obtained as a dye from _aniline_ found in gas tar. =Maze=, Chr. Labyrinthine figures in the pavements of churches and on the turf of greens. To trace the former kneeling was a species of penance. =Mazmorra=, Sp. A tank lined with cement, sunk in the ground and used for storing grain. (See _Murray’s Handbook, Spain_, p. 361, _Granada_, &c.) =Mazonum=, Gr. (μαζο-νομεῖον; μᾶζα, barley-bread). A wooden platter for domestic use, and thence a salver of bronze or gold on which perfumes were burnt in the religious processions of Bacchus. [Illustration: Fig. 452. Old Mechlin Lace, 17th century.] [Illustration: Fig. 453. Mechlin Lace, 18th century.] =Mechlin Lace= is fine, transparent, and effective. It is made in one piece on the pillow; its distinguishing feature is the flat thread which forms the flowers, and gives to the lace the character of embroidery. In 1699—when Charles II.’s prohibition to the introduction of Flanders lace was removed—Mechlin lace became the fashion in England, and continued so during the succeeding century. In the 17th century the Beguinage nuns were celebrated for their lace-making, and they supported their house by their work. Previous to 1665 the name of Mechlin was given to all pillow lace, and much of it was made like our modern insertion. The engraving shows a specimen of old Mechlin lace formerly in great favour as head-dresses and other trimmings. =Medallion.= (1) A medal of a larger size than the ordinary coinage. (2) In Architecture, a circular or oval tablet on the face of a building. =Mediæval.= (See MIDDLE AGES.) =Medimnus=, Gr. (μέδιμνος). The principal Greek measure of capacity, holding as much as six Roman _modii_. It was especially used for measuring corn. =Meditrinalia=, R. (_medeor_, to remedy). Roman festivals in honour of Meditrina, the goddess of healing, celebrated on the 11th of October, at which new wine was tasted, it being looked upon by the Romans as a preservative of health. =Medium.= The liquid in which pigments are ground. The best are linseed oil and nut oil. [Illustration: Fig. 454. Medusa Head on a shield.] =Medusa Head= was frequently used as an ornament for the centre of a shield. (Cf. GORGONEIA.) =Megalartia=, Gr. (μεγαλάρτια). Festivals held at Delos in honour of Ceres, who was called _Megalartos_ (Μεγάλαρτος) from her having bestowed bread on mankind. =Megalesian= (games), R. (_Ludi megalenses_). Festivals celebrated annually on the 4th of April in honour of Cybelê, who was called the Great (Μεγαλεῖα), in which the people went in procession to the Field of Mars to witness scenic spectacles. The magistrates attended these spectacles in a purple toga, or “toga prætexta;” hence the expression “Purpura Megalensis.” =Megylp.= A vehicle used by some oil-painters, condemned as tending to destroy the permanency of the picture. =Melides=, Gr. Nymphs of fruit-trees. (Cf. HAMADRYADES.) =Melina=, R. A pouch made out of the skin of a marten (or a badger, _meles_). =Melium=, R. A collar for sporting-dogs, studded with nails and iron spikes (_clavulis_, _capitatis_). =Mell.= (See MALLEUS.) =Melotte=, O. E. A garment worn by monks during laborious occupation. (_Halliwell._) =Membrana=, R. (_membrum_, skin). Parchment for writing on was introduced as a substitute for the Egyptian papyrus by Eumenes II., king of Pergamus. It was usually written over on one side, and the back was stained with saffron. The writings were frequently erased, and the paper or parchment used again. It was then called a _palimpsest_. All the sheets used for one work were joined together into a long scroll, which was folded round a staff, and then called _volumen_; usually there were ornamental balls or bosses, projecting from the ends of the staff, called _umbilici_ or _cornua_. The ends of the roll were carefully cut and blackened; they were called _geminæ frontes_. The roll itself was kept in a parchment case, which was stained purple or yellow. (See also LIBER.) =Membranula=, R. (dimin. of _membrana_). A small strip of parchment on which the title or contents of a volume were inscribed in minium. =Menat=, Egyp. An Egyptian amulet worn on a necklace. The menat evidently formed some symbol, the meaning of which has hitherto not been discovered. =Menehis= or =Minihis=, Fr. This term, derived from the Celtic _menech-ti_ (house of a monk), or _manach-li_ (free spot of earth), was formerly used in Brittany to denote a place of asylum which had been consecrated in any way. =Menhir=, Celt. A Celtic monument consisting of a huge stone fixed upright in the ground. Menhirs are found associated with _dolmens_, _tumuli_, and circles of stones. (Consult _Bertrand_, _Archéologie Celtique et Gauloise_, p. 84.) =Menis=, =Meniscus=, Gr. and R. (μηνίσκος; μήνη, the moon). A crescent-shaped piece of metal which was placed on statues of the gods to hinder birds from settling on them. The same term was used to denote an ornament, likewise in the shape of a crescent, placed by the Romans at the beginning of their books; hence the expression a _menide_, from the beginning. (Cf. LUNA.) =Mensa=, R. (Gr. τράπεζα). A board, tablet, or table; _mensa escaria_, or _mensa_ simply, a dining-table; _mensa prima_, _secunda_, the first, second course of a meal; _mensa tripes_, a table with three feet, in contradistinction to _monopodium_, a table with a single leg; _mensa vinaria_, a drinking-table (see DELPHICA); _mensa sacra_, an altar-table; _mensa vasaria_, a table for holding vessels; _mensa publica_, a public bank; hence _mensarii_, bankers. =Mensao=, Celt. A Celtic monument more usually called MENHIR (q.v.). =Mensole=, Arch. A term denoting the key-stone of an arch. =Menzil=, Orient. Houses in the East for the reception of travellers, in places where there are neither caravanserais nor _khans_. =Mereack=, Hind. A sort of thick black varnish employed by the Khmers to coat over statues made of any soft stone, which are exposed to the changes of the weather. This varnish was, in many instances, itself covered with gold leaf. =Merkins=, O. E. A name given to ringlets of false hair, much worn by ladies _temp._ Charles I. =Merlons=, Arch. The Cops or raised parts of a battlement. Figures of warriors or animals are sometimes carved on the tops. (See BATTLEMENT.) [Illustration: Fig. 455. Mermaid and Pillars of Hercules. Arms of the Colonna family.] =Mermaid.= An ancient device of the Colonna family was the mermaid between the pillars of Hercules, with the motto _Contemnit tuta procellas_. =Mesaulæ= (μέσ-αυλα). (1) The narrow passage or corridor which, in a Greek house, connected the _andron_ with the _gynæceum_. (2) The door in this passage. =Mese= (the middle, sc. χορδή). The central note of the seven-stringed lyre. The Greeks had no names to distinguish musical notes. They were expressed by the names of the strings of the lyre. Thus, NETE, _d_; PARANETE, _c_; PARAMESE, _b_ flat; and MESE, _a_, in the treble or upper tetrachord; and LICHANOS, _g_; PARHYPATE, _f_; and HYPATE, _e_, in the base or lower tetrachord. =Mesjid=, Arab. A small mosque. These exist in great numbers. The Sultan Mohamet II. alone consecrated 170 _mesjids_ in Constantinople. =Messe=, A.S. The Mass. =Messle-house= or =Meselle-house=, O. E. (from the obsolete word _measle_, a leper). A hospital or lazar-house. [Illustration: Fig. 456. Meta of a Roman race-course.] =Meta=, R. (_metior_, to measure). Any object with a circular base and of conical shape; in a circus the term _meta_, or rather _metæ_ (for there were two sets of goals), was applied to a set of three cones placed together upon a pedestal, as shown in Fig. 456, to mark the turning-points of the race-course. In a mill for grinding corn the name of _meta_ was applied to the lower part of the mill, which was hewn into the form of a cone. (See CIRCUS, OVUM, SPINA, &c.) =Metal=, Tech. (1) A mass of glass in the state of paste, adherent to the pipe and already blown; it may be regarded as the first stage in the production of a piece. (2) Broken glass. (3) Broken stones for repairing roads. =Metal=, Her. The tinctures _or_ and _argent_. =Metallic Canvas.= A combination of metal and canvas; waterproof for various uses. =Metallic Lava.= A composition of gravel, pounded chalk, tar, and wax, forming an artificial stone to be cast into ornamental shapes in moulds. The vestibule of the Euston Station is paved with this preparation. (_Builder_, vi. 502.) =Metallurgy.= It was at a comparatively late period of human civilization that the art of working in iron was brought to perfection. The ancient Egyptians, probably aware of its resources, had a superstitious objection to its use; but they hardened bronze to a degree unknown to later ages, and their bronze statuary of the most ancient period is worthy of any age. The bronze-work of Britain and Ireland is as ancient as any; and, in beauty of form and perfection of casting, rivals the best modern work. Of the work in Greece we are told that Athens alone contained 3000 bronze statues in the year 130 B.C., and vast treasures of metallurgy have been discovered in Herculaneum and Pompeii. In mediæval times Ireland was famous for metallurgy, and of its admirable copper-works of the 11th century many splendid relics remain, especially the so called Bell of St. Patrick. Oriental bronzes, of characteristic design, are plentiful from all ages; especially beautiful and perfect in execution are those of China and Japan. The best period of workmanship in _Iron_ is the Middle Ages; gates and hinges, keys, and especially weapons and defensive armour being the chief objects produced. (Consult _Pugin_, _Digby Wyatt_.) (See also BRONZE, COPPER, DAMASCENING, GOLD, &c.) [Illustration: Fig. 457. One of the carved Metopes of the Parthenon, representing the War of the Centaurs and the Lapithæ.] =Metope=, Arch. (μετ-όπη, i. e. the space between the ὀπαί). A kind of panel between the triglyphs in the Doric frieze (Fig. 458); in some Greek examples quite plain, in others ornamented with sculpture. The metopes of the Parthenon in the British Museum are carved with representations of the war of the Centaurs and Lapithæ. (Fig. 457.) (See ELGIN MARBLES.) In Roman buildings the metopes are usually carved, and are exact squares; but in the Greek Doric this was not necessary. [Illustration: Fig. 458. Metopes and Triglyphs (Doric).] =Metreta=, Gr. (μετρητὴς, i. e. measurer). The unit in the Greek measures of capacity; it held two _cotylæ_, or about eight gallons. =Meurtrière=, O. E. “A black knot, that unties and ties the curles of the hair.” (_Ladies’ Dict._, 1694.) =Mews=, O. E. Originally a courtyard for “mewing” (i. e. moulting) hawks. [Illustration: Fig. 458 a. Mexican temple—_Teocalli_.] =Mexican Architecture.= The principal monuments of the valley of Mexico are situated in a small tract in the centre of the table-land of Anahuac. These consist of pyramidal temples (_teocallis_) formed in terraces, with flat tops, and always surmounted by a chamber or cell, which is the temple itself. In _Yucatan_ there are more architectural remains than anywhere in the world, with palaces of all dates, generally pyramidal, and often rich with elaborate carvings. (See _Stephens’s Incidents of Travel in Yucatan_.) (Fig. 458 a.) =Mezza-majolica= was the coarser majolica ware formed of potter’s earth, covered with a white “slip,” upon which the subject was painted, then glazed with the common lead glaze, over which the lustre pigments were applied; the _majolica_, on the other hand, being the tin-enamelled ware similarly lustred. (See MAJOLICA.) =Mezzanine=, =Entresole=, =Half-story=, Arch. A small story intermediate between two others of larger size. A mezzanine or Flemish window was a window either square or broader than it was long, made in an attic, or in a lower story lying between two higher stories. =Mezzo-relievo=, It. Sculpture in relief, in which one half of the figure projects; sometimes called DEMI-RELIEVO. =Mias=, Hind. A commemorative monument. =Mica=, =Micatio=, R. (_mico_, to move quickly). A game called by the Italians of the present day _mora_; two players simultaneously stretching out one or more fingers, and each guessing the number held up by his adversary. =Middle Ages.= The mediæval period—of transition between ancient and modern times—between the 10th and the 15th centuries is one of the grandest periods in art. It begins with the decay of Rome, and merges into the _Renaissance_. =Middle Distance=, in a landscape:—between the foreground and the background. Great skill is displayed in the expression of distance by the effects of intervening atmospheres, and by the design of intermediate _plans_ carrying the eye onward and suggesting space. =Middle Ground= in a landscape. (See MIDDLE DISTANCE.) =Middle Pointed Period= of Architecture is a name given to that period of Gothic architecture in England, which is generally described as “_the Decorated Period_.” =Middle Post.= The KING-POST in the truss of a roof. [Illustration: Fig. 459. Jardinière—Milan Faience.] =Milan Faience.= Fig. 459 is an illustration of the Oriental imitations for which Milan was famous. “It is,” says M. Jacquemart, “of such beautiful enamel that it might be taken for porcelain. The upper and lower edges are decorated with shells, scrolls, and rocailles in relief, heightened with gold; the whole surface has a decoration of peonies and sprigs in blue, red, and gold, which rival in beauty the richest specimens of old Delft.” [Illustration: Fig. 460. Milan Reticella Lace.] =Milan Lace.= The engraving shows a specimen of Old Milan Point or Reticella from the convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in that city. (See RETICELLA.) (Fig. 460.) =Miliarium=, R. (1) A tall narrow copper vessel employed in baths for heating the water. (2) The column of an olive-press (_trapetum_), which rose from the centre of the mortar (_mortarium_). =Military Architecture.= The science of building fortresses and fortifying town walls, &c. [See _Viollet le Duc_, “_Essai sur l’Architecture militaire au Moyen Age_.”] =Milled Money=, with grooved edges, was first coined in this country in 1561. =Millefiori.= Mosaic glass. (See GLASS.) [Illustration: Fig. 461. Roman Mile-stone at Nic-sur-Aisne in France.] =Milliarium=, R. (_mille_, a thousand, sc. paces). A column placed at intervals of a mile (1618 English yards) along a Roman road to indicate the distance. (Fig. 461.) It was also called _lapis_. _Milliarium aureum_ was the name given to the golden mile-stone erected by Augustus in the Forum, where the principal roads of the Empire terminated. A stone, called the “London Stone,” in Cannon Street, E.C., is supposed to have marked the centre of the Roman roads in Britain. =Mill-rind=, =Fer-de-Moline=, Her. The iron fixed to the centre of a millstone. =Millstone-grit.= The name of a good building stone, plentiful in the north of England. It is supposed to be formed by a re-aggregation of the disintegrated materials of granite. (See the _Builder_, vol. ix. 639.) =Millus=, R. (See MELIUM.) =Mimbar=, Arabic. A pulpit in a mosque. A finely-carved mimbar is in the South Kensington Museum. =Minah=, =Minar=, Hind. A tower or pillar. The _Surkh Minar_ and _Minar Chakri_, among the topes at Cabul, are almost the only _pillars_ existing in India. They are generally ascribed to Alexander the Great, but are probably Buddhist monuments of the 3rd or 4th century of our era. =Minaret= (Arabic _menarah_, a lantern). A feature peculiar to Mohammedan architecture. A tall, slender shaft or turret, rising high above all surrounding buildings of the _mosque_ to which it is attached; in several stories, with or without external galleries, but usually having three. From these galleries the _muezzin_ summon the faithful to prayer. Blind men are generally selected for this duty, because the minaret commands a view of the house-tops used as sleeping-chambers in the East. =Mineral Black.= A native oxide of carbon. =Mineral Blue.= A native carbonate of copper which is liable to change its tint to green, if mixed with oil. (_Fairholt._) =Mineral Brown.= (See CAPPAGH.) =Mineral Green.= MALACHITE (q.v.). (See CARBONATES OF COPPER.) =Mineral Lake= is a French pigment, a kind of orange chrome. =Mineral Yellow.= A pigment of chloride of lead, which becomes paler by time. The name has also been applied to YELLOW OCHRE and YELLOW ARSENIC (q.v.). =Minerval=, R. A present or fee which Roman scholars took to their masters every year, on the fourteenth of the calends of April (19th of March), that is, on occasion of the festivals of Minerva. =Minever=, O. E. (1) Either the pure white fur with which the robes of peers and judges are trimmed—“_minever pure_;” or (2) the ermine with minute spots of black in it—_minutus varius_—in lieu of the complete tails; or (3) the fur of the ermine mixed with that of the small weasel. (Consult _Planché’s Cyclopædia_; see also VAIR.) =Miniature.= Literally, a painting executed in _minium_ (vermilion). Now used for any small picture, and especially for a small portrait. =Ministerium=, Chr. All the sacred ornaments and utensils of a church taken collectively. =Minium.= A kind of _red lead_ obtained by exposing lead or its protoxide to heat, till it is converted to a red oxide. It is a fine orange pigment, but fugitive and liable to decomposition when mixed with other pigments. The ancient _minium_ was _cinnabar_, or vermilion. (See ILLUMINATING.) =Minnim=, Heb. Stringed musical instruments of the lute or guitar kind. [Illustration: Fig. 462. Minotaur. Device of Gonzalvo Perez.] =Minotaur=, R. A monster, half man, half bull, confined in the labyrinth constructed by Dædalus in Crete. It was assumed as a device by Gonzalvo Perez, with the motto from Isaiah xxx. 15. (Fig. 462.) =Minster=, =Abbey-church=, O. E. (Germ. _Münster_). A church to which a monastery was attached; a cathedral. The name survives in “West-_minster_.” =Minstrel Gallery=, O. E. The LOFT in a church was so called. =Minuscule.= (See SEMI-UNCIALS.) =Minute=, It. A subdivision of the _module_ in the measurement of architectural proportion. It is the twelfth, the eighteenth, or the thirtieth part of the MODULE. =Mirador=, Sp. A belvedere, or overhanging bow-window. [Illustration: Fig. 463. Mirror-case of carved ivory—14th cent.] =Mirror.= In the Middle Ages mirrors were often enclosed in cases of metal or carved ivory. The example (Fig. 463) gives a representation of the Siege of the Castle of Love from one of the romances of the period. (See GLASS.) =Mirror=, Arch. A small oval ornament cut into the deep mouldings, and separated by wreaths of flowers. =Miserere.= A projecting bracket, on the _sellette_ of a church stall, on which, when the seat was turned up, there was a leaning-space, available to the infirm during the parts of the service required to be performed standing. (See SELLETTE.) =Misericorde.= The narrow-bladed dagger used to put the victory with sword or lance to the test, by obliging a fallen antagonist to cry for _mercy_, or by despatching him. =Mis’rha=, Hind. Hindoo temples built with two kinds of materials; whence their name of mixed (_mis’rha_). (See SUD’HA, VIMANA, and SANCIRA.) =Missilia=, R. (i. e. things thrown). Presents of cheques or tickets thrown by the emperor and wealthy persons among the people. The cheques were payable to the bearer at the magazine of the donor. (See CONGIARIUM.) =Mistarius=, =Mixtarius=, R. Any vessel of large size used for mixing water with wine. =Mitella=, Gr. (dimin. of _mitra_). (1) A head-band or coif of peaked form worn by Greek women. (2) A scarf used as a bandage or support for a broken arm. =Mithriatic= (Festivals), Pers. and R. Festivals held in honour of Mithras, the Persian sun-god. =Mitis Green.= (See EMERALD GREEN.) =Mitra=, Gr. and R. (μίτρα). (1) A mitre or head-dress of the Galli or priests of Cybelê; it was a Phrygian cap of felt, which was tied under the chin by lappets; it was also called a _Phrygian tiara_. (2) A cable fastened round the hull of a vessel to strengthen the timbers. [Illustration: Fig. 464. Mitre. Arms of St. Alban’s Abbey.] =Mitre=, Chr. Her. The ensign of archiepiscopal and episcopal rank, placed above the arms of prelates of the Church of England, sometimes borne as a charge, and adopted by the Berkeleys as their crest. The contour of the mitre has varied considerably at various times, growing continually higher and more pointed. It was first worn by bishops about the close of the 10th century. Bishops had three kinds of mitres: the _simplex_, of plain white linen; the _aurifrigata_, ornamented with gold orphreys; and the _pretiosa_, enriched with gold and jewels, for use at high festivals. (Fig. 464.) In Architecture, the corner line formed by the meeting of mouldings intercepting each other at an angle. =Mitten=, =Mitaine=, Anglo-Norman. A glove; not restricted to gloves without fingers. “Gloves made of linnen or woollen, whether knit or stytched: sometimes also they call so gloves made of leather without fingers.” (_Ray._) (See MUFFETEE.) =Moat=, =Mote=. (1) Originally a heap or hillock; the _dune_ on which a tower was built, forming the original castle. The Saxons assembled on such _moats_ or mounds to make laws and administer justice; hence their word _witten-mote_ for parliament. (2) Mod. Usually applied to the fosse of a rampart, the side next the fortress being the _scarp_, and the opposite the _counterscarp_. =Mobcap=, O. E. A cap tying under a woman’ chin by an excessively broad band, generally made of the same material as the cap itself. (_H._) =Moccinigo.= A small Venetian coin, worth about 9_d._ (_H._) =Mochado=, =Mokkado=, O. E. (1) A silk stuff, commonly called “mock velvet,” much used in the 16th and 17th centuries. (_Fairholt._) (2) A woollen stuff of the same kind. (_Halliwell._) It was probably a mixture of silk and wool. (_Planché._) =Modena Pottery.= The antique pottery of Modena is referred to by Pliny and Livy, but there is no exact record or marked example of wares produced there during the Renaissance. The manufacture flourishes now at _Sassuolo_, a town ten miles south of Modena. =Modesty Bit= or =Piece=, O. E. “A narrow lace which runs along the upper part of the stays, before, being a part of the tucker, is called the modesty piece.” (_Guardian._) “Modesty bits—out of fashion” is an announcement in the _London Chronicle_, vol. xi. 1762. [Illustration: Fig. 465. Modillion.] =Modillions=, Arch. Small brackets under the coronæ of cornices; when _square_ they are called MUTULES. In the Corinthian order they have carved leaves spread under them. Fig. 465 is taken from the temple of Mars the Avenger, at Rome. =Modius=, R. (_modus_, a measure or standard). The largest Roman measure of capacity. =Module=, Arch. A measure adopted by architects to determine by the column the proportions of the different parts of a work of architecture. It is usually the diameter or the semi-diameter of the shaft of the column. =Mœnia=, R. A term synonymous with MURUS (q.v.); but more comprehensive, in that it implies not merely the idea of walls, but also of the buildings attached to them. “_Mœnia_ lata videt, triplici circumdata _muro_.” (_Virgil._) =Mogul Architecture= is that of the buildings erected in the reigns of the Mogul emperors, kings of Delhi, from A. D. 1531 to the present century. =Moilon= (Fr. _moellon_), Arch. Rubble-masonry. =Mokador=, =Mocket=, O. E. A napkin, handkerchief, or bib. “Goo hom, lytyl babe, and sytt on thi moderes lap, And put a _mokador_ aforn thi brest, And pray thi modyr to fede the with the pappe.” (_Twentieth Coventry Mystery._) [Illustration: Fig. 466. Mola versatilis.] =Mola=, R. (_molo_, to grind). A mill; _mola manuaria_, a hand-mill; _mola buxea_, a box-wood mill, or mill for grinding pepper; _mola aquaria_, a water-mill; _mola asinaria_, a mill worked by a beast of burden; _mola versatilis_, a grindstone (Fig. 466 represents Love sharpening his arrows, from an engraved gem); _mola olearia_, a mill for crushing olives. =Mold=, O. E. (for _mould_). Earth; ground. The word is constantly applied to the _ground_ in works of art. (See _Degrevant_, 1039; _Halliwell_.) =Moline=, Her. A cross terminating like the MILL-RIND. In modern cadency it is the difference of the eighth son. =Mollicina=, =Molochina= (sc. _vestis_), R. (μολόχινα, i. e. mallow-coloured). A garment made from the fibres of a mallow (_hibiscus_). =Mona Marble=. A beautiful marble of a greenish colour, obtained in the Isle of Anglesea. =Monastic Orders= consisted of Benedictine or black monks, and Cistercian or white monks. There were the _Regular Orders_, the _Military Orders_, the _Conventual Orders_, _Colleges_, &c. =Monaulos=, Gr. and R. (μόν-αυλος, single-flute). A Greek pipe made of a reed, of Egyptian origin, blown at the end without a reed mouthpiece, and remarkable for the sweetness of its tone. =Monelle=, =Monial=, =Moynel=, Arch. (See MULLIONS.) =Moneris=, Gr. (μον-ήρης, single). A galley or ship with a single bench of rowers. [Illustration: Fig. 468. Monile. A Gaulish collar.] [Illustration: Fig. 467. Monile. Details of ornament.] =Monile=, Gr. and R. A necklace or collar. Fig. 468 represents a bronze necklace belonging to the Gaulish period, and Fig. 467 a part of the same necklace on a larger scale. By analogy the term was applied to the ornaments worn by horses about the neck. (See NECKLACES.) =Monks=, Chr. In the religious iconography of the Gothic period, especially the 14th and 15th centuries, there frequently occur grotesque representations of monks. (See Fig. 351.) =Monmouth Cap=, O. E. A cap worn by soldiers and sailors. =Monochord.= A one-stringed musical instrument, much used for measuring the proportions of length which yield the various sounds within an octave. =Monochrome Painting.= (1) Painting in a single colour, as, for instance, red upon a black ground, or white upon a red ground. The most numerous class of specimens of this kind of painting are upon terra-cotta, as the Etruscan vases. (2) The term is applied to paintings in tints of one colour, in imitation of bas-reliefs. =Monogram.= A combination of two or more letters into one design, illustrated especially in ecclesiastical decoration of the 14th and 15th centuries, &c. The abbreviation IHS is said to have been invented by St. Bernardino of Siena about 1437. For _Artists’ monograms_, see _Stellway_, _Heller_, _Brulliot_ (_Dictionaries of Monograms_). =Monolith= (μονό-λιθος). An object formed of a single block of stone. =Monolium=, =Monolinum=, R. A necklace formed with a single string of pearls. (See MONILE.) =Monoloris=, R. (Gr. μόνος, one, and Lat. _lorum_, a thong. A hybrid word). Decorated with a single band of purple and gold, like the PARAGAUDA (q.v.). =Monopodium= (sc. _mensa_), R. (μονο-πόδιον). A table with a single foot. =Monopteral=, Arch. (μονό-πτερος). With a single wing; a circular temple or shrine, consisting of a roof supported on columns, without any _cella_. =Monostyle=, Arch. (1) Piers of a single shaft are sometimes distinguished by this name from _compound piers_, then called for distinction _polystyle_. (2) A building which is of one _style_ of architecture throughout; or (3) surrounded by a single row of pillars. =Monota=, Gr. A vase with one _ear_ (or handle). =Monotriglyph=, Arch. The intercolumniation in the Doric order, which embraces one triglyph and two metopes in the entablature. (_Parker’s Glossary of Architecture._) =Monoxylos=, =Monoxylus=, Gr. and R. (μονόξυλος). Literally, hewn or made out of a single piece of wood. =Monsters=, in Architecture. (See CENTAUR, GRIFFIN, GROTESQUES, SPHINX, &c.) =Monstrance=, =Expositorium=, Chr. (_monstrare_, to show). An ornamental vessel of gold, silver, silver-gilt, or gilded or silvered copper, representing usually a sun with rays, in the centre of which is a _lunule_ or glass box in which the consecrated wafer is carried and exposed on the altars of churches. The earliest monstrances, which are now called _expositories_, do not date beyond the 12th century. Very ancient specimens exist at Rheims, Namur, &c. =Montem.= An annual custom at Eton; a procession of boats _ad montem_. (See _Brand_, i. 237.) =Montero.= “A close hood wherewith travellers preserve their faces and heads from frostbiting and weather-beating in winter.” (_Cotgrave._) =Monteth=, O. E. A vessel used for cooling wine-glasses in. (_Halliwell._) =Mont-la-haut.= “A certain wier (wire) that raises the head-dress by degrees or stories.” (_Ladies’ Dict._, 1694.) =Montmorency Escutcheon.= (See the illustration to HUNTING FLASK.) =Monumentum=, R. (_moneo_, to remind). In general, any token, statue, or monument intended to perpetuate the memory of anything. _Monumentum sepulchri_ is the name given to a tomb. The Monument of the Great Fire of London, erected by Sir Christopher Wren, is of the Italo-Vitruvian-Doric order, of Portland stone, and consists of a _pedestal_ about 21 feet square, with a _plinth_ 27 feet, and a fluted shaft 15 feet at the base; on the _abacus_ is a balcony encompassing a moulded cylinder, which supports a flaming vase of gilt bronze, indicative of its commemoration of the Great Fire. Defoe describes it as “built in the form of a _candle_ with a handsome gilt frame.” Its entire height is 202 feet, and it is the loftiest isolated column in the world. Its interior contains a spiral staircase of 345 black marble steps. (See COCHLIS.) =Monyal=, O. E. for MULLION (q.v.). =Moorish Architecture=, or Arabian or Mohammedan architecture, arose at the beginning of the 7th century in the East, and in Spain, Sicily, and Byzantium in Europe. The style originated in a free adaptation of different features of Christian architecture, and their earliest mosques were built by Christian architects. The horse-shoe arch is a very early characteristic of their style, and the pointed arch appears at Cairo and elsewhere three centuries earlier than in Europe. The most perfect specimen of the luxury of decoration of which this style is capable is found in the Alhambra. (See ALHAMBRAIC ARCHITECTURE; consult the _Essai sur l’Architecture des Arabes et des Mores_, by _Girault de Prangy_, 1841.) =Moor-stone.= A very coarse granite found in Cornwall and some other parts of England, and of great value for the coarser parts of building; it is also found in immense strata in Ireland. Its colours are chiefly black and white. =Moot-hall=, O. E. A public assembly-house; a town hall, &c. (See MOAT.) =Mora=, R. (_mora_, an obstacle). A projection or cross-bar on a spear to prevent its penetrating too far. =Mordaunt=, Fr. The catch for the tongue of the buckle of a belt. =Moresco-Spanish=, or Saracenic =Textiles= wrought in Spain, are remarkable for an ingenious imitation of gold, produced by shreds of gilded parchment cut up into narrow flat strips and woven with the silk. =Moresque= or =Moresco-Spanish Architecture= is the work of Moorish workmen, executed for their Christian masters in Spain. The most remarkable examples are in the city of Toledo (described by _Street_, _Gothic Architecture in Spain_). =Morion.= A head-piece of the 16th century, introduced by the Spaniards, who had copied it from the Moors, to the rest of Europe about 1550. It was worn as late as the reign of Charles I. There were peaked morions, coming to a point at the top; and high combed morions, surmounted by a kind of crest or ridge. =Moriones=, R. (1) Idiots, dwarfs, or deformed persons, used as slaves, to afford amusement in the houses of the great. (2) A dark-brown gem; perhaps the smoky topaz. =Morisco=, O. E. (See MORRIS DANCE.) =Moristan=, Arab. A hospital. =Morne=, =Mornette=. The head of a blunted tilting-lance, the point being turned back. =Morning Star=, O. E. A club called also a HOLY WATER SPRINKLER (q.v.). =Morris Dance=, O. E. (or Moorish). A very ancient dance, of masked and costumed performers, with bells, &c. =Morris Pike=, O. E. (for Moorish). Long pikes copied from those of the Moors, the staves of which were covered with little nails. =Morse=, Chr. (Fr. _mordre_, to bite). The clasp or brooch which fastened the cope on the breast. (See the illustration to POPE.) =Mort=, O. E. (death). The notes blown on the horn at the death of a deer. =Mortuary Palls=, in the Middle Ages, for the covering of the biers of dead people were richly decorated. One at Amiens is decorated, upon white stripes on a black ground, with skulls and bones and the words “memento mori” interspersed. =Mosaic=, or more correctly =Musaic Work=. OPUS MUSIVUM, glass mosaic; OPUS TESSELATUM, clay mosaic; OPUS LITHOSTROTUM, stone mosaic. =Mosaic Glass=, =Millefiori=. (See GLASS.) =Mose.= (1) Probably a dish (“Dyschmete” made of apples was called “Appulmoce”). (2) For MORSE (q.v.). =Moton=, O. E. A piece of armour intended to protect the right armpit, used in the reigns of Henry VI., Edward IV., and Richard III. =Mottoes=, in Heraldry, are words, or very short sentences, sometimes placed above the crest, but generally below the shield. Mottoes are sometimes emblematical or allusive, and frequently punning, as the “Set on” of the Setons, the “Tight on” of the Tittons, and the “Est hic” of the Eastwicks. (See LABELS [2].) =Mould.= (See MOLD.) =Mouldings.= A general term for the varieties of outline given to subordinate parts of architecture, such as _cornices_, _capitals_, _bases_, &c. These (described in their places) are principally: the FILLET or LIST, the ASTRAGAL or BEAD, the CYMA REVERSA or OGEE, the CYMA RECTA or CYMA, the CAVETTO or _hollow moulding_, the OVOLO or _quarter round_, the SCOTIA or TROCHILUS. These are frequently enriched by _foliage_, _egg and tongue_ and other ornaments, &c. (See the article in _Parker’s Glossary of Architecture_ for a history of the diversities of the mouldings in the different styles.) =Moulinet.= A machine for winding up a cross-bow. =Mound=, Her. A globe encircled and arched over with rich bands, and surmounted by a cross-patée; an ensign of the royal estate. (See CROWN, ORB, REGALIA.) =Mountain= or =Mineral Blue= (=Green=). (See CARBONATES OF COPPER.) [Illustration: Fig. 469. Mug of Moustiers make.] =Moustiers Faience.= Moustiers in Provence is one of the most important of the French ceramic centres. The mug represented in Fig. 469 is coloured with varied enamels, and ornamented with medallion and wreaths. =Muckinder=, =Muckinger=, O. E. A pocket-handkerchief (sc. dirty). =Mueta=, Med. Lat. (Old Fr. _muette_). A watch-tower. =Muffler.= A handkerchief covering the chin and throat, and sometimes used to cover the face (_muffle_ or _muzzle_). “I spy a great peard under her _muffler_.” (_Shakspeare._) =Muffs= were introduced into England from France in the reign of Charles II. They were previously known in England, but were subsequently more common, and used by both sexes. Very little variation has occurred in their manufacture. =Muglias=, Arab. A kind of pastilles; a substance employed in the Middle Ages for making odoriferous beads; they were burnt for fumigations. =Mulctra=, =Mulctrale=, =Mulctrum=, R. and Chr. (_mulgeo_, to milk). A milk-pail for milking cows. In Christian archæology it is a pastoral vessel which is a eucharistic symbol. [Illustration: Fig. 470.] [Illustration: Fig. 471.] =Mullets=, Her. Stars generally of five, but sometimes of six or more rays. Fig. 470 is of the date 1295, and Fig. 471 its development in 1431. =Mulleus=, =Mule=, R. (_mullus_, a red mullet). A red half-boot, which only certain magistrates had the right of wearing, viz. the ancient dictators, consuls, prætors, censors, and ædiles. =Mullions= or =Munnions=, Arch. The slender piers which separate a window into several compartments. =Multifoiled=, Arch. Having many FOILS (q.v.). This term is synonymous with POLYFOILED. =Mummy.= This pigment _should_ be made of the pure Egyptian asphaltum, ground up with drying oil or with amber varnish. =Mummy-cloths= (=Egyptian=) were of fine unmixed flaxen linen, beautifully woven, of yarns of nearly 100 hanks in the pound, with 140 threads in an inch in the warp, and about 64 in the woof. =Muniment-rooms=, to be strong and fire-proof, were erected over porches, gateways, &c. They contained charters, archives, &c. (See CHARTER-HOUSE.) =Munnions=, Arch., for MULLIONS (q.v.). =Mural.= Generally, on a wall; as— =Mural Arch.= An arch against a wall, frequent in the aisles of mediæval buildings. [Illustration: Fig. 472. Mural crown.] =Mural Crown= (Her.) represents masonry, and is embattled. (See CORONA.) =Mural Monument.= A tablet fixed to a wall, &c. =Mural Painting.= (See FRESCO, TEMPERA, &c.) =Murex=, R. (1) A Triton’s horn or conch; (2) _murex ferreus_, a caltrap, thrown down to hinder the advance of cavalry, its long spikes being so arranged as to pierce into the horses’ feet, and so disable them. (See CALTRAPS.) =Murrey=, O. E. A reddish purple or mulberry colour. The livery of the House of York. =Murrhina=, =Murrhea=, and =Myrrhina=, R. Murrhine vases; they are spoken of by Pliny, and have given rise to interminable treatises and discussions, with the sole result that no light whatever has been thrown on the nature of these vases. =Murrhine Glass.= (See GLASS.) [Illustration: Fig. 473. Walls of Megalopolis.] =Murus=, R. Walls as defences and fortifications, in contradistinction to _paries_, the wall of a building. Fig. 473 represents a portion of the walls of Megalopolis. (See MŒNIA.) =Muscarium=, R. (_musca_, a fly). (1) A fly-flap. Hence (2) The tail of a horse. (3) A case in which papers were shut up in order to preserve them from fly-stains. =Muses=, the personifications of the liberal arts, are represented conventionally as follows:— Calliope. The Muse of epic poetry; a tablet and stylus, sometimes a roll. Cleio. The Muse of history; seated in an arm-chair with an open roll of paper, sometimes with a sun-dial. Euterpe. The Muse of lyric poetry; with a double flute. Melpomene. The Muse of tragedy; with a tragic mask, the club of Hercules, and sword; crowned with the vine-leaves of Bacchus, and shod in the _cothurnus_; often heroically posed with one foot on a fragment of rock. Terpsichore. The Muse of choral dance and religious song; with lyra and _plectrum_. As the Muse of religious poetry, her expression is dignified and earnest. Erato. The Muse of erotic poetry and soft Lydian music; sometimes has the lyre, sometimes is represented dancing, always gentle and _feminine_ in expression. Polyhymnia. The Muse of the sublime hymn and divine tradition; usually appears without any attribute, in an attitude of meditation; sometimes the inscription ΜΥΘΟΥΣ (_of the myth_). Urania. The Muse of astronomy; points with a staff to a celestial globe. (Lachesis, one of the Parcæ, has the same attributes.) Thaleia. The Muse of pastoral life, of comedy, and of idyllic poetry; appears with the comic mask, a shepherd’s staff, and a wreath of ivy, or basket; sometimes dressed in a sheepskin. The Muses are sometimes represented with feathers on their heads, alluding to their contest with the Sirens, whom they stripped of their wing feathers, which they wore as ornaments. (_Hirt. Mythologisches Bilderbuch_, p. 203.) =Museum=, Gr. and R. (Μουσεῖον). Literally, a temple of the Muses. The term was afterwards applied to an establishment founded by Ptolemy I., called Soter, at Alexandria in Egypt, in which scholars and literary men were maintained at the public expense. In a villa, it was a grotto or retreat to which people retired for meditation. [Illustration: Fig. 475. Opus musivum.] [Illustration: Fig. 474. Opus musivum.] =Musivum= (opus), R. (μουσεῖον). This term was used by the Romans to denote a mosaic of small cubes of coloured glass or enamel, in contradistinction to LITHOSTROTUM (q.v.), which was a pavement made of real stones and marbles of different colours; but in a more extended sense, the term Musivum denotes any kind of mosaic. Figs. 474 and 475 show examples of various kinds. Fig. 476 is a mosaic forming a border. [Illustration: Fig. 476. Opus musivum—bordering.] =Muslin=, originally esteemed for the beauty with which gold was woven in its warp, took its name from the city of Mousull in Turkey in Asia. =Musquet.= A long heavy match-lock gun, introduced from Spain in the Dutch wars of the 16th century, which eventually displaced the harquebus. (See SNAPHAUNCE and WHEEL-LOCK.) =Musquet-rest.= A staff with a forked head required to support the musquet. It was trailed by a string from the wrist. =Mustarde Villars=, O. E. Either (1) a kind of cloth, probably so named from Moustier de Villiers, near Harfleur; or else (2) (as Stowe says) “a colour, now out of use.” _Mustard_ was a favourite colour for liveries and official dresses in the 15th century. =Mutatio=, R. Literally, _change_. The Romans gave the name of _mutationes_ to the posthouses for relays of horses established along the high roads for the service of the state. =Mutch=, O. E. An old woman’s close cap. (_Fairholt_.) =Mute=, Fr. This term, derived from the Latin _muta_, is employed by ancient authors as a synonym for _belfry_, _turret_, or _bell-tower_. =Mutule=, Arch. In a general sense, any stone or wooden projection which stands out beyond the surface of a wall, such as a rafter, for instance. In a more restricted sense, it denotes an architectural ornament characteristic of the Doric order, consisting of a square block placed at equal intervals above the triglyphs and metopes in a Doric cornice. In the Corinthian order _mutules_ are replaced by modillions. =Mynchery=, A.S. A nunnery. The word survives in local dialects, and is applied to the ruins; e. g. of the ancient _mynchery_ at Littlemore, near Oxford. =Myrtle Crown= for bloodless victors. The _myrtle_ was sacred to Venus. It flourished on the sea-coast of Italy and Greece. The wood is very hard, and is used for furniture, marquetry, and turning. Another myrtle wood from Van Diemen’s Land is beautifully veined for cabinet-work. =Myth=, Gen. (μῦθος, lit. that which is spoken). The name given to obscure traditions handed down from remote antiquity, antecedent to written or precise history; opposed to _legendary_ record (which can be _read_). N. =Nablia=, =Nablum=. A stringed musical instrument; a kind of _cithara_ in the shape of a semicircle. =Nacre=, Fr. Mother-of-pearl, the iridescent inner lining of the pearl mussel or oyster. =Nacreous Shells.= Iridescent shells. Several kinds are used for manufactures, as some species of _Meleagrina_, _Turbo_, _Nautili_, &c. =Nadir= (Arab. _nadhir_, opposite). The part of the heavens directly under our feet; opposite to the ZENITH. =Nænia.= (See NENIA.) =Naga=, Malay. Jars with the figure of a dragon traced on them. =Naga Architecture= (Hind. _naga_, a poisonous snake). Temples dedicated to the worship of the seven-headed snakes are found in Cashmere, remarkable for their identity of style with the Grecian Doric, unlike anything found in any other part of India. [Consult _Fergusson_, _History of Architecture_, ii. 703–732.] =Nagara.= A Hindoo name for a music-gallery in front of the Jain temples. =Nahinna.= A Persian manufacture of majolica. The Comte de Rochechouart says that the ancient faience of Persia is as admirable as the modern is detestable, though it retains a degree of oriental elegance. =Naiad.= A water-nymph. =Nail.= In cloth measure, 2¼ inches. =Nail-head Moulding=, Arch. An ornament formed by a series of projections resembling round or angular _nail-heads_. =Nainsook=, Hind. A thick sort of jaconet muslin. =Naipes=, Sp. Playing-cards. The word is supposed to be derived from the initials of Nicolao Pepin, the inventor. (_Diccionario de la Lengua Castellana._) Hence the Italian _naibi_. =Naked Flooring=, Arch. The timber-work which supports a floor. =Namby-pamby.= Affectedly pretty. The term originated in criticism of an English poet of the 17th century—Ambrose Phillips. =Nancy Biscuit.= A peculiar porcelain made at Nancy. The faïencerie was established in 1774 by Nicolas Lelong. =Nankeen.= A buff-coloured cotton cloth, introduced from the province of Nankin, in China. =Nân-mo=, Chinese. A beautiful wood, resembling cedar, used for temples, palaces, and houses of state. =Nantes.= Manufactories of white faience were established here in 1588 and 1625; and that of Le Roy de Montilliée and others in the 18th century. =Naology.= The science of temples. (See _Dudley’s Naology, or a Treatise on the Origin, Progress, and Symbolical Import of the Sacred Structures of the World_.) =Naos=, Gr. The interior apartment of a Greek temple; the _cella_ of the Roman temple. =Napery.= A general term for made-up linen cloth. =Naphthar=, Heb. (lit. _thick water_). The name given by Nehemiah to the substance that they found in the pit where the sacred fire of the temple had been hidden during the Captivity. This “thick water, which” (the legend says) “being poured over the sacrifice and the wood, was kindled by the great heat of the sun and then burnt with an exceedingly bright and clear flame,” was the naphtha of modern commerce. =Napiform= (Lat. _napus_, a turnip). Turnip-shaped. =Napkin= (little _nape_). A pocket-handkerchief. “Your napkin is too little.” (_Othello._) =Napkin Pattern.= A decorative ornament very common in German wood-carving of the 15th and 16th centuries. (See LINEN-SCROLL.) =Naples Majolicas= were already celebrated early in the 16th century. M. Jacquemart describes some vases of colossal size, evidently constructed for “la grande décoration,” being painted on only one face; handles in the form of caryatids add to the majestic appearance of these vases; the subjects are scriptural, executed in blue camayeu picked out in black; the design is free, elegant though rather straggling, and the touch is bold and spirited. =Naples Yellow= (It. _giallolino_). A compound of the oxides of lead and antimony, having a rich, opaque, golden hue. As a pigment for oil painting and for porcelain and enamel, it is now superseded by chromate of lead. As a water-colour pigment it is liable to blacken upon exposure to damp or bad air. =Napron.= An apron used by mediæval masons. _Limas_ was another kind of apron worn by them. =Nard= (Lat. _nardus_). Ointment prepared from the spikenard shrub. =Nares=, Lat. (the nostrils). (1) The perforations in the register-table of an organ, which admit air to the openings of the pipes. (2) The issue of a conduit. [Illustration: Fig. 477. Narghilly—Persian.] =Nargilé= or =Narghilly=, Persian. A tobacco-pipe with an arrangement for passing the smoke through water. The illustration is the bowl of a Persian pipe of this description, in Chinese porcelain. (Fig. 477.) =Nariform= (Lat. _naris_, the nostril). Nose-shaped. =Narthex=, Chr. The vestibule of a church; sometimes within the church, sometimes without, but always further from the altar than the part where the “faithful” were assembled. Hence it was a place for the catechumens. The narthex communicated with the _nave_ by the “beautiful gates,” and with the outside by the “great gates.” In monastic churches the narthex was the place for the general public. =Nasal=, O. E. The bar of a helmet which protected the nose. =Nask=, Hind. A _quoin_, or coin-stone. =Natalitii Ludi=, R. Games in the circus in honour of an emperor’s birthday. =Natatorium.= A cold swimming-pool in the baths. That at Pompeii is of white marble twelve feet ten inches in diameter, and about three feet deep, with three marble steps, and a seat round it raised about ten inches from the bottom. There is a platform or _ambulatory_ round the bath, also of marble. (See SIGMA.) The ceiling is vaulted, with a window in the centre. (See BAPTISTERIUM.) =Natatorium=, Chr. A baptismal font; Gr. κολυμβήθρα (_piscina probata_). =Natinz.= A Persian manufacture of majolica. (See NAHINNA.) =Nativity.= While the Adoration of the Magi is one of the commonest subjects of early Christian art, the Nativity is one of the rarest. It is not found in any catacomb frescoes, or the mosaics of any basilicas or churches. The only examples are sculptural, and this on ivories, gems, &c. On these generally the Child is seen wrapped in swaddling clothes as the central object, the star appears above, the Virgin on a rude couch, and sometimes St. Joseph rapt in thought, his head resting on his hand; the ox and the ass appear behind, and shepherds with curved staves stand by adoring. =Natural.= In Music, a character marked ♮ used to correct the power of a previous _sharp_ or _flat_. A _natural scale_ is a scale written without sharps or flats. =Naturalisti=, It. Artists who work on the principle of a close adherence to the forms and colours actually combined in natural objects. The epithet was particularly applied as a term of reproach to the founders of the modern Dutch school of painting. (See IDEAL.) [Illustration: Fig. 478. Naumachia, from a coin of Domitian.] =Naumachia= (ναῦς, a ship, and μάχη, a battle). (1) A spectacle representing a sea-fight, a subject frequently represented on coins and sculptures. (2) A building erected for such shows. Napoleon I. had a theatre at Milan filled with water for a sea-fight. [Illustration: Fig. 479. Nautilus. Device of the Affidati Academy.] =Nautilus.= A shell-fish that sails on the surface of the sea in its shell. Its spiral univalve shell is a common motive in ornamental design. “Learn of the little nautilus to sail, Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.” (_Pope._) The illustration is the device of the Affidati, an Italian literary Academy, with the motto “Safe above and below.” [Illustration: Fig. 480. Naval crown.] =Navalis Corona.= (See CORONA NAVALIS.) (Fig. 480.) =Nave=, Arch. (so called from its vaulted roof resembling in shape an inverted ship (_navis_); or from _nave_, the centre of anything). The middle part or body of a church between the aisles, extending from the _choir_ to the principal entrance. The Germans call this part of a church “Schiff.” =Navette=, =Navicula=, Chr. The vessel, in the shape of a boat, in which incense is placed for the supply of the thurible. =Navicella=, Chr. A celebrated mosaic, at Rome, of a ship tossed by storms and assailed by demons; emblematic of the Church. =Neanderthal.= A valley near Dusseldorf, in which bones and skulls were found of men asserted to have been _præadamite_. =Neat-house=, O. E. A cattle-shed. =Nebris=, Gr. (from νεβρὸς, a fawn). A fawn’s skin, worn originally by hunters; an attribute of Dionysus, and assumed by his votaries. It is represented in ancient art as worn not only by male and female _bacchanals_, but also by Pans and Satyrs. It was commonly put on in the same manner as the _ægis_, or goat’s skin, by tying the two fore-legs over the right shoulder, so as to allow the body of the skin to cover the left side of the wearer. =Nebular= (Lat. _nebula_, a mist). Belonging to the nebulæ, or clusters of stars only visible as a light, gauzy appearance or mist in the skies. [Illustration: Fig. 481. Nebule Moulding.] =Nebule Moulding.= A decorated moulding of Norman architecture, so called from the edge forming an undulating or waving line. (See Fig. 481.) [Illustration: Fig. 482. Nebulée.] =Nebulée=, Her. A dividing and border line, as represented in Fig. 482. =Nebulous.= Cloudy or hazy. =Nebuly=, Her. Ornamented with light wavy lines. =Neck=, Arch. The plain part at the bottom of a Roman Doric or other capital, between the mouldings and the top of the shaft. (See HYPOTRACHELIUM.) [Illustration: Fig. 483. Necklace. Costume of a Roman lady of the 16th century.] =Necklaces.= An ornament common to all ages and nations. The ancient EGYPTIANS of both sexes wore them of gold or beads, generally with a large drop or figure in the centre, and strung of the various religious emblems; amethysts, pearls, gold or cornelian bottles, imitations of fish, shell, and leaves; finally, an infinite variety of devices. (See _Wilkinson’s Ancient Egyptians_, ii. 343.) An illustration of a common form of GREEK necklaces is given under _Crotalium_. The BRITISH women of the earliest ages wore necklaces of jet, ivory, and amber, beads, shells, &c., besides gold links hooked together. (See also MONILE, TORQUE.) The Anglo-Norman ladies do not appear to have worn necklaces, and no mediæval examples are found earlier than the 15th century. (See Figs. 303, 304, 483.) =Neck-mouldings=, Arch. The mouldings at the bottom of the capital, in Gothic architecture. =Necrodeipnon=, Gr. A feast after a funeral; a common subject on tombs. A horse’s head is usually placed in one corner of the representation, as an emblem of death as a journey. =Necrologium=, Chr. A book kept in religious houses for the names of the founders and benefactors to be mentioned in the prayers. =Necromancy= (Gr. νεκρὸς, the dead, and μαντεία, prophecy). Calling up the spirits of the dead for divination; hence generally applied to conjuring. Necromancy was practised in two ways: by inspection of the entrails, and by invoking the dead. =Necropolis=, Gr. A city of the dead; a cemetery. =Nectar=, Gr. The drink of the gods. =Necysia=, Gr. Offerings of garlands of flowers and other objects made at the tombs of deceased relatives on the anniversary of the day of death, or, as some suppose, on their birthdays. (See GENESIA.) =Needfire=, or Fire of St. John Baptist (Old Germ. _Nodfyr, Niedfyr_). A superstitious practice of the ancients, derived from a pagan source, of celebrating the birthday of St. John Baptist at the midsummer solstice (St. John’s Eve) by lighting fires, carrying about firebrands, or rolling a burning wheel. The practice is one of many examples of the caution with which the evangelizing ecclesiastics of the Middle Ages refrained from abruptly disturbing the deeply-rooted superstitions of the ancient Germans. [Consult _Grimm’s German Mythology_; _Brand_, _Popular Antiquities_.] =Needle=, Arch. An _obelisk_ (q.v.) [Illustration: Fig. 484. Needle Point Lace.] =Needle Point in relief.= To Venice belongs the invention of the two most perfect productions of the needle—“Point coupé,” and Venetian point in relief. Various other wonderful products of the needle are included under the general name of Venetian point, all of exquisite workmanship. The needle point in relief is made by means of cotton placed as thick as may be required to raise the pattern; an infinity of beautiful stitches are introduced into the flowers, which are surrounded by a pearl of geometric regularity. The engraving is an exquisite specimen of the fine raised needle point. =Nef= or =Ship=. A costly and curious piece of plate for the table, used as an épergne in the Middle Ages. In the 16th century they were perfect models of actual ships, with masts, yards, shrouds, and sailors climbing in the rigging. They were filled with sweetmeats, and were sometimes put on wheels; and there is one at Emden in Hanover from the hull of which wine was drunk. =Negative.= In Photography, a picture on glass having the lights and shadows reversed, from which _positives_ may be printed. =Neginoth=, Heb. A general term for stringed musical instruments. =Nehiloth=, Heb. (root _chalal_, to perforate). A general term for perforated wind instruments of music. =Nelumbo=, Chinese. A fruit-tree closely connected with the Buddhist legends, and from its symbolical significance and adaptability to ornamentation, commonly represented on porcelain. (See _Jacquemart_, _Hist. de la Céramique_.) =Nenia=, R. The funeral song which the hired mourners sang at a Roman funeral, in praise of the deceased. _Lessus_ was their wailing or cry of lamentation. =Nenuphar= (It. _nenufar_). The great white water-lily of Europe. =Neocori=, Gr. and R. (1) Originally sweepers of the temple. (2) In early times applied to the priests in charge of temples. (3) Under the Roman emperors, to all Asiatic cities which had temples dedicated to an emperor; it occurs in this sense (Νεωκόρος) on the coins of Ephesus, Smyrna, and other cities. =Neoteric=, Gr. Of recent origin; modern. =Nepaul Paper.= A strong unsized paper, made in Nepaul from the pulverized bark of the _Daphne papyracea_. Sheets of this paper are sometimes made many yards square. =Nephrite.= A mineral. (See JADE.) =Neptunalia.= Festivals celebrated at Rome on the 23rd of July, in honour of Neptune. The people built huts of branches and foliage about the streets. =Nereids=, Gr. Nymphs of the sea, who were the constant attendants of Neptune. =Nero Antico=, It. Antique marble of Egyptian and other ancient statuary, of an intense black, probably the result of ages of exposure, as no marble of the same intensity of blackness is found in any quarries. Marble, called also _nero antico_, of two degrees of beauty, is quarried at Aubert (Girons) in France; and the mausoleum of Napoleon I. is constructed of this stone. =Nerved=, Her. Having fibres, as leaves. =Nerves=, Arch. The name is sometimes applied to the ribs and mouldings on the side surface of a vault. =Nessotrophium=, Gr. A place in a Roman villa for breeding domestic ducks. It was surrounded by a high wall, on which was a high ledge with nests for the birds. A pond was dug in the middle of the enclosure, which was planted with shrubs. =Net Tracery=, Arch. A simple and beautiful form of tracery of the _Decorated_ period, consisting of a series of loops resembling the meshes of a net, each loop being quatrefoiled. An example occurs in the east cloister of Westminster Abbey. =Nete=, Gr. The shortest string, or highest note, of the seven-stringed lyre. (See MESE.) =Netherstocks=, O. E. The name given to _stockings_ in the 16th century, as continuations of the trunk-hose or _upper stocks_. =Nethinim=, Heb. (from _nathan_, to give). The servants of the priests and Levites about the Temple. =Nettle-cloth.= A material made in Germany of very thick cotton, used as a substitute for japanned leather, on the peaks of caps, &c. =Network= (_filatorium opus_). An ancient method of embroidery in England, used for church use or household furniture, by darning or working the subject upon linen netting. This method chiefly prevailed in the 14th century. =Neuma= or =Pneuma= (lit. a breath). A musical passage consisting of a number of notes sung to one syllable, or simply to a sound, as “āh” prolonged. “In hujus fine _neumatizamus_, id est jubilamus, dum finem protrahimus, et ei velut caudam accingimus.” =Neutral Colour= is that resulting from a combination of blue, red, and yellow, resulting in grey. =Neutral Tint.= An artificial pigment used in water-colours, composed of sepia, and indigo and other blues, with madder and other lakes; producing a scale of _neutral colours_. =Neuvaines=, Fr. Chr. Set prayers repeated for _nine_ consecutive days. =Nevers Faience.= (See NIVERNAIS.) =Newcastle Glass.= A _crown_ glass, held the best for windows from 1728 to 1830, when it was superseded by the improved make of _sheet_ glass. It was of an ash colour, subject to specks, streaks, and other blemishes, and frequently warped. =Newel=, Arch. The upright central pillar supporting a geometrical staircase. =Newel Stairs=, Arch. Where the steps are _pinned_ into the wall, and there is no central pillar, the staircase is said to have an open or hollow newel. (See JOINERY.) [Illustration: Fig. 485. _Niche_ in the _Sigma_ of the _Caldarium_.] =Niche=, Arch. (It. _nicchia_, a sea-shell). A recess in a wall for a statue or bust. (Fig. 485.) =Niche-vaulting=, Arch. (Germ. _Muschelgewölbe_). A form of roofing in a semi-cupola design, common in the choirs of churches. =Nick=, =Old Nick=, O. E. (Icelandic _nikr_; A.S. _nicor_, a water-god). The devil. =Nickel= (contraction of _Kupfernickel_, or Nick’s copper, a term of derision given to it by the German miners). A white or reddish-white metal, from which nickel-silver is made. It is used to a large extent in the arts, being remarkable for the peculiar whiteness and silver-like lustre which it communicates to other metals when alloyed with them. =Nickel-silver.= German silver, or white metal, a compound of tin and nickel. =Niello.= The art of chasing out lines or forms, and inlaying a black composition called _nigellum_ or niello, was probably well known to the Greeks. The Byzantines compounded for this purpose silver, lead, sulphur, and copper, and laid it on the silver in a powder; being then passed through the furnace, it melted and incorporated with the solid metal. A process producing a similar result of black tracery is practised in porcelain painting, and called NIELLO-ENAMEL. =Nigged Ashlar=, O. E. Stone hewn with a pick or a pointed hammer, presenting a gnawed or nibbled surface: from the Swedish _nagga_, to gnaw. =Nilometer.= A building erected, A. D. 847, in the island of Rhoda, opposite to Cairo, for recording the annual rise of the Nile (i. e. 16 cubits). It is a slender octagonal shaft about 20 feet in height, with a Corinthian capital. (See the _Builder_, xvii. 255.) =Nimbed=, Her. Having the head encircled with a _nimbus_; usually represented by a circular line. =Nimbus= (Lat. _nimbus_, a bright or black cloud). In Christian art, a disc or plate, commonly golden, sometimes red, blue, or green, or banded like a rainbow, placed vertically behind the heads of persons of special dignity or sanctity as a symbol of honour. After the 8th century living persons were, in Italy, distinguished by a square nimbus, which sometimes assumed the form of a scroll partly unrolled. The nimbus is of heathen origin. Virgil describes Juno as “nimbo succincta.” The heads of the statues of the gods, and the Roman emperors, after they began to claim divine honours, were decorated with a crown of rays. On medals of the Christian emperors also the nimbus is found, e.g. Constantine. In illuminated MSS. it is found on Pharaoh, Ahab, and other kings. It is a familiar symbol of dignity or power in the East, but does not appear as a Christian emblem before the 6th century. [See the article NIMBUS in the _Dict. of Christian Antiquities_.] (See AUREOLE, GLORY, VESICA PISCIS, &c.) =Nincompoop=, O. E. A corruption of the Latin _non compos_; a fool. =Ninth.= In Music, an interval consisting of an octave and a tone, or semitone. =Nisan=, Heb. The month in the Jewish calendar answering to our April. =Nitrate of Silver=, used in photography, is silver dissolved in nitric acid. =Nivarius= (saccus), R. A bag of snow used as a wine-cooler. (See COLLUM VINARIUM.) [Illustration: Fig. 486. Jar. Nivernais Faience.] =Nivernais Faience.= An important branch of the ceramic art, established in 1608 at Nevers in France by the brothers Conrade. (Fig. 486.) =Nobbled Stone=, Arch. Stone roughly rounded at the quarry to diminish its bulk for transport. [Illustration: Fig. 487. Noble of Henry V.] =Noble.= A gold coin worth 6_s._ 8_d._ (Fig. 487.) =Nodes.= In Astronomy, the two points where the orbit of a heavenly body intersects the ecliptic. =Nodus=, Arch. The Latin name for a key-stone, or a _boss_ in vaulting. =Nog=, O. E. Timbers built into walls to strengthen the structure. They show on the plastering of houses in ornamental patterns. In Kent these houses are called “wood noggen” houses. =Noggin=, O. E. “A mug or pot of earth with a large belly and narrower mouth.” =Nogging=, Arch. Brickwork in panels carried between quarters. =Nome=, Egyp. (νομός). A division or district of Egypt; there were forty-four in all. Each nome was placed under the protection of a special divinity, and ruled by a resident military governor. =Nonagon.= A nine-sided polygon. =Nones.= (1) R. One of the three divisions of the Roman month; the ninth days before the IDES of each month. (2) Chr. One of the HOURS OF PRAYER (q.v.). =Nonunia=, O. E. A quick time in music, containing nine crotchets between the bars. (_Halliwell._) [Illustration: Fig. 488. Norman Architecture. The Round Church, Cambridge.] =Norman Architecture.= It was introduced into England at the Conquest, A. D. 1066, and was superseded in the 12th century by the Early English style. Solid massive masonry, round-headed doors and windows, and low square central tower are (broadly) its characteristics. Among details the zigzag and the billet mouldings are the most noticeable. (Fig. 488.) [Illustration: Fig. 489. Incrusted Tile. Norman. Middle Ages.] =Norman Pottery=, Mediæval. The illustration is from a pavement of a church of the 12th century. “Nothing,” says Jacquemart, “is more curious than the study of these tiles, in which, with rudimentary means, art already begins to manifest its power. There, in a graceful chequer-work, the fleur-de-lis of France heightens at intervals a semé of trefoils and rosettes; scrolls of notched leaves combine in graceful borders; circles divided crossways receive in their sections stars and heraldic suns; here are armour-clad warriors, mounted upon horses richly caparisoned, &c.—all that picturesque fancy assisted by the resources of heraldry could invent to animate the cold compartments of the pavement, and give a meaning to the vast naves trodden every day by the Christian multitude.” (_Histoire de l’Art Céramique._) (Fig. 489.) =Norns=, =Nornas=, Icelandic. The three Fates, whose names signify the Past, the Present, and the Future. =Norroy King at Arms.= The third of the kings at arms, whose jurisdiction lies to the north of the Trent. =North Side= of a church “was regarded as the source of the cold wind, and the haunt of Satan. In some Cornish churches there is an entrance called the devil’s door, adjoining the font, which was only opened at the time of the renunciation made in baptism, for the escape of the fiend. In consequence of these superstitions, and its sunless aspect, the northern parts of churchyards are usually devoid of graves.” (_Wallcott_, _Sacred Archæology_.) =Norwegian Architecture.= The timber-built churches are of great interest, and exhibit the wonderful durability of the Norwegian pine. They are generally in the form of a cross, with a tower in the centre ending in a cupola or spire, and with high pitched roofs. The ornamental details are elaborate and richly carved. The whole is often painted of a rich brown colour; sometimes of a bright red. Some of these churches date from the 11th or 12th century, and are an imitation in wood of the masonic style of the period. =Nosocomium=, R. (νοσο-κομεῖον). A hospital. =Notatus=, R. (_noto_, to mark). A slave branded with a hot iron. =Note of a Room.= The vibrations of the air in a chamber or vaulted space produce a musical _note_ proper to the dimensions and other conditions of the place, which a good musical ear can recognize and identify. [See _T. R. Smith’s Acoustics_, pp. 83–87.] =Nottingham White.= White lead. (See CARBONATE OF LEAD.) =November= (Lat. _novem_, nine). The _ninth_ month of the Roman year, which began with March. It consisted originally of thirty days, but Julius Cæsar added one to it. Augustus, however, reduced it to its original number. [Illustration: Fig. 490. Nowed. Device of the House of Savoy.] =Nowed=, Her. Coiled in a knot, as a snake. The illustration (Fig. 490) is the ordinary device of the house of Savoy—the “true lovers’ knot;” with the Latin motto, “It binds but constrains not.” =Nowel=, O. E. (Fr. _noel_, from _natalis_). A cry of joy; properly that at Christmas, of joy for the birth of the Saviour. It originally signified the feast of Christmas. =Nubilarium=, R. A shed used as a barn; it was situated close to the threshing-floor. =Numella=, =Numellus=, R. A kind of pillory for keeping men and animals in a fixed position. It was made use of in surgical operations, and as an instrument of torture. =Numismatics= (_numisma_, coined money). The science of coins and medals. The earliest known coins were issued by the Greeks, probably in the 8th century B.C. (See the Article in the _Encyclopædia Britan._, 8th edition, from which reference can be taken to exhaustive treatises on the various ramifications of this science.) =Nummud=, Persian. A carpet of felt much used in Persia. =Nun’s Thread.= A kind of thread formerly made to a large extent in Paisley. =Nun’s Work= (Fr. _œuvre de nonnain_). As early as the 14th century needlework was generally so described. Ancient lace is still so called in many parts of the country. =Nundinæ= (_novemdinæ_; from _novem_, nine, and _dies_, days). Roman weeks; the nomenclature including the day before and that after the seven days. The name was given to the weekly _market_-days at Rome. =Nupta=, R.(_nubo_, to wed). A married woman. [Illustration: Fig. 491. Nuremberg Vase, enamelled in relief.] =Nuremberg Vase.= Fig. 491 is one of the gems, of the Renaissance period, issued from Nuremberg; a vase with portraits heightened with enamels and gold. (_Jacquemart_.) =Nurhag= (Sardinian _Noraga_). Primitive buildings in the island of Sardinia, of remote antiquity, having turrets as high as 30 to 60 feet, and containing stones of 100 cubic feet each in their structure. [See _Waring_, _Stone Monuments_.] =Nurspell.= An old English game like trap, bat, and ball. It is played with a _kibble_, a _nur_, and a _spell_. When the end of the _spell_ is struck with the _kibble_, the _nur_ rises into the air, &c. =Nut.= In Christian symbolism, an emblem of the Divinity of Christ hidden in His manhood. St. Augustine has a long treatise on the symbolism of the husk, shell, and kernel of the nut. (_Serm. de temp. Dominic. ante Nativ._) =Nut Oil.= This medium for colour-grinding is derived from the walnut; as a vehicle it is preferred to linseed oil, and is the quickest dryer. (See MEDIUMS, OILS.) =Nutmeg Ornament=, Arch. A common feature in Early English work in the _north_ of England, but not in the south. It resembles half a nutmeg, and is carved at certain distances apart in the hollow of a dripstone at St. Mary’s Church, Nunmonkton, Yorkshire. =Nuttoo=, Hind. A nose-stud or ornament worn by Indian women, often set with brilliants, rubies, emeralds, and pearls. [Illustration: Fig. 492. Nymphæum of Egeria, near Rome.] =Nymphæum=, =Nympheum= (νύμφαιον and νυμφεῖον). Literally, _a building consecrated to the nymphs_. It was a large and richly-decorated chamber, with columns, niches, and statues, and a fountain in the centre. Nymphæa were often erected near the head of a spring, and formed cool and agreeable retreats. Fig. 492 represents a portion of the ruins of the nymphæum of Egeria, near Rome; and Fig. 493 the interior of the nymphæum at Nismes, restored. In Christian times the fountains or cisterns common at the doors of churches were called _nymphæa_. [Illustration: Fig. 493. Nymphæum at Nismes (restored).] =Nymphs.= Inferior goddesses of the mountains, forests, waters, or meadows. Those presiding over rivers, &c., were OCEANIDES, NAIADS, NEREIDS; those over mountains, OREIADS; those over woods and trees, DRYADS and HAMADRYADS; those over valleys, NAPÆÆ, &c. They were represented in art as beautiful young women. The waters of Hades had their presiding nymphs, the AVERNALES. O. =O= was used as a numeral by the ancients to represent 11, and with a dash over it (Ō) to denote 11,000. =O=, O. E. Anything circular. Shakspeare calls the stars “those fiery O’s.” =Oak-apple Day=, O. E. The 29th of May, in commemoration of the escape of King Charles in the oak-tree. =Oak-tree=, the emblem of virtue, force, and strength, is frequently introduced in ancient sculpture. In Christian art an attribute of St. Boniface, in allusion to his cutting down a Druidical oak. =Oasis= (from the Coptic _ouah_, a resting-place). One of the verdant spots that occur at intervals in the deserts of Africa; hence any fertile spot in a desert, with the obvious symbolical application. =Oast-house=, O. E. A kiln for drying hops. =Oban.= The principal gold coin of Japan, worth about 4_l._ 2_s._ =Obba=, Gr. and R. (ἄμβιξ). A drinking-vessel of earthenware or wood, probably funnel-shaped; hence— =Obbatus=, Gr. and R. Made in the shape of an _obba_, that is, terminating in a point. The term is often applied to the cap of the Dioscuri. [Illustration: Fig. 494. Egyptian Obelisk.] =Obelisk= (ὀβελίσκος, lit. a small spit). Also called a needle. A tall, rectangular, monolithic column, of slightly pyramidal shape, invented by the Egyptians; in nearly every case they are covered from the base to the top, and on all four sides, with hieroglyphic symbols. (Fig. 494.) =Oberon.= The king of the fairies. =Obex=, R. (_objicio_, to obstruct). Any contrivance to keep a door closed, such as a bolt, lock, latch, iron bar, &c. =Oblata=, Chr. The sacred bread. This word was more commonly applied to the _unconsecrated_ loaf, and HOSTIA to the _consecrated_. (For particulars respecting the preparation and the form of _oblates_, see the article ELEMENTS in _Smith and Cheetham_, _Dict. of Christian Antiquities_.) In the same manner OBLATI were lay-brothers in a monastery who had not taken the vows. =Oblate.= Flattened or shortened like the earth at the poles. The earth is an _oblate_ spheroid. =Oblationarium=, Chr. A small table placed near the high altar, or at the end of one of the side aisles, on which the people laid their offerings. It was also used, when in the choir, to hold the sacred utensils in place of the _credence table_. In the Greek Church the _oblationarium_ is still used for the bread, wine, and sacred vessels required in the mass. =Oble=, =Oblete= (Lat. _oblata_), O. E. The consecrated wafer distributed to communicants at mass. “Ne Jhesu was nat the _oble_ That reysed was at the sacre.” (_Harl. MS._) Hence, a wafer-cake, sweetened with honey, and made of the finest wheaten bread. =Oboe= or =Hautboy= (from Fr. _haut_, high, and _bois_, wood). A wind instrument like a flute, sounded through a reed. =Obolo=, Mod. A copper coin, worth about a halfpenny, circulated in the Ionian Islands. =Obolos=, Gr. (derived from ὀβολὸς, a brooch, originally). A small copper coin worth the sixth part of a drachm. The obolos in later times was of bronze; but in the best times of Athens it was of silver. Its value in the Æginetan standard was 1·166 of a penny. =Obscœna=, Chr. Obscene representations frequently met with in Christian iconography, which, according to De Canmont, are “to warn the faithful that they ought to enter the temple with pure hearts, leaving outside all the passions that soil the soul.” =Obsidian.= A volcanic glass found near volcanoes, used in antiquity for the manufacture of mirrors, axes, knives, &c. (See GLASS.) =Obstragulum=, R. A long leather strap (_amentum_) worn as a fastening to the _crepida_. =Obstrigillum=, R. A shoe, the sides of which were lengthened into a lappet over the instep. =Obturaculum=, =Obturamentum=, R. (_obturo_, to stop up). A stopper for the neck of a bottle or the mouth of a vessel. =Obverse.= Of a coin, the face, or side which bears the principal symbol. The other side is the REVERSE. =Ocal=, Span. Coarse silk. =Occabus=, R. (ὄκκαβος). A kind of spoon. =Occidental Diamond.= A precious stone of inferior hardness and beauty. =Occultation.= The disappearance or eclipse of one heavenly body behind another. =Ocellata=, R. (lit. marked with _ocelli_ or spots). Marbles used as playthings by children. =Ocellated.= Full of eyes; said of a peacock’s tail. (See Fig. 398.) =Ochre.= Argillaceous earth of different colours which, when finely ground, is used as a pigment. _Red ochre_ is a form of specular iron ore; _brown ochre_ is a variety of hæmatite. The _yellow ochres_ become red when calcined, but the finest reds are made from those which are brown in the bed. Native red ochre is called _red chalk_ or _reddle_ in England. _Spanish Brown_, _Indian Red_, _Venetian Red_, and the yellow ochres have nearly the same composition. The other ochres are known as _Oxford_, _Roman_, and _stone ochres_, and as _terra di Sienna_ and _umber_. They are all valuable and durable pigments for oil, water, or enamel painting. (See AMATITA.) =Ocrea=, R. A greave; a piece of armour which covered the shin-bone from below the knee to the ankle. It was generally richly ornamented by designs embossed or chased upon it. (Modern JAMBES.) =Octagon.= A figure of eight equal sides, considered as an emblem of regeneration; consequently the proper form for baptistries and fonts. (_Fairholt._) =Octahedron.= A solid contained by eight equal sides, which are equilateral triangles. =Octastyle=, R. (ὀκτά-στυλος). An _octastyle_ portico is a portico having eight columns in front; _octastyle_ pediment, a pediment supported by eight columns. The pediment of the Parthenon at Athens, from which the Elgin Marbles come, is an _octastyle_. =Octave.= (1) In Music, the longest interval in the diatonic scale; as from _do_ to _do_, or C to C. (2) Chr. Eight days, or the eighth day after a Church festival (the festival being included) kept as a repetition or prolongation of the festival. It is a Western custom unknown to the Eastern Church. =October.= The eighth month of the old Roman year, but the tenth in the calendar of Numa, Julius Cæsar, &c. It was sacred to Mars, and a horse called the _October equus_ was annually sacrificed to Mars. =Octofoil=, Her. A double _quatrefoil_; the _difference_ of a ninth son. =Octophoron= or =Octaphoron=, Gr. and R. (ὀκτώφορον). A litter (_lectica_) borne by eight slaves. [Illustration: Fig. 495. Ocularium in a helmet.] =Ocularium=, Med. Lat. The narrow slit or opening for the sight in a helmet. (See Fig. 495.) =Oculus=, Chr. A round window of frequent occurrence in the tympanum of the pediment in Latin basilicas, and occasionally in certain churches of the 11th century. =Ode= (ᾠδὴ, a song). A short lyrical poem, intended to be sung to the accompaniment of an instrument, especially the _lyre_; hence the expression _lyric_ poetry. [Illustration: Fig. 496. Ground-plan of the Odeon at Athens.] =Odeon= (ᾠδεῖον; ᾠδὴ, a song). A small theatre at Athens, built by Pericles for musical performances. By analogy, the name was applied to any theatre built on a circular plan and covered with a roof, like that of Athens, shown in Fig. 496. [Illustration: Fig. 497. Ground-plan of a Greek house.] =Œcos=, =Œcus=, Gr. (οἶκος). A Greek house; the term, however, denoted rather a large apartment resembling the atrium, but entirely shut in, that is to say, without impluvium. In Fig. 497, A is the œcus; B, C, two rooms forming offices; D, a tablinum; E, a portico; G, the entrance to the house; H, work-rooms; J, the triclinium. _Œcus tetrastylos_ was a house in which four columns supported the roof; _œcus Corinthius_, having one order of columns supporting an architrave, cornice, and an arched roof; _œcus Egyptius_, in which the pillars supported a gallery with a paved floor, forming a walk round the apartment; above these pillars others were placed, one-fourth less in height; and between the upper columns were placed windows; and the _œcus Cyzicenus_, which looked to the north, and, if possible, faced gardens, to which it opened by folding doors, was a summer-house. (See DOMUS.) =Œil-de-bœuf=, Arch. A small round or oval window in a roof. =Œillets.= (See OILLETS.) [Illustration: Fig. 498. Œnochoê, decorated with _zoophori_, or bands of animals.] [Illustration: Fig. 498 a. Œnochoê, or Wine-jug, in black glazed earthenware.] =Œnochoê= (Gr. οἶνος, wine, and χέω, to pour). An earthen vase used to take the wine out of the crater and distribute it into cups. It is the vase carried by the goddesses, and used for libations. (Figs. 498, 498 a.) =Œnophorum=, Gr. and R. (οἰνοφόρον). A light case or basket for carrying wine. =Œnopolium=, Gr. and R. (οἰνοπώλιον). The shop of a dealer who sold wine to be carried away; distinct from the _taberna meritoria_ or _deversoria_, which was a public tavern. =Offendix=, R. A string by which the _apex_, or cap worn by the flamens, Salians, or other members of priestly colleges, was fastened under the chin. =Offertoria=, Chr. (1) The anthems sung in a Christian church while the oblations were received; mentioned by Isidorus, A. D. 595: “Offertoria quæ in sacrificiorum honore canuntur.” (2) Large plates, which, in the Christian churches of Gaul, served to collect the bread which the Christians had just laid on the altar. A beautiful specimen of such dishes, found in Siberia in 1867, and described by Rossi, is 6 inches in diameter, and weighs 1½ lbs. It has a relief in _repoussé_ work, consisting of a cross planted on a small globe studded with stars, beneath which issue the four rivers of Paradise; and on either side stand two nimbed angels, holding a rod in the left hand, and raising their right hand towards the cross in token of adoration. De Rossi regards this dish as the work of Byzantine goldsmiths of the 6th century. (3) At Rome, acolytes went in and out among the people, and collected the offerings in napkins of line linen or richer material called also _offertoria_. =Offertories=, in Egyptian archæology, are offerings made to the gods, of various shapes; such as outstretched hands supporting a cup, or spoons of ivory, wood, or bronze, the handle of which is formed by a human figure. =Officina=, R. A workshop, in contradistinction to _taberna_, a store, and _apotheca_, a shop; thus, _officina ærariorum_ was a goldsmith’s workshop; _officina fullonum_, a fuller’s establishment. [Illustration: Fig. 499. Device of the Offuscati Academy.] =Offuscati.= One of the Italian literary academies. They bore for their device a bear, roused from his natural heaviness by the stings of bees, with the motto, “Stings (or points) will sharpen steel.” (Fig. 499.) =Ogam=, Celtic. The sacred writing of the Druids. (Cf. OGHAM.) =Ogee Arch= or =Contrasted Arch= or =Moulding=, Arch. An arch or moulding described by means of four centres, so as to be alternately concave and convex. It was frequently employed in fifteenth-century monuments, and its constant recurrence in the _later Gothic_ or _flamboyant_ architecture has given rise to its French name of _ogival_. =Ogham.= A kind of shorthand writing or cipher in use among the ancient Irish. (_S._) =Ogivale=, Fr. A French architectural term of constant occurrence, applied to the architecture of the mediæval period in France, during which the _pointed arch_ was used. =Ogive=, Fr. Arch. A _pointed_ arch; _not_ the OGEE. =Ogivette=, Arch. A small ogee. =Ogress=, Her. A pellet or black roundle. =Oil Painting= was introduced in Flanders by the brothers Van Eyck in 1410, and in Italy by Antonello da Messina in or about 1455. =Oillets= or =Oylets=. Loopholes. =Oils.= The fixed oils used in painting are _linseed_, _walnut_, and _poppy_, purified and rendered drying by the addition of _litharge_. They should be pale in colour, limpid, and transparent, and should dry quickly: _nut oil_ in a few hours, _linseed_ in a day, and _poppy oil_ in thirty-six to forty hours. The essential oils used in painting are _turpentine_, for diluting the pigments ground in oil, and _spike_, or _lavender_, for wax and enamel painting. =Oinerusis=, Gr. (οἰν-ήρυσις). (See ARYSTICHOS.) =Ointment-box=, in Christian art, is the attribute of St. Mary Magdalene, St. Joseph of Arimathæa, and other saints. [Illustration: Fig. 500. Covered Tazza; Faience of Oiron. In the Louvre.] =Oiron=, a small town in France (so named from the flocks of geese which circle round it _Oi-rond_ in winter), is the place where the fine faiences, usually called Henri II. ware, were made. “Here is France,” says M. Jacquemart, “in the 16th century in possession of a pottery, the discovery of which is attributed 200 years later to England.” There are only about fifty pieces known, five of which may be seen in the South Kensington Museum. =Okel=, Egyp. A caravanserai. A large covered court surrounded by two stories of galleries, of which the lower is used as shops, &c., and the upper one as lodging-rooms. =Oldham.= A coarse kind of cloth originated at Oldham in Norfolk, _temp._ Richard II. =Olibanum.= A gum-resin used for incense. =Oliphant=, A.S. An elephant; hence a hunting-horn of ivory. =Olive.= A blue-grey colour; violet mixed with green. =Olive=(-tree). (1) In Christian art, the emblem of peace and concord, and frequent on early Christian tombs in the catacombs, with or without the dove. (2) Arch. Its leaf was introduced into sculpture by the ancients, in wreaths or garlands. The Corinthian order is enriched with _olive_-leaves, as are almost all the antiques at Rome of this order. (3) R. The _corona oleagina_, an honorary wreath made of olive-leaves, was conferred by the Romans on soldiers and commanders through whose instrumentality a triumph had been obtained when they were not personally present in the action. (4) Gr. It was the _olive_-tree that Minerva caused to spring from the ground in the citadel at Athens. (5) The colour and grain of the wood, and of the root portion especially, are very beautiful, and valuable for decorative and cabinet-work. =Olivette.= A Flemish name for _poppy oil_. =Olivine.= A variety of _chrysolite_ of a dark green, commonly called bottle-green colour. =Olla=, R. An earthenware vessel of very common make. It resembled our flower-pots, but had swelling sides, and was covered with a lid. It was used for cooking meat and vegetables and for preserving grapes (_uva ollaria_), and as a cinerary urn (_olla ossuaria_ or _cineraria_). Hence— =Olla-podrida=, Sp. A stew of meat and vegetables mixed, common in Spain. The word is used to describe any other incongruous mixture. =Ollarium=, R. A niche in a sepulchral chamber, in which the _olla ossuaria_ was placed. (See CINERARIUM, Fig. 160.) =Olpê=, Gr. (ὄλπη). A kind of _aryballos_ with a curved handle, but no spout (originally a leather oil-flask). =Olympiad=, Gr. (Ὀλυμπίας). The period of four years between two consecutive celebrations of the Olympic games. The first Olympiad began B.C. 776. =Olympic Games=, Gr. Games instituted by Hercules in honour of Jupiter Olympius; they were the most ancient and celebrated in all Greece. They derived their name from Olympia, in Greece, where they were celebrated. They were finally suppressed by Theodosius, A. D. 394. =Ombre.= A kind of damask. =Ombros.= The name for a particular quality of _madder_. =Omophagi=, Gr. (ὠμο-φάγοι, sc. δαῖτες, i. e. flesh-eating banquets). Festivals held at Chio and Tenedos in honour of Bacchus. =Omophorion.= (1) An article of female dress, worn on the _shoulders_. (2) A vestment of the Greek Church, consisting of a long woollen band with embroidered crosses. It is typical of the lost sheep borne home on the shoulders of the Shepherd. =Onager=, =Onagrus=, R. An engine for hurling stones of great size. =Onicolo= or =Nicolo=. A variety of the onyx, with a deep-brown ground, on which is a band of bluish white, used for making cameos. =Onocentaurs.= Fabulous animals, half man, half ass. =Onychomancy= (_onyx_, a nail). Divination by means of the marks on the nails of the hands. =Onyx= (ὄνυξ, a finger-nail). (1) A general name for the varieties of the agate which consist of alternate layers of white, brown, or black, greatly valued by the ancients for cameos. In the Christian symbolism the onyx typifies innocence and candour. (See ONICOLO.) (2) The name has also been applied by the ancients to Oriental alabaster. (3) Onyx marble was a name given to Algerian marble from Oran, of which “pure white, brilliant red, golden yellow, and hues of green, with every variety of striation and flocculence, exist.” [See the _Building News_, xiv. 489.] =Opa=, =Opê=, Gr. Arch. (ὀπή). A cavity in which a tie-beam (_tignum_) rests; whence the space included between two ὀπαὶ or _tigna_ was called _metopa_ or _intertignum_. =Opacity.= Want of transparency. =Opaion=, Gr. Arch. The panels on a ceiling formed by the intersection of its beams. =Opal.= A semi-transparent stone, remarkable for the play of colours that it exhibits. Three varieties are, the _oriental opal_, called also the _noble_ opal and the _harlequin_ opal, remarkable for its flashes of brilliant colours having a triangular disposition. The affection that the ancients entertained for this beautiful gem was unbounded. The Roman senator Nonnius preferred exile to parting with a brilliant opal the size of a filbert which Marc Antony coveted. The _fire opal_ is furnished principally by Mexico. Its colour, more pronounced than that of the _oriental_ opal, and the carmine or vinous red tint of its fires, permit it to be easily recognized. The _common opal_ displays very little fire; its colour is milk-white, which, joined to a texture extremely homogeneous, renders it semi-transparent. [_L. Dieulafait._] =Opal Glass=, called also Milk-white Glass; prepared for globes to lamps, &c. =Opales=, =Opalia=, R. Festivals of Ops, the wife of Saturn, which were held every year on the fourteenth of the calends of January (19th of December). =Opalescent.= Having a play of colours like the _opal_. =Open-tide=, O. E. The season between Epiphany and Ash-Wednesday, when marriages were publicly solemnized. =Opera.= A lyrical drama set to music; originated at Florence in the 16th century. [Consult _Doni_ (passim), _Arteaga Manfredini_, _Signorelli_, &c.; also _Dr. Burney’s Tours and Correspondence_, and _Grimm’s Correspondence_.] =Operculum=, R. A cover for any kind of earthenware vessel. =Ophicleide= (ὄφις, a serpent, and κλεὶς, a key). A wind instrument of brass or copper made in the form of a serpent. Generally, the bass of a military band. =Ophiomancy=, Gr. Divination by snakes. =Ophiomorphous.= Snake-shaped. =Ophite= or =Ophiolite=. Green porphyry or SERPENTINE. =Ophites=, Chr. A sect which arose in the 2nd century in the Christian Church. They believed that the Serpent who tempted Eve was Christ himself. They are also called SERPENTINIANS. (_S._) [Illustration: Fig. 501. Opima Spolia. Trophy of Gallic Ensigns.] =Opima Spolia=, R. The “spoils of honour,” consisting of armour set up as a trophy and dedicated in the temple of Jupiter Feretrius at Rome. These were spoils taken from the chief of a hostile army, who had been killed by the hand of a Roman general. Plutarch asserts that the _spolia opima_ were actually taken only three times. =Opinicus=, Her. A fabulous heraldic monster; a dragon before and a lion behind, with a camel’s tail. =Opisthodomos=, Gr. (ὀπισθό-δομος). Latin, =Posticum=. A small chamber placed at the back of a temple, to which the priests alone had access. =Oporotheca=, Gr. (ὀπωρο-θήκη). A storehouse for fruits. =Oppidan.= At Eton College, a boy who is not a king’s scholar, and boards in the town. [Illustration: Fig. 502. Oppidum and carceres of the circus of Caracalla.] =Oppidum=, R. A fortified town, and thence the mass of buildings occupying the extremity of a circus, in which were the stalls for the chariots and horses (_carceres_). Fig. 502 gives a representation of the _oppidum_ in the circus of Caracalla. =Optical Correction= is a name given to the task of adapting art objects, or architectural proportions and ornaments, to the circumstances of distance or comparison in which they are to be exhibited. Belzoni observes that the heads of colossal Egyptian statues are proportionally larger than the lower members. (For numerous examples of this contrivance, see the article in the _Architectural Publication Society’s Dictionary_.) =Optics= (Gr. ὄπτομαι, to see). The science of the nature and properties of light; of its changes as it penetrates or is reflected or absorbed by bodies; of the structure of the eye, and the laws of vision; and of instruments in connexion with sight. It is thus closely connected with the science of colour, and the arts in general. The earliest treatise extant on this science is Euclid’s _Optica et Catoptrica_. (Cf. _Dr. Smith’s Optics_, &c.) =Optigraph.= A telescope for copying landscapes. (See CLAUDE GLASS.) =Optostratum=, R. (ὀπτὸς, brick, and στρωτὸν, strewn). A brick pavement, often arranged in a herring-boned pattern, as in the OPUS SPICATUM. (Fig. 509.) =Opus Albarium.= (See STUCCO.) [Illustration: Fig. 503. Alexandrinum opus.] =Opus Alexandrinum.= A mosaic flooring much used by the Romans, consisting of geometric figures, and generally of only two kinds of tessera, red and black on a white ground. (See MUSIVUM OPUS.) =Opus Araneum= (spider-work). A kind of embroidery, 13th century; modern “guipure d’art.” =Opus Consutum.= Appliqué work in embroidery. (See APPLIQUÉ.) =Opus Filatorium.= A kind of embroidery, 14th century; modern “filet brodé.” =Opus Græcum=, R. Inlaid pavement. (See MUSIVUM OPUS.) =Opus Incertum=, R. A Roman method of building; the construction of walls of very small rough stones, not laid in courses, but held together by the mortar. [Illustration: Fig. 504. Pseud-iso-domum opus, with a course of opus insertum.] =Opus Insertum=, R. A Roman method of building, of courses of flat tiles, the most durable of all. Such courses were also introduced in the other kinds of stone and brick walls, in which they served as bond-courses, and also kept the damp from rising from the ground. [Illustration: Fig. 505. Musivum opus.] =Opus Musivum.= Mosaic. (See MUSIVUM.) =Opus Pectineum= (comb-wrought). Woven work imitating embroidery. =Opus Phrygianum=, R. Fine embroidery. (See ORPHREY.) =Opus Plumarium= (feather-stitch). Embroidery of which the stitches overlap one another like the feathers of a bird. [Illustration: Fig. 506. Pseud-iso-domum opus.] =Opus Pseud-iso-domum=, Gr. (lit. _quasi-equal_ structure). A Greek method of building in which the courses are (1) parallel and unequal, but regular among themselves, as in Fig. 506; or (2) irregular altogether, as in the Gate of Lions at Mycenæ, Fig. 507 (or in Fig. 504). [Illustration: Fig. 507. Gate of Lions at Mycenæ. Pseud-iso-domum opus.] =Opus Pulvinarium= (cushion-style). Embroidery like modern Berlin work, generally used for cushions. [Illustration: Fig. 508. Structura reticulata.] =Opus Reticulatum=, R. A Roman method of construction, with an ornamental surface resembling the meshes of a _net_. [Illustration: Fig. 509. Spicatum opus.] =Opus Spicatum=, R. Herring-bone masonry. =Or=, Her. The metal gold, expressed in engraving by small dots, as on Fig. 375. =Or basané=, Fr. Leather stamped in gold, used as hangings in the 16th and 17th centuries. =Ora=, R. The cable which fastened the stern of a ship to the shore, while the ANCORALE kept her head out to sea. =Ora.= An old Saxon coin of 16 or 20 pence in value. =Orange.= The colour formed by the mixture of 5 parts of red and 3 parts of yellow. It is the complementary of blue. The nearest pigment is _cadmium yellow_. =Orange Chrome.= A sub-chromate of lead, which yields a beautiful orange pigment. =Orange Madder lake.= (See MADDER.) =Orange Minium.= (See MINIUM.) =Orange Vermilion.= A durable pigment for oil and water-colours, in colour resembling _red lead_. =Orange Yellow.= A yellow inclining to red, represented by molybdate of lead. (_Ansted_, _Elementary Course_.) =Orange tree.= In Christian art, symbol of the “Heavenly Bride.” =Oranti=, It. The name given to certain male and female figures found in the catacomb frescoes at Rome, represented with the hands spread in the Eastern attitude of prayer. =Orarium=, R. A scarf or handkerchief thrown to the crowd in a circus, to wave to the chariot-drivers. In Christian archæology, (1) A scarf affixed to the pastoral staff; as early as the 13th century. (2) The stole. (3) The border of an ecclesiastical vestment. (_Planché._) (See =Stole=, =Sudarium=.) =Orb.= One of the emblems of sovereignty with which kings are solemnly invested at their coronation. It is a globe surmounted by a cross, and is held in the palm of the left hand. In Art it is a common attribute of the Infant Saviour. =Orca=, Gr. and R. (ὄρκη or ὕρχα). An earthenware vessel of large size, but smaller than the amphora; it was used for holding salted fish. The diminutive is _orcula_; the modern Italian _orcio_. =Orchestra=, Gr. and R. (ὀρχήστρα, i. e. dancing-place). The lowest part of the Greek and Roman theatres; usually occupied by the chorus. It contained an altar, on which sacrifices to Bacchus were sometimes made. =Orchestrino.= A modern musical instrument invented by Poulleau. It was shaped like a pianoforte with similar finger-keys, and the sounds were produced by the friction of a bow upon strings. =Orchestrion.= A modern portable organ, invented by the Abbé Vogler about 1789. A similarly-named instrument invented in 1796 by Kunz, a Bohemian, consisted of a pianoforte combined with some organ-stops. =Orcula.= Diminutive of _orca_. =Order.= In classical architecture, a column entire; i. e. base, shaft, capital, and entablature. There are usually said to be five _orders_: the Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite. =Orders of Knighthood.= (See KNIGHTHOOD.) =Ordinary=, Her. An early principal charge of a simple character. =Oread.= A mountain-nymph. =Oreæ=, R. (_ora_, the mouth). A snaffle-bit for horses. =Oreiller=, Her. A cushion or pillow. =Oreillettes=, Fr. Ear-pieces on helmets; 15th and 16th centuries. =Orfrays.= The gold, silver, or silk embroidery on rich garments, chiefly sacerdotal ornaments. The term has two derivations; some derive it from _aurum Phrygium_, because the Phrygians, who were excellent embroiderers, were considered to have invented the style; others take it to be from _aurum fractum_ (broken). In mediæval Latin the term for orfrays was _aurifrigia_, _aurifrisa_, _aurifrisus_, and _aurifrixus_. [Illustration: Fig. 510. Regals or Portable Organ.] =Organ.= Organs are said to have been first introduced into France, A. D. 289, from Greece. A large organ existed in Westminster Abbey in the 10th century. Portable organs called also REGALS were also common. The antique organs had no key-boards, which were introduced in the 11th century, simultaneously with the invention of the musical _stave_. (Cf. HYDRAULA.) The REGALS or portable organ is an attribute of St. Cecilia. (Fig. 510.) =Organdi.= A kind of muslin. =Organistrum=, O. E. A musical instrument, resembling the modern hurdy-gurdy, played by two persons, of whom one turned the handle, while the other played the keys. =Organolyricon.= A musical instrument invented in Paris in 1810 by M. de St. Pern. It consists of a pianoforte with two rows of keys, and contains twelve different wind instruments, viz. three flutes, an oboe, a clarionet, a bassoon, horns, trumpet, and fife. =Organzine.= Thrown silk of a very fine texture. (_S._) =Orgies=, Gr. (ὄργια). Festivals of Bacchus at which all who were present were carried away by frenzy. The same term was also used to denote the festivals of Ceres and those of the CABIRI. =Orgues=, Fr. Med. (1) Pieces of timber, pointed and shod with iron, hung like a portcullis over a gateway, to be let down in case of attack. (2) An arrangement of gun-barrels, the precursor of the mitrailleuse. (_S._) =Orgyia= (from ὀρέγω, to extend). A Greek measure of length, representing the distance from end to end of the _outstretched_ arms, or the height of the human figure. It was equal to four cubits or six feet, and was one-hundredth of a stadium. =Orichalcum= (from ὄρος and χαλκὸς, i. e. _mountain bronze_). A metallic compound, akin to copper and bronze, which was highly prized by the ancients. It was probably _brass_. =Oriel= or =Oriole=, Chr. (_oriolum_, a little entrance). A projecting angular window, generally triangular or pentagonal in shape. A large bay or recessed window in a church or in an apartment. The word has been used in many senses, with the general meaning of a recess within or a projection from a building. A small oratory. =Orientation=, Chr. The arrangement of a church by which a worshipper faces the _east_ at prayers. =Oriflamme.= The ancient royal banner of France, coloured purple-azure and gold. It was split into five points, and sometimes bore upon it a _saltire_ wavy, from the centre of which golden rays diverged. =Orillon=, Fr. A mass of earth lined with a wall on the shoulder of a bastion, for the protection of a gun. [Illustration: Fig. 511. Orle or crest-wreath.] =Orle.= (1) Arch. A fillet or listel placed beneath the ovolo of a capital. (2) In Heraldry, a subordinary formed of a border of a shield which is charged upon another and a larger shield. (3) The wreath or torse which encircled the crest, composed ordinarily of silk of two colours twisted together, and representing the principal metal and tincture in the wearer’s armorial bearings. (_Planché._) =Orleans.= A cloth made of worsted and cotton. =Orlo.= A Spanish musical instrument. =Orlop-deck= of a ship. That over the hold, on which the cables are stowed. =Ormolu=, Fr. (_or_, gold, and _moulu_, ground). 72·43 copper, 25·2 zinc, and 2·65 tin; used for cheap jewellery, &c. _Mosaic gold_, another name for such a metal, is composed of 65 copper and 35 zinc. =Ormolu Varnish.= A copper, bronze, or imitation-gold varnish. =Ornithon=, R. (ὀρνιθών). A poultry-yard or aviary. =Orpharion=, O. E. A kind of lute. (_Halliwell._) =Orpheon.= A musical instrument. =Orphrey.= An old English word for gold embroidery, from the Latin _auriphrygium_. (See ORFRAYS.) =Orpiment= (Lat. _auripigmentum_; Ang. _king’s yellow_). A yellow pigment of arsenic with sulphur, or, when the arsenic predominates, an orange colour. The finest native orpiment comes from Persia, and is called _golden orpiment_. =Orpin=, O. E., contraction of =Orpiment=. Yellow arsenic. =Orrery.= A machine for representing in a model the motions and relative positions of the heavenly bodies. =Orrice= or =Orris=. A peculiar pattern in which gold or silver lace is worked. The edges are ornamented with conical figures, placed at equal distances, with spots between them. [Illustration: Fig. 512. Orthostata. Facing of a Greek wall.] =Orthostata=, Gr. (ὀρθόστατα, i. e. standing upright). (1) The facings of a wall, consisting of different materials from the internal part of it. (Fig. 512.) (2) An anta or pilaster. =Orthron.= (See HOURS OF PRAYER.) =Oscen=, _plur._ =Oscines=, R. (_os_, mouth, and _cano_, to predict). A bird or birds from whose singing it was possible to draw auguries. =Oschophoria=, Gr. (ὀσχο-φόρια, i. e. vine-branch-bearing). Athenian vintage festivals, instituted in honour of Bacchus and Ariadne by Theseus, or according to other authorities, in honour of Dionysus and Athena, in which those who took part carried vine-boughs loaded with grapes. The festival was concluded by a race on the seashore from the temple of Bacchus to that of Minerva. The victor’s prize was a cup called PENTAPLOA, because it contained _five_ ingredients: wine, honey, cheese, meal, and oil. =Oscillatio=, R. A swing. The Roman swings are represented having legs like a chair. =Oscilla=, R. (dimin. of _os_, mouth or face). Small images or masks, generally of Bacchus, hung up in vineyards to ensure a good crop, and practically useful to scare off birds from the grapes. =Osculare=, =Osculatorium=, Chr. (See PAX.) =Ossarium= and =Ossuarium=, R. (_os_, a bone). A sarcophagus of earthenware, stone, or marble, in which the vessel containing the cremated ashes of the dead was placed. =Ossature=, Arch. (from the Italian _ossatura_, skeleton). The skeleton or framework of a Gothic roof or a window. In the roof, the ossature comprises the nerves, the transverse or longitudinal arches, the diagonal rib, &c.; in a window, the iron framing. =Osteau=, Arch. An old term used to denote the rose placed in the upper part of a mullioned window; it was also applied to a rosace and a medallion. =Ostinati.= An Italian literary academy, whose device was a pyramid blown from all quarters by the winds, with the _obstinate_ motto, “_Frustra_” (in vain). =Ostium=, R. A lobby inside the entrance door of a Roman house, deep enough to contain a small porter’s lodge on one side, and leading to an inner door which opened on the ATRIUM. The street door was called JANUA. (See DOMUS.) =Ostrich Eggs=, Chr. The practice of suspending eggs of ostriches in churches was probably introduced from the East by Crusaders. “In some churches two eggs of ostriches, and other things which cause admiration, and which are rarely seen, are accustomed to be suspended: that by their means the people may be drawn to church, and have their minds the more affected.” (_Durandus on Symbolism._) =Ostrum=, R. A purple colour used by the ancients, produced from the juice of the _murex_ fish. =Othone=, Chr. (See STOLE.) =Ottone=, It. Brass. =Oubliettes=, Fr. Subterranean dungeons, into which prisoners were thrown to be _oubliés_ (forgotten). The side walls were in some cases armed with strong sharp blades, which cut the victims to pieces as they fell. It should be mentioned that in many cases cesspools have been mistaken for oubliettes. =Ouch= or =Nouche=, O. E. An ornament of the brooch kind; a jewel. (Mod.) The setting of a precious stone. =Oudenardes.= Tapestry landscapes first made at that place; called also “_tapisseries de verdure_.” =Ourania=, Gr. (οὐρανια, i. e. in the air). A game at catch-ball. =Outline=, which has no real existence in nature, is defined by Aristotle as πέρας στερεοῦ, “the boundary of solid form.” The only light and shade used in outlines is the greater lightness or darkness of the lines. =Outré=, Fr. Exaggerated, fantastic, absurd. =Oval= (Lat. _ovum_, an egg). The oval, formed of a continuous curve, differs from the ELLIPSE, which is equally broad at both ends, in having one end narrower than the other, and is sometimes called a false ellipse. _Ovals_ in windows, arches, and other parts of architecture exist, but are rare. =Ovatio.= A lesser triumph distinguished from TRIUMPHUS. The general entered the city _on foot_, and dressed in the toga prætexta of a magistrate, attended only by musicians, and knights and plebeians; and the sacrifice by which the ceremony concluded was a _sheep_ (ovis) instead of a bull; hence the word _ovation_. =Overstory=, Arch. The CLERESTORY. =Overture= (Fr. _ouverture_, an opening; It. _sinfonia_). Instrumental music preceding an opera, &c. =Ovile=, R. Literally, a _sheep-fold_, and thence an enclosure in the Campus Martius in which each century assembled before proceeding to place its votes (_tabellæ_) in the urn (_cista_). It was divided into compartments approached through narrow passages called _pontes_ of _ponticuli_. On entering, the citizens received their voting-tablets (_tabellæ_), and when they had consulted within the enclosure, they passed out by another _pons_, at which they threw their votes into the chest (_cista_). [Illustration: Fig. 513. Ovolo or Quarter-round.] =Ovolo=, Arch. (from the Latin _ovum_). (1) A convex moulding showing the quarter of a circle, and thence called quarter-round. (2) The echinus of the Doric capital. (3) An ornament composed of eggs, separated either by tongues (Fig. 277) or by darts (Fig. 514). (See ECHINUS.) [Illustration: Fig. 514. Egg and dart moulding.] [Illustration: Fig. 515. Ovum. Egg-shaped balls.] =Ovum=, =Egg=, R. Conical egg-shaped balls which were placed upon the _spina_ of a circus, on a stone table supported by four columns. (Fig. 515.) There was a second table at the other end of the _spina_, on which were placed small marble dolphins. _Ovum Orphicum_, or Orphic egg, was the mysterious symbol employed by Orpheus to denote the procreative principle with which the whole earth is pervaded. _Ovum anguinum_ was an oval ball of glass worn by the Druids round their neck; so named because, as was asserted, it was produced from the mingled saliva of two serpents (_angues_). =Owl.= With the Athenians the owl was the emblem of prudence and wisdom; the bird of Athenê. In Christian art it symbolizes darkness and solitude, and hence unbelief. =Ox.= In Christian art the attribute of St. Luke; the emblem of the priesthood and of sacrifice. In representations of the Nativity an ox and an ass are commonly introduced. =Ox-gall.= The bile or bitter fluid secreted by the liver of the ox; when refined it is used in oil and water-colour painting to fix and thicken the colours. (See GALL.) =Oxford Ochre.= An oxide of iron used as a pigment of a brownish yellow in oil and water-colours. (See OCHRE.) =Oxide of Zinc.= A _white_ pigment which is more permanent in resisting gases than the white lead. =Oxides of Copper.= The pigments derived from these were well known to the ancients. Modern pigments are _Blue Verditer_, _Brunswick Green_, _Verdigris_, and _Emerald_ or _Scheele’s Green_ (q.v.). =Oxybaphoi=, Gr. Small cymbals in the shape of vinegar-saucers. =Oxybaphon= (ὀξυβάφον). A Greek term applied to a bell-shaped vase with a plain foot and a moulded rim, synonymous with the Latin ACETABULUM (q.v.). =Oyelet=, =Oylet=. (See OILLETS.) =Oyer= and =Terminer=. Ancient law-French. The words mean _to hear and to determine_, and express the authority or commission given to an appointed court of justice. P. =Packfong= or =Pakfong=. A Chinese name for Argentine, or German silver. =Pæan= (Gr. παιάν). A hymn to Apollo, of gratitude or propitiation. It was also used as a battle-song before and after an engagement. =Pænula=, R. A thick cloak with a hole to put the head through; it was furnished with a hood, and was worn in travelling, or as a protection against cold and rain. =Pagai=, Hind. A kind of short double oar, with broad ends resembling small scoops. =Paganalia=, =Paganales=, R. A rustic festival which took place yearly towards the end of January or the beginning of February, seven days after the _Sementivæ_. It was the festival of villages (_pagi_) and of villagers (_pagani_), whence its name. Sacrifices were offered in honour of Proserpine, goddess of vegetation. As the old religion continued to prevail in the villages long after that of Christ was established in the towns, the words _pagan_ and unbeliever gradually became synonymous. =Paganica= (sc. _pila_), R. A ball covered with leather and stuffed with feathers or down; it took its name from the peasants or country people (_pagani_), who used it for playing a game the nature of which is not known. =Pagina=, R. (lit. a thing fastened). This term, when synonymous with _scheda_, signifies a page of paper, the page of a volume; or else it serves to denote one of the columns of writing which cover a sheet of paper. =Pagoda=, Hind. (1) A religious building of the Hindoos. The great ancient pagodas of India are monolithic temples hewn out of rocky mountains; but the term is also applied to temples built in the open air. (2) Gold coins formerly current in India were called pagodas. =Pagoda-stone.= A limestone containing tapering fossil shells shaped like a Chinese pagoda at the top. =Pagodite.= A stone much used by the Chinese for carving into pagodas and other ornaments. =Pagus=, R. Any lofty site in the country capable of being easily turned into a fortified post by means of a few siege works. The name was extended to the country surrounding a fortified village; and each of the country tribes was divided by Numa into a certain number of pagi. =Paile.= An old term used to denote a striped cloth of floss silk manufactured at Alexandria in Egypt, and thence a mantle, canopy, or pavilion. =Pala=, It. An altar front. The _Pala d’oro_ of St. Mark’s, Venice, is a celebrated specimen of Byzantine art. It is of silver-gilt ornamented with gems and enamels, with Greek and Latin inscriptions in niello, and representations from sacred and profane history. It was originally made at Constantinople in 976, but has been repaired in 1105, in 1209, and in 1345, by which it has lost much of its original character. =Pala=, R. A spade, or scoop in the form of a spade, and thence the bezil of a ring. =Palæstra= (παλαίστρα). A place for wrestling, formerly part of the gymnasium. (See GYMNASIUM.) =Palanga.= (See PHALANGÆ.) Hence:— =Palanquin.= A covered conveyance for one person, carried on the shoulders of men in India and China. They are often very splendidly carved, and decorated with tapestry, ornamental woods, and inlaid-work. =Palaria=, R. An exercise practised by young Roman recruits, which consisted of hurling javelins (_pila_) against a stake (_palus_) fixed in the ground. (See PEL.) =Palè=, Gr. (πάλη). A Greek term having the same meaning as LUCTA, LUCTAMEN, LUCTAMENTUM (q.v.). =Pale=, Her. One of the ordinaries. =Palewise= or =In Pale=, arranged vertically one above the other, as the lions of England. (See PER.) =Paleste=, Gr. (παλαιστὴ, i. e. palm of the hand). A lineal measure used by the Greeks equal to the quarter of a foot, or a little more than three inches. (See PALMUS.) =Palette.= “Setting the palette” is arranging the colours for use. This is always done in a certain order regulated by the key in which the picture is to be painted. The order generally recommended is to begin with white, and then proceed through the yellows, reds, and blues to black. The Egyptians used palettes of a long rectangular form; one side higher than the other, had two or three saucers sunk in it to hold cakes of colour or ink; the other side was notched to receive the _calami_ or cut reeds used as writing-pens. =Palettes= or =Roundels=, in Armour, are round plates or shields hung on the armour to defend the joints of the arm, necessarily left free for action. =Palilia=, R. A festival in honour of Pales, the goddess of shepherds and flocks; it was held on the 21st of April. =Palimpsest= (παλίμ-ψηστος, lit. scraped again). A parchment the writing on which had been erased, so that it might be used again. Monumental brasses are found to have been reversed and used a second time. In both cases the most ancient writing or inscription is generally the most valuable and interesting. =Palindrome= (πάλιν, again, and δρόμος, a course). A sentence which reads the same when read backwards or forwards. Such is the Greek inscription on the ancient font in the chapel of Dulwich College: “νιψονανομημαμημονανοψιν.” “Purify the heart and not the countenance alone.” [Illustration: Fig. 516. Palissy jug.] =Palissy Ware.= The pieces to which Palissy owes his reputation, in the first place, are the so called “rustic pottery” (_rustiques figulines_), “dishes or vases where upon a rough ground strewn with fossil shells, lizards and salamanders are running, frogs jumping, snakes crawling or sleeping, or more still, in a streamlet of water wriggling eels, pointed-nosed pikes, trout with spotted scales, and a thousand others of our fresh-water fishes are swimming.” When afterwards he worked in the capital, he did not give up his rustic compositions, but mixed them with the human figure. “There is an identity of style in all his figures and compositions; such as the Diana, Plenty, &c., framed round with delicate and ingenious ornaments drawn in the taste of the period.” (_Jacquemart._) =Paliurus.= A thorn-bush with long sharp spikes, common on the coasts of the Mediterranean, where it is called _Christ’s thorn_, because it is said to have furnished material of which the Crown of thorns was woven. =Palla=, Gr. and R. A robe of state worn by patrician ladies, and frequently represented on statues of goddesses. _Palla citharœdica_ was the name given to a long robe which musicians wore upon the stage; Apollo is often represented with this garment, especially when he is surnamed _Citharœdus_ and _Musagetes_. _Palla Gallica_ was a short garment like a TABARD, open in front and behind; it was worn by the Gauls and adopted by the Romans, who called it CARACALLA (q.v.). =Palla Corporalis=, Chr. The veil for the Pyx. (See CORPORAL.) =Palladium.= (1) An image of Pallas Athenê, kept carefully hidden, and revered as the safeguard of the place where it lay. The most celebrated was the _Palladium_ of Troy, said to have been thrown from Olympus by the hand of Zeus. It was about three cubits high, and represented the goddess sitting with a spear in her right hand, and in her left a distaff and spindle. (2) The term has been applied to a metal discovered by Dr. Wollaston in 1803, obtained from platinum, which it resembles in colour and lustre. =Pallium= (Gr. ἱμάτιον). A large square woollen sheet or blanket worn by the Greeks over the shoulders, and fastened like the ABOLLA round the neck with a brooch (_fibula_); it formed the principal article of the _amictus_ or Greek dress. (Hence the expression to _palliate_, or cloak over, an offence.) (2) Chr. A vestment bestowed by the Pope on all patriarchs and archbishops on their accession to office as the symbol of their ecclesiastical power. The material is obtained from the wool of two lambs slain on the Eve of St. Agnes. The modern pallium of the Church is a short white cloak ornamented with a red cross, which encircles the neck and shoulders, and falls down the back. The pall or pallium is a charge in the arms of the Sees of Canterbury, Armagh, and Dublin. =Pall-mall.= The ancient form of the game of croquet, “wherein a round box bowle is with a mallet strucke through a high arch of yron standing at either end of an ally.” (_Cotgrave._) “This game is used at the long alley near St. James’s, and vulgarly called Pell-Mell.” (_Blount’s Glossary_, 1681.) =Palm.= The ancient classical emblem of victory and triumph was early assumed by the Christians as the universal symbol of martyrdom. In England we understand by palm, not the leaves of a palm-tree, but “the yelowe that groweth on wyllowes.” [Illustration: Fig. 516 a. Palm-leaf Ornament.] [Illustration: Fig. 516 b. Architectural Palm-leaf Ornament.] =Palm-leaf=, Arch. An architectural ornament bearing more or less resemblance to a palm-leaf, employed for mouldings, and for the decoration of the corners of the ceilings in Doric cornices; and in antefixæ, as crownings for the pediment and as acroteria. Figs. 516a and 516b represent palm-leaves of terra-cotta. =Palmus=, Gr. and R. A measure of length. Of the Greek _palmus_ the greater (σπιθαμὴ) contained nine finger-breadths, and the less (παλαιστὴ) four. The greater Roman _palmus_ contained twelve finger-breadths or about nine inches, and the less four finger-breadths. The greater _palmus_ was taken from the length of the hand or span, the less from the breadth of it. =Palstave=, Celt. A wedge-shaped axe used by the Celtic nations in war for battering the armour of the enemy. (See Fig. 255.) =Paltock= (modern _paletôt_). “A short cloake with sleeves,” i. e. a great-coat. =Paludamentum=, R. A military cloak worn over their armour by the generals and superior officers of the Roman army; an officer thus dressed was said to be _paludatus_. (See Fig. 44.) =Palus=, R. (_pango_, to fix). A stake planted in the earth, against which recruits hurled their javelins (_pila_). The mediæval PEL (q.v.). =Pam=, O. E. The knave of clubs. (HALLIWELL.) =Pammachium= (παμμάχιον). A synonym for PANCRATIUM (q.v.). [Illustration: Fig. 517. Panache.] =Panache=, Her. A plume of feathers set upright and borne as a crest. Fig. 517 is from the seal of Edward Courtenay, A. D. 1400. =Panarium=, R. (_panis_, bread). A bread-basket; a pantry in which bread was kept. =Panathenæa=, Gr. (Παναθήναια). Festivals of Minerva Athenê among the Athenians, so called because they formed the festival of all the peoples placed under the protection of Minerva (πᾶν, all, and Ἀθήνη). There were the Greater and Lesser Panathenæa; the former being held every five years, the latter every three years. The procession at the Greater festival is the subject of the friezes from the Parthenon now in the British Museum. (See ELGIN MARBLES.) They represent the solemn transportation of the _peplus_ of Athenê to her temple, in which nearly the whole of the population took part, on foot, on horseback, or in chariots. Old men carried olive-branches, young men attended in armour, and maidens carried baskets of flowers. =Panaulon.= An enlarged German flute with sixteen finger-keys; invented recently by Trexler of Vienna. It is available as a bass to other flutes. =Pancratium=, R. (from πάν every: and κράτος force). A wrestling and boxing match, in which the combatants employed every means to disable each other; and the contest was continued until one of the combatants owned himself disabled by holding up a finger, or was killed. =Paned=, O. E. Striped. =Paned Hose.= Breeches formed of stripes, with small panes or squares of silk or velvet. (_Halliwell._) =Panegyris=, Egyp. (πανήγυρις). A popular festival of Egypt, to which the whole country was summoned in order to celebrate the thirtieth anniversary of the reigning monarch. =Panels=, Arch. The sunken compartments in wood and stone-work; very abundant in Gothic architecture as ornaments on walls, ceilings, &c. After the expiration of Gothic architecture, panelling in great measure ceased to be used in stone-work. =Panel Picture.= A painting on a board or panel. =Panisci=, R. (Πανίσκοι, dimin. from Πάν). Literally, _small Pans_, small rustic gods no bigger than pigmies. =Pannetier Green.= A handsome and durable emerald green, prepared by a secret process by its inventor, M. Pannetier. It is sold at a high price. =Panoply= (πανοπλία). A complete suit of armour. (See ARMOUR.) =Pantables= (for PANTOFLES). Slippers. “Hee standeth upon his _pantables_, and regardeth greatly his reputacion.” (_Saker’s Narbonus_, 1580.) =Pantaloon.= From the Italian, _pianta leone_ (plant the lion); the Venetian standard-bearers (of the _lion_ of St. Mark) being so called, who wore tight hose, the name came to be given to tight hose in general. In ancient pantomimes, Pantaloon was always a Venetian. (See HARLEQUIN.) =Pantaloons=, O. E. “Garments made for merry-andrews, that have the breeches and stockings of the same stuff, and joined together as one garment.” (_Halliwell._) =Panthea=, Gen. (πάν-θεια). Statues or figures which combine the symbols of several divinities. =Pantheon= (πᾶν, every, and θεὸς, god). A temple dedicated to all the divinities collectively. That at Rome is now a Christian church. It is circular, 150 feet in height and in diameter, with a domed roof. =Pantherinæ=, R. Panther-tables; of wood striped like the skin of a panther. (See TIGRINÆ.) =Pantobles=, =Pantoffles=, O. E. Slippers. =Pantofles=, O. E. Slippers or wooden pattens. =Pantograph.= An instrument for enlarging or reducing plans and designs, largely used in the arts, e. g. in machine embroidery. =Pantomine= (παντὸς, of everything; μῖμος, mimic). Gesture and action applied, without speech, to represent emotion; hence applied to the form of theatrical performance which consists entirely or principally of gesture and action. =Paper.= (See CHARTA.) =Papier-maché=, Fr. Paper-pulp; made by compressing the pulp, or by pasting together different thicknesses of paper, to the hardness and consistency of wood. It is an invention of the 18th century, and originated in snuff-boxes called after their manufacturer “Martins.” The process has since been developed to great perfection by the invention of new varnishes and methods of ornament, the principal of which are gilding and bronzing, pearl and gem inlaying, &c. (See a paper by _R. Hunt_ in the _Art Journal_, 1851.) =Papilio=, R. (lit. a butterfly). A military tent, so called because the curtains opened and shut like the wings of a butterfly. =Papyrus.= The paper made of the papyrus plant, used by the Egyptians and other nations of antiquity. The _Papyrus rolls_ on which important relics of Egyptian literature and art have come down to us, were formed of a sheet of papyrus rolled on a slender wooden cylinder. They have mostly been discovered in mummy cases, and contain illustrations of funeral ceremonies and religious emblems relating to the future of the soul. Others are historical or literary, and some have been discovered containing caricatures and comic illustrations. (Cf. LIBER.) =Parada=, Celt. A tent or awning stretched over the deck of a vessel, and thence a cabin hung with tapestry. =Paradise= or =Parvise=, Chr. (1) A vestibule or courtyard in front of a church. The term must thus, at a certain period, have been synonymous with _narthex_ or porch. At the present day the term is applied to the open space to be found in front of cathedrals or public buildings. (2) The word is sometimes applied to the room that is often found above church porches. (See CLOISTER GARTH.) =Paradisus= (παράδεισος). A Persian park or pleasure-garden, enclosed within a wall, elaborately planted and irrigated, and stocked with animals for the chase. Hence the Garden of Eden was so called. =Paragauda=, =Paragaudis=, R. An embroidered band of silk or gold thread sewn on to a tunic. =Paraison=, Fr. A term in glass, equivalent to the English METAL (q.v.). =Paralus= (πάραλος). The name of an Athenian state vessel, kept, like that of the Doge of Venice in modern times, for state and religious ceremonies. A sister vessel was named the SALAMINIA; they were both fast-sailing triremes. =Paramese=, Gr. (next to middle), or TRITE (third). The third treble note, immediately above the mese, of the seven-stringed lyre. (See MESE.) =Paranete=, Gr. (beside the shortest). The second treble note of the seven-stringed lyre. (See MESE.) =Parapet=, It. (_parare petto_, to defend the breast). A wall breast-high on a fortification, roof, or other gallery. (See CRENELS.) =Paraphernalia= (from the Greek παράφερνα). That which a wife brings besides her dower; i. e. her personal attire and ornament. =Parasang.= A Persian measure of distance, about 30 Greek stadia or 3¾ English miles. =Paratorium.= (See OBLATIONARIUM.) =Parazonium=, R. (παραζώνιον). A short sword or kind of dagger worn by the tribunes and superior officers of the Roman army attached to their belt on the right side. This sword was shorter than the _gladius_ worn by the common soldier on the right side. =Parchment.= The finer kind of parchment known as _vellum_ is from the skins of calves, kids, and dead-born lambs. The stout parchment of drum-heads is from the skin of the wolf, although that of the ass or calf is sometimes used. The parchment of battledores is from the skin of the ass, and that used for sieves from the skin of the he-goat. The green parchment used in bookbinding is coloured by means of Verdigris. (See LIBER.) The name comes from the Latin Pergamentum. Eumenes, King of Pergamus, has the honour of the invention. =Parentales=, =Parentalia=, R. Festivals, also called _Februales_, which were held by the Romans in honour of deceased ancestors. =Pargetting=, =Parge-work=, O. E. In Architecture, an old term for the ornamental plasterwork common on the outside walls of timber-built houses of Queen Elizabeth’s and earlier periods. =Parhypate=, Gr. (beside the longest). The second bass note of the seven-stringed lyre (See MESE.) =Parian Chronicle.= A slab of Parian marble, among the so called ARUNDEL MARBLES in the University of Oxford, containing a chronological record of Greek history from B.C. 1582 to B.C. 264. =Parian Marble= from the island of Paros was of extremely fine grain, easy to work, and of a creamy white. The marble _now_ called Parian has a coarse sparkling grain, which, however, takes a high finish. (_Redford_, _Ancient Sculpture_.) =Paries=, R. The wall of a house or any building, in contradistinction to _murus_, _muri_, which denoted the walls of a city. =Paris Black.= A name for IVORY BLACK (q.v.). =Paris Blue.= A very handsome dark violet-blue pigment. “Its great qualities of body and intensity of coloration will always ensure it a large sale; moreover, its mixture with chrome yellow produces a fine _green cinnabar_ or _leaf-green_.” (_Habich._) =Paris Lake.= (See CARMINATED LAKES.) =Parlour= (Lat. _parlatorium_). (1) The old “speke-house” in a convent for inmates to speak with their friends. (2) Any private room. =Parma=, R. (πάρμη). A shield, usually of circular form, carried in the Roman army by the light-armed troops or light infantry (_velites_) and the cavalry (_equites_). The _parma thracidica_ used by the class of gladiators called _Thraces_ was not round, but in the form of a small SCUTUM (q.v.). =Parquet.= French flooring of inlaid wood-work. =Parsley=, Arch. In every period, but especially in Romano-Byzantine and Gothic art, parsley-leaves have been abundantly made use of in architectural decoration. =Parthenon.= The famous temple of Minerva in the Acropolis at Athens. The finest example of the GRECIAN DORIC style of architecture; built by Pheidias, 454–438 B.C. Fergusson says, “For beauty of detail, and for the exquisite perception of the highest and most recondite principles of art ever applied to architecture, it stands utterly and entirely alone and unrivalled—the glory of Greece.” (_Hist. of Architecture._) The celebrated frieze, 525 feet in length, ran all round the outer wall of the _cella_ close up to the ceiling. The best work on the Parthenon sculptures is by Michaelis (_Der Parthenon_, Leipzig, 1871). (See ELGIN MARBLES.) =Partisan=, O. E. A kind of short pike, introduced _temp._ Edward III. =Partlet=, O. E. A ruff. “A maydens neckerchefe or lynnen partlette.” =Party=, =Parted=, Her. Divided. (See PER.) =Parvise.= (See PARADISE.) =Paschal Taper=, Chr. A large wax candle which was consecrated during the service on Easter Eve, and lighted on Sundays from Easter to Whitsuntide, with five grains of incense attached to it to indicate the five movable feasts of the year. =Pasquinade=, It. A lampoon; so called from _Pasquino_, an Italian barber at Rome, whose door was opposite to the statue of a gladiator on which such satirical writings were posted. =Passamen=, O. E. A kind of lace. (_Hall._) [Illustration: Fig. 518. Passant.] [Illustration: Fig. 519. Passant guardant.] =Passant=, Her. Walking and looking forward. _Passant guardant_, walking and looking out from the shield; _passant reguardant_, walking and looking back; _passant repassant_, walking in opposite directions. (Fig. 518, 519.) =Passe-partout=, Fr. A light picture-frame of cardboard, having the inner edges generally gilt. =Passementerie=, Fr. Trimming, lace, or tape of gold, silver, lace, or thread. =Passion, Instruments of the=—a frequent subject in ecclesiastical decoration of the Middle Ages—are, the PITCHER from which Jesus poured water; the TOWEL—represented as hanging on a ring—wherewith He wiped the Apostles’ feet; the TWO SWORDS which they showed Him, when He said, “It is enough;” the EAR of Malchus; ST. PETER’S SWORD, represented as a small _falchion_; the POST to which the Saviour was bound; the SCOURGE; the CROWN OF THORNS; the REED wherewith He was smitten on the head; the CROSS; the LADDER; the NAILS; the SPEAR of Longinus, crossed by the REED with the SPONGE; the FIRE at which St. Peter warmed himself; the COCK; the PINCERS, and a HEART pierced with five wounds. =Passus=, R. A pace, from the point where the heel leaves the ground, to where the same heel is set down; five Roman feet. _Mille passuum_, or a thousand such paces, formed the Roman mile. =Pasta Verde=, It. Sap-green; a vegetable green pigment prepared from the berries of the buckthorn. =Pastel.= The French name for coloured crayons. Pastel-painting was much used for portraits in the beginning of the 19th century. =Pasticcio=, It. An imitation of the style of another painter in an independent design. =Pastophori=, Gr. and Egyp. (παστο-φόροι). Priests who, at certain ceremonies, carried small shrines (ναὸς) containing the image of a deity, which were hidden from the eyes of the crowd by a veil of different colours called παστὸς, whence παστὸν φέρειν (to carry the _pastos_), the term applied to the priests who performed this duty. The keepers of the temple were also so called. =Pastophoria=, Chr. Small apses flanking the principal apse in a basilica, in which the consecrated bread was kept. [Illustration: Fig. 520. Bishop’s Pastoral Staff.] =Pastoral Staff=, Chr. The _pedum_ of antiquity and emblem of a bishop’s pastoral responsibility is distinct from the CROZIER (q.v.) of an archbishop, and has a crook head. =Pastouraux=, Cubical stones, usually of two colours, applied in the ornamentation of Romano-Byzantine architecture. =Patagium=, R. A band of purple, or with gold ornaments or embroidery, which was placed round the neck and down the front of a woman’s tunic (_tunica muliebris_). =Patee= or =Pattee=, Her. A small cross with the arms widening towards the ends. =Patella.= Diminutive of PATERA (q.v.). =Patena=, R. and Chr. A manger of wood, stone, or marble for holding food for horses; when it was divided into several compartments, these were called _loculi_. (See LOCULUS.) In Christian archæology, _patena_ was the term applied to a small plate of gold or silver, used in the celebration of mass to cover over the chalice, and to hold the pieces of the host after it has been broken by the priest. =Patent Yellow.= (See TURNER’S YELLOW.) [Illustration: Fig. 521. Patera.] =Patera=, dimin. =Patella= (φιάλη). Flat plates or dishes for holding fluids for domestic use, and wine for libations in the sacrifices. The common kinds were of red earthenware, ornamented with designs in black. Others were of bronze or silver, often richly decorated with chasing, &c. (Compare PATINA.) In Architecture, a great variety of flat ornaments used in all styles of architecture are improperly called _pateræ_, the word applying properly to circular ornaments resembling the classical dish often found on friezes of classical architecture. (Fig. 521, 522.) [Illustration: Fig. 522. Side view, showing the depth of the patera.] [Illustration: Fig. 523. Paternosters.] =Paternosters= or =Bead-ornament=. (1) A rosary. (2) Architectural ornaments in the form of berries or beads (Fig. 523), which decorate bands or other mouldings, and which often occur above ovolos. =Patibulum=, R. An instrument of punishment in the form of a fork (_furca_), between the prongs of which the criminal’s neck was placed. His hands were fastened to the prongs of the fork, and in this condition (_patibulatus_) he was flogged through the city. The name of _patibulum_, or _crux patibularia_, was also given to a cross to which criminals were nailed. =Patina.= The rust of antiquity found on bronzes and coins; it cannot be removed by rubbing or wetting it. It varies with the nature of the soil, and in some cases the surface acquires the smoothness and colour of malachite. =Patina=, R. An earthenware vessel, used generally for cookery. It was deeper than the _patera_, but less deep than the _olla_. =Patonce=, Her. A variety of the heraldic cross. =Patriarchal=, Her. A variety of the heraldic cross, with a short cross-bar on the upper limb. [Illustration: Fig. 524. Badge of St. Patrick.] =Patrick, Order of St.=, indicated by the letters K.P., was instituted by George III. in 1783. The badge or jewel is of gold enamelled and oval in form, and is worn suspended from a collar formed of alternate roses and harps, or from a broad sky-blue ribbon. =Patten=, Fr. (1) A woman’s clog. (2) The base of a column. =Patulous.= Spreading. =Paul Veronese Green.= An _arsenite_ or _arseniate of copper_. A fine and durable colour, used either for oil or water-colour painting. (See EMERALD GREEN.) =Pavilion=, Arch. A projecting apartment, usually with a dome or turret. [Illustration: Fig. 525. Pavimentum (sectile).] =Pavimentum=, R. A pavement formed by means of pieces of tile, crushed stones, flints, and other materials set in a bed of ashes or cement, and consolidated by beating down with the rammer (_pavicula_), whence its name of _pavimentum_. There were various kinds of pavimenta: the sectile (Figs. 525, 526), the _tessellatum_ or _tesseris structum_, the _vermiculatum_, the _sculpturatum_, and the _testaceum_, &c. [Illustration: Fig. 526. Pavimentum (sectile).] =Pavo.= (See PEACOCK.) =Pavonaceum= (sc. _opus_), R. An arrangement of materials placed so as to overlap one another, and bearing more or less resemblance to the feathers in a peacock’s tail. =Pavonine.= Coloured like a peacock’s tail. =Pax=, =Paxboard=, Chr. A representation of the Crucifixion upon a piece of wood or metal, with a handle at the back. It was kissed by the priest in the mass at the words “_Pax Domini sit semper vobiscum_,” and afterwards passed round to be kissed by the congregation. It was also spelt _Paxbrede_. Also called OSCULATORIUM. =Peach-stone Black=, prepared from calcined stones of fruits, is a handsome colour, but has a reddish tinge. Ground with oil and white lead, the colour called _old gray_ is obtained. =Peacock=, R. and Chr. In antiquity the peacock was sacred to Juno, and is called _Junonia avis_. It is represented on Roman imperial coins bearing the empresses up to heaven, as the eagle does the emperors; and hence in Christian archæology is the symbol of the resurrection. (Her., see Fig. 398, IN PRIDE.) =Pea-green.= (See CHRYSOCOLLA.) =Pean=, Her. One of the furs; represented in gold spots on a black ground. =Pean= or =Pæan=. A song or shout of triumph. =Pearl.= A secretion of the mollusc; in its normal development a thickening of the shell, which supplies _mother-of-pearl_; abnormally, forming globules for the purpose of encysting foreign substances intruded within the shell, which are the precious pearls used in jewellery. =Pearl=, in Chinese the emblem of _talent_, is put by the Chinese on porcelains destined for rewards of poets and other _laureati_ in China. =Pebble.= A name given by lapidaries to many different stones. =Pechblende= or =Pech-urane=, Germ. An ore of uranium and iron, used in porcelain painting and glass, producing a handsome greenish-yellow pigment. =Pecten=, Egyp. and R. (_pecto_, to comb). (1) A comb for the hair; among the Egyptians and Romans they were made of box-wood or ivory. (See COMB.) (2) A weaver’s comb for pressing the threads of the web firmly together. (3) A comb for carding flax or wool. (4) A reaper’s “comb,” used in several countries, especially Gaul, instead of a sickle, for plucking the ears of wheat from the stalk. (5) A haymaker’s rake, &c. =Pectinated.= Having teeth like a comb. =Pectoral=, Gen. (_pectus_, the breast). A plate forming the front of a cuirass, and thus covering the chest. =Peculium=, R. Property or earnings which a slave or a _filius familias_ was permitted to acquire and consider as his own, although in strict law it belonged to the master or father. The slave was sometimes allowed by agreement to use this peculium for the purpose of purchasing his liberty. =Pecunia=, R. Money; so called from _pecus_, a herd of cattle, Man’s primitive medium of exchange. =Pedal.= In Music, a passage where the harmony moves upon a sustained sound, which is either the dominant or the tonic of the key. =Pede-cloth=, Chr. A carpet laid on the space between the altar and the rails. [Illustration: Fig. 527. Pedestal of Trajan’s Column.] [Illustration: Fig. 528. Pedestal of Column of Antoninus Pius.] [Illustration: Fig. 529. Pedestal of the Androsium at Athens.] =Pedestal=, Gen. The base of a structure; the base supporting a statue, group, or monumental column. A pedestal has three parts: the _base_ or _foot_ next the ground, the _dado_ or _die_ forming the centre, and the _cornice_ or _surbase_ mouldings at the top. Fig. 527 represents a half-section of the base of Trajan’s column at Rome; Fig. 528 a half-section of the base of the column dedicated to Antoninus Pius, and preserved in the Pio Clementino Museum at Rome; lastly, Fig. 529 gives a part of the pedestal or base of the Pandrosium at Athens; when, however, pedestals support caryatides or columns, they are more commonly called STYLOBATES (q.v.). =Pedica=, R. (1) A snare by which an animal is caught by the foot (_pes_). (2) Fetters or irons worn on the feet by slaves. =Pediculated=, Arch. Sustained or supported by a PEDICULE (q.v.). =Pedicule=, Arch. A small pillar which serves as a support to anything; whence the expressions _monopediculated_ (with a single pedicule) (Fig. 387), and _polypediculated_ (with several pedicules). =Pediluvium.= (See ABLUTIONS.) =Pediment=, Arch. The triangular crowning of a portico, usually supported by a row of columns. (Fig. 26.) The temples of antiquity generally had two pediments, one on each face. The inner part of the pediment is called the TYMPANUM (q.v.). =Pedum=, Gen. (_pes_, a foot). A shepherd’s crook, or curved stick for catching goats or sheep by the leg. Fauns and satyrs are often represented carrying the pastoral crook, and it is the attribute of Thalia, as the muse of pastoral poetry. (See under PEPLUM.) In Egyptian archæology it is a symbol of authority, and is frequently to be seen in the hands of Osiris and the Pharaohs; the Egyptian term for it is _hyq_. (Cf. HYCSOS.) In early Christian art it is an attribute of Our Lord as the _Good Shepherd_. Representations of the pedum are of frequent occurrence in the catacomb paintings. (See PASTORAL STAFF.) [Illustration: Fig. 530. Pegasus. Device of Cardinal Bembo.] =Pegasus.= A horse with wings; emblem of fame, eloquence, poetic study, and contemplation. A bronze medal of Cardinal Bembo, the great Italian author of the 16th century, in the Museum at South Kensington, shows his device given above. (Fig. 530.) =Pegma=, R. (πῆγμα, i. e. a thing fastened). (1) This term denotes generally anything made of a number of boards joined together. (2) In a more restricted sense it means a theatrical machine of several stages (_tabulata_), one above the other, which could be raised or lowered by balance weights. On such stages gladiators called _pegmares_ fought in the amphitheatres, and battles and other scenes were represented. When they were used in sacrifices, the victim was slaughtered in an upper stage and the priest stood in one under the ground, and was afterwards brought up to be shown to the people with the blood of the victim upon him. In theatres similar _pegmata_ were employed for the purpose of changing the scenery. (3) Lastly the term was used to denote any kind of wooden furniture or joinery in a house, such as shelves, side-boards, bookcases, &c. =Pegola=, It. Greek pitch; boiled resin for varnishes. =Pel=, O. E. (Lat. _palus_). A post, six feet in height, set firmly in the ground, to be hewn at with sword or mace for exercise. The weapons were double the ordinary weight, and the swordsman had to cover himself from imaginary blows in return with a shield, called a _fan_, also of double weight. (See QUINTAIN.) (Consult _Meyrick_, vol. i. 145.) The pel was in the same way set up as a mark to throw spears at, and for archery practice. =Pelecinon=, Gr. A sun-dial so called because it ended in a “dove-tail” (πελεκῖνος). [Illustration: Fig. 531. A Pelican in its piety.] =Pelican= tearing open her breast to feed her young with her own blood was an early symbol of the Redemption and of the virtue of Charity. As a device it was borne by William of Orange, with the appropriate motto “_Pro lege, grege et rege_” (for the law, the people, and the king); a slight modification of that of Alphonso the Wise. (Fig. 531.) It is described in Heraldry as “_a pelican in its piety_.” =Pelisse= (from _pellis_, a skin). A robe made of fur. =Pellet=, Her. A black ROUNDLE. =Pellicatus=, R. (_pellis_, a skin). Literally, covered with _skin_. The term was specially applied to earthenware vessels which were covered over with skin in order to keep the provisions they held fresh. =Pellitus=, R. (_pellis_, skin). Clothed by means of skins; dressed in furs. =Pelluvia=, =Pelluvium=, R. (_pes_, a foot, and _luo_, to wash). A basin in which the feet were washed, in contradistinction to the vessel called _malluvium_. =Pelta=, Gr. (πέλτη). A small shield made of some light material, such as wood or wicker-work, and covered with leather. In shape it was sometimes elliptical, but more often cut away at the top, so that at that part it resembled a crescent. (Compare CLIPEUS.) =Pelvis=, R. A general term used in ancient times to denote any kind of circular-shaped vessel. The term corresponded to the Greek πελίκα. =Penates= (_penus_, food). Household gods who were believed by the ancients to be the bestowers of all the worldly blessings enjoyed by a family. =Pencil.= A collection of rays of light converging to a point is so called. =Pendant.= In Heraldry, drooping. =Pendant Key-stone.= A synonym of PENDENTIVE. (See this word and FURCA.) =Pendants=, Arch. Ornaments hanging down from the ceilings and roofs of Gothic architecture. Generally, a pair of pictures or statues appropriate to each other are called _pendant_ each of the other. =Pendentives=, Arch. In a spherical roof intersected with groined compartments, the term _pendentives_ was applied to the surfaces included between such compartments. The same term is applied to the surfaces included in the angles formed by a groined vaulting at its spring. =Penetrale=, R. An inner apartment. (Cf. ADYTUM.) =Penicillum=, =Penicillus=, R. (_penis_, a tail). (Gr. ὑπογραφίς.) A painter’s pencil or brush. The brushes of the ancients were made either with hair or a kind of sea-weed or sponge. =Peniculus.= Synonym of PENICILLUM. =Penna=, R. A quill, a large and strong feather, in contradistinction to _pluma_, which denotes the small feathers spread over a bird’s body; and thence a writing-pen, which was used instead of the _arundo_ or _calamus_. =Penna=, Med. During the Middle Ages this term was used to denote the battlements of a castle wall, and thence the castle itself. [Illustration: Fig. 532. Pennon.] =Pennon=, Her. An armorial lance-flag, pointed or swallow-tailed at the fly, borne by knights. =Pentachord.= Any musical instrument having five strings; a system of five sounds. =Pentacle= (It. _pentacolo_). A talisman; a figure formed of two triangles, intersecting so as to form a six-pointed star. A frequent object in early ornamental art. =Pentagon.= A figure of five sides and five angles. =Pentagraph.= A mechanism contrived to facilitate the copying of drawings on a different scale, invented by Christopher Scheiner, a Suabian Jesuit, in the 16th century. =Pentahedron.= A solid figure having five equal sides. =Pentalpha.= The pentacle was so called. “A star of five points, composed of five A’s interlaced, was formerly made by physicians the symbol of health, under the name of Pentalpha.” (_Menestrier._) =Pentaptych.= An altar painting of five or more leaves. (See DIPTYCH.) =Pentaspastos=, Gr. (παντά-σπαστος). A kind of pulley, the _block_ of which contains a system of five pulleys (_orbiculi_). This engine was employed to lift great weights. =Pentastyle=, Arch. A portico of five columns. =Pentathlon=, Gr. Greek games similar to the QUINQUERTIUM (q.v.) of the Romans, frequently represented on ancient vases. =Pentelic Marble= from a mountain of that name near Athens, of which the Parthenon and other temples are built, has a beautiful _warm_ yellowish tone, comparable to ivory. All the Athenian statues are of this marble. =Penteloris.= (See PARAGAUDA.) =Pent-roof=, Arch. A roof sloping only from one side; hence a _pent-house_ for a house or shed covered by such a roof. =Penula.= (See PÆNULA.) =Penumbra= (Lat. _pene_, almost, and _umbra_, shade). The part of a picture where the light and shade blend together. =Peperino=, It. (_pepe_, pepper). A pepper-coloured building stone much used in the construction of ancient Rome, formerly called _Lapis Albanus_. [Illustration: Fig. 533. Thalia, the Muse of Comedy. _Wearing the chiton and peplos._] =Peplum= and =Peplus=, Gr. (πέπλον and πέπλος). The robe peculiarly proper to Minerva. (See PANATHENÆA.) A large full robe or shawl worn by women, corresponding to the _himation_ or _pallium_ of the men. On occasions of funerals or weddings this shawl was thrown over the head as a veil. The choicest productions of the loom in antiquity were _pepli_; and the most splendid dyes, and curious workmanship, and skilful designs were lavished upon their manufacture. They were a common form of offering to the treasures of the temples. A fine statue in the British Museum represents the Muse Thalia wearing the _peplos_ and _chiton_, and holding the pastoral _pedum_ in her hand. (Fig. 533.) =Per=, Her. In blazoning the divisions of a shield the term “_per_,” signifying “by” or “by means of,” is employed sometimes alone, and sometimes (having the same signification) with the word “party” or “parted.” The following are the primary divisions of a shield:—Fig. _a_, _Per Pale_, or _Parted per Pale_, or _Party per Pale_; Fig. _b_, _Per Fesse_ or _Parted per Fesse_; Fig. _c_, _Per Cross_ or _Quarterly_ (_Per Pale_ and _Per Fesse_ together); Fig. _d_, _Per Bend_; Fig. _e_, _Per Bend Sinister_; Fig. _f_, _Per Saltire_ (_Per Bend_ and _Per Bend Sinister_); Fig. _g_, _Per Chevron_; Fig. _h_, _Per Tierce_ or _Tiercée_ (divided into three equal divisions by two vertical lines). (_Boutell._) [Illustration: Fig. 534. Divisions of the heraldic shield.] =Pera=, R. (πήρα). A wallet or haversack of leather or hide, which was carried, slung over the shoulder, by travellers, peasants, and beggars. The Cynic philosophers, anticipating the fraternity of the GUEUX, adopted the wallet as a distinctive part of their costume. =Pergula=, R. (_pergere_, to continue on). Generally, any construction added to another beyond the original plan, generally in the way of a lean-to; e. g. a balcony built over the colonnades of a forum, or a gallery placed on a house-top; a room in which paintings were exhibited; a lecture-room, &c. =Periactos=, R. (περί-ακτος, i. e. that turns round). A theatrical machine used by the ancients; it was of very simple construction, being formed of three frames arranged so as to form a triangular prism, on each face of which a different scene was painted. At each side of the stage there was a _periactos_ which turned on pivots as required, so as to admit of a rapid change of scene. =Periapts=, O. E. Charms worn about the neck. (_Shakspeare._) =Peribolê=, Gr. and R. (περιβολὴ, an enclosing). The sacred enclosure of a temple, which was in some instances of sufficient size to contain not only altars and statues of the god, but shrines and a sacred wood. In Christian architecture the word was used for the wall of enclosure of the choir, &c. =Peridot=, Fr. A yellow gem supposed to be the _topaz_ of the ancients. =Peridromê=, Gr. and R. (περι-δρομὴ, a running round). A gallery or covered promenade which ran round a temple or other building. =Perigee.= Near the earth; _figuratively_ “at its lowest.” =Perihelion.= Near the sun; _figuratively_ “at its highest.” =Perimeter.= The outline of a rectilinear figure. =Peripatetics.= Disciples of Aristotle, who _walked about_ during his lectures in the Lyceum at Athens. =Peripetasma= (περι-πέτασμα). A general term including anything that is flat and hung up or spread out, such as a covering, tapestry, hangings, curtains, &c. =Periphery=, Gr. and R. (περι-φέρεια). (1) The circumference of a curvilinear figure. (2) Ornaments in relief executed on the sides of vases, _running round_ them. (See CRUSTÆ.) [Illustration: Fig. 535. Ground-plan of a _pseudo-peripteral_ temple.] =Periptery=, Arch, (περί-πτερος, lit. with wings around). A building surrounded by columns at equal distances one from the other; the distance between the wall of enclosure and the colonnade being equal to that between the columns. _Peripteral temples_ are distinguished as _monopteral_, or those with a single row of columns; _dipteral_, those with two rows; _pseudo-dipteral_, or buildings with one row of columns standing apart and one embedded; lastly, _pseudo-peripteral_ (Fig. 535), or buildings whose columns are embedded in the wall. =Periscelis=, Gr. (περι-σκελίς). (1) An anklet worn by Oriental and Greek women, and less frequently by Roman ladies also. (2) The word is sometimes used for _feminalia_ (q.v.). =Peristerium=, Chr. A kind of canopy surrounding the sacred vessels containing the host. The eucharistic doves are called _peristera_. =Peristroma=, R. (περί-στρωμα). In general, anything used as a covering, in especial that which is spread over a bed, and thence curtains, carpets, or hangings. =Peristyle=, Arch. (περί-στυλον). A building the _interior_ of which is surrounded with columns, the opposite of PERIPTEROS; a building may, however, be peripteral and yet possess a peristyle. The term is also a Greek name for the ATRIUM. =Perivalium=, Med. A Latin word used in the Middle Ages to denote the choir of a church, or the stalls of the choir. =Permanent White.= (See CONSTANT WHITE.) =Pero=, R. A tall boot reaching to the calf, made of untanned leather with the fur on, worn by shepherds and agricultural labourers, and still common in Italian villages. =Perogue.= (See PIROGUE.) =Perpend-stone=, Arch. A large stone reaching through the wall, visible on both sides. =Perpendicular Style of Architecture.= The third and last of the pointed or Gothic styles of architecture used in England. It was developed from the Decorated during the latter part of the 14th century, and continued in use till the middle of the 16th, when it gave way to the style called ELIZABETHAN. It is peculiar to England. Its chief characteristics are a general prevalence of perpendicular lines, panelling of flat surfaces, and the multiplicity of small shafts with which the piers, &c., are overlaid. =Perron=, Arch. A staircase, or flight of steps, outside a building. =Perse=, Fr. Chintz. =Persian.= A thin inferior _silk_ used for lining garments. =Persian Blinds= (Fr. _Persiennes_). Venetian blinds. [Illustration: Fig. 536. Persian Bowl.] [Illustration: Fig. 537. Flask. Persian.] =Persian Pottery.= The illustrations (from Jacquemart’s _History of the Ceramic Art_) are (Fig. 536) a bowl of soft porcelain, blue externally and decorated with abundant vegetation and fantastic birds with peacocks’ tails; (Fig. 537) a flask, also of soft porcelain, characterized by a blackish-blue scroll encircling the principal subject; and (Fig. 538) a faience tile which M. Jacquemart considers pure Mohammedan art, is very interesting for the subject that it represents—the caaba or sacred mosque of Mecca, the object of the Mohammedan pilgrimage. (Consult _Souvenir d’un voyage en Perse_, _Comte de Rochchouart_.) [Illustration: Fig. 538. Persian Plaque, with polychrome decoration.] =Persian Red.= (See INDIAN RED.) =Persiana=, It. (1) A silk with a pattern of large flowers. (2) Venetian blinds; Persiennes. =Persians=, Gr. and R. (περσικά). Columns the shafts of which consist of figures of Persian slaves; they are also known as _Persian columns_. [Illustration: Fig. 539. Persona comica.] =Persona=, Gr. and R. A mask worn by actors upon the stage; there were _personæ tragicæ_, _comicæ_ (Fig. 539), _mutæ_, &c., that is, masks for tragic, comic, or mute persons, &c. The custom is attributed to that of smearing the face with certain juices and colours, and appearing in disguise at the festivals of Dionysus; and is probably as old as the drama itself. =Perspective.= The art of representing on a flat surface the appearance of objects from one given point of view. _Linear perspective_ is the science by which the principles of geometry are applied in this art. (See AERIAL and ISOMETRICAL PERSPECTIVE.) =Pertica=, R. A rod, pole, or stick; a foot, or measure of length divided into twelve inches (_unciæ_) and sixteen fingers (_digiti_). =Perticæ=, Chr. In mediæval architecture, beams behind the altar in a church, from which relics were suspended on days of festival. =Peruque.= (See WIGS.) =Peruvian Architecture.= The Peruvian temples and palaces were generally low and spacious, constructed of great blocks of stone often 38 feet by 18 and 6 feet in thickness. The interiors were richly ornamented, the sides of the apartments being thickly studded with gold and silver. Niches in the walls were filled with images of plants and animals, also of the precious metals. The Western wall of the temple was placed to receive the first rays of the rising sun upon a statue of the god engraved on a plate of gold and thickly studded with emeralds and precious stones. =Pes=, R. A foot; the standard measure of length, composed of 12 _unciæ_ or _inches_, or 16 _digiti_, _finger-breadths_. It equalled 11·6496 inches English. =Pesante=, It. A weight = half a drachm. [Illustration: Fig. 540. Vase of Pesaro Ware.] =Pesaro Ware.= The particular characteristic of the mother-of-pearl majolica of Pesaro is a pale, limpid yellow, associated with a pure blue; under the effect of luminous rays these colours become animated and shoot out in pencils of red, golden yellow, green, and blue of remarkable intensity. (_Jacquemart._) (Fig. 540.) =Peseta=, Sp. A silver coin, about the fourth of a Mexican dollar; about 10½_d._ =Pesillo=, It. Small scales used for weighing gold and silver, and gems. =Pessi= (Gr. πεσσοί). Draughts. (See LATRUNCULI.) =Pessulus=, R. A bolt for a door. =Petasus=, Gr. and R. (πέτασος, i. e. that which spreads out). (1) A soft felt hat with broad brim. (2) The winged cap of Mercury. Most of the horsemen in the Panathenaic procession (see ELGIN MARBLES) wear the petasus. In Greek art it is a conventional sign of a traveller. (Compare PILEUS.) =Petaurum=, R. (πέταυρον, lit. a perch for fowls). A machine employed in the Roman games; probably a fixed “see-saw.” =Peter-boat=, O. E. A river _fisherman’s_ wherry. =Petit Canon=, Fr. A kind of printing-type; _two-line_ in English. =Petit Gris=, Fr. Minever fur. (See VAIR.) =Petit Texte=, Fr. A kind of printing-type; _brevier_. =Petoritum=, R. An open four-wheeled carriage, a kind of cart used for conveying slaves. Its Gallic origin is indicated by the etymology of the word, viz. _petoer_, four, and _rit_, a wheel. =Petronel= (Fr. _poictrinal_). A piece of artillery or fire-arm, used in the 16th century, which was afterwards converted into a clumsy gun called a _blunderbuss_. It was the medium between the arquebus and the pistol. =Petunse=, Chinese. A fine clay used for porcelain; a kind of kaolin. =Peulvan=, Celt. (See MENHIR.) =Pewter.= An alloy of 100 parts of tin to 17 of antimony; or 89 tin, 7 antimony, and 2 copper. Tin and zinc, and lead and tin, are sometimes used to make pewter. The ancient guild of the Pewterers’ Company have their hall in Lime Street. =Phæcasia=, Gr. and R. (φαικάσιον). White shoes worn by different classes among the Greeks and Romans, but more especially by the priests and gymnasiarchs. =Phalæ= or =Falæ=, R. Wooden towers which were erected temporarily in a circus for the display of sham fights and captures of cities. (Compare PEGMA.) =Phalangæ=, =Palangæ=, R. (φάλαγξ). A pole employed for carrying purposes. Two men took the ends of this pole upon the shoulders, the burden being suspended from it in the middle. The same term was also applied to the rollers placed beneath objects whose weight rendered them difficult to move. The persons who made use of _phalangæ_ for carrying anything were called _phalangarii_. =Phalanx=, Gr. A close compact mass of infantry soldiers drawn up in files, usually eight deep. The Theban phalanx was twenty-five in depth. =Phalarica.= (See FALARICA.) [Illustration: Fig. 541. Gallic Phalera.] =Phaleræ=, R. (φάλαρα). Medals of gold, silver, or bronze (Fig. 541), worn upon the breast as a military decoration, and frequently displayed on the harness of the horses. =Phannel=, O. E. (See FANON.) =Phantasmagoria.= Literally, a procession of images. A name applied especially to dissolving views shown by the alternate use of each of two magic lanterns. =Pharetra=, Gr. and R. (φαρέτρα). A quiver. This was made of hide or leather, often richly ornamented with gold, painting, or braiding. It had a lid, and hung, from a belt over the right shoulder, on the left hip. (See CORYTUS, QUIVERS.) =Pharos=, =Pharus=, Gr. and R. (φάρος). A lighthouse; the name was derived from that which Ptolemy Philadelphus erected in the island of Pharos, at the entrance to the harbour of Alexandria, in Egypt. =Phaselus=, Egyp. (φάσηλος). A light Egyptian boat, long and narrow in shape, and made of very slight materials, such as osier, papyrus, and terra-cotta; it derived its name from the resemblance it bore to the pod of a bean (φάσηλος). [Illustration: Fig. 542. Phaskon.] =Phaskon=, Gr. A vessel of a flattened ovoid form, with a long spout, and a handle at the top, like the askos. =Phenakistoscope= (φενακιστικὸς, deceptive, and σκοπέω, to view), or =Spectroscope=. A toy for illustrating the duration of impressions on the retina of the eye. (See SPECTRA.) =Phenicine.= An indigo purple pigment. [Illustration: Fig. 543. Pheon.] =Pheon=, Her. A pointed spear-head borne with the point in base. (_Boutell._) “The _peon_, or _pheon_, was a barbed javelin; the heads of these are still heraldic bearings, and from their figure, we find the barbs _escalloped_, or _invecked_ as the heralds term it, aside.” (_Meyrick._) =Pheretrum.= (See FERETRUM.) =Phiala=, =Phialê=, Gr. (φιάλη). The Greek term synonymous with the Latin PATERA. But _Jacquemart_ says, “Quant à la phiale, sorte de _petite bouteille_ qui nous a donné le mot _fiole_; elle figure assez souvent dans les mains des divinités.” [Illustration: Fig. 544. Part of the Frieze of the temple of Apollo Epicurius near Phigalia.] =Phigalian Marbles.= Friezes in the Hellenic room of the British Museum, from a temple to Apollo Epicurius, near the ancient Phigalia in Arcadia. There are twenty-three slabs in high relief, eleven representing the battle between the Centaurs and the Lapithæ, and the rest the contest of the Greeks and Amazons. They are attributed to the same period as the Parthenon, but are considered inferior in style and workmanship. (Fig. 544.) =Philactery.= (See PHYLACTERY.) =Philomel.= Poetical for the nightingale. =Philyra= and =Philura=, Gr. (φιλύρα). Strips of papyrus used for making a sheet of writing-paper; ten or twelve strips of papyrus were first glued together lengthwise, and at the back of these a sufficient number of strips were fastened crosswise to double the thickness of the surface so obtained. =Phimus=, Gr. (φιμός). A Greek term synonymous with FRITILLUS (q.v.). =Phiolæ Rubricatæ.= (See SANGUINOLENTA.) [Illustration: Fig. 545. Phœnix. Device of Cardinal Trent.] =Phœnix=, Chr. In Christian archæology the phœnix, which is consumed by concentrating the sun’s rays in its body, and immediately rises again from its ashes, represents the mystery of the resurrection after death. In this sense it was adopted frequently as a device by ecclesiastics. (See BENNOU.) In blazon it is always represented as issuant from flames. (Fig. 545.) =Phorminx=, Gr. (φόρμιγξ). Homer’s epithet for the ancient _lyre_. It was a large lyre, and resembled the _cithara_ of later times, or the modern guitar. It was used at an early period singly, or for accompanying recitations. =Photogalvanography.= An art invented by Mr. Paul Pretsch, of Vienna, for printing from photographs by the medium of gutta percha. For a description of the process, see the _Manual of Photography_, 5th edition, pp. 269, 270. =Photoglyphic Engraving.= An invention of Mr. Fox Talbot (1858) for engraving on metal plates by the action of light. (See _Photographic Journal_, vol. v. p. 58.) =Photography.= A great many processes of producing pictures by the action of the sun’s rays upon a sensitive surface are included under this general term, such as the Daguerreotype, the Talbotype, &c. [Consult in the first instance _R. Hunt’s Manual of Photography_, from which reference can be taken to other authorities.] =Photolithography.= The art of preparing lithographic stones for printing from, by the medium of photography. =Photometallography.= A process of etching on metal plates, by the action of light, invented by Mr. C. J. Burnett (1858). (See _Photographic Journal_, vol. v. p. 97.) =Photometer.= An instrument for measuring the _intensity_ of light. =Phototype.= A plate, like an engraved plate, produced from a photograph, for printing from. =Photozincography.= The art of preparing zinc plates for printing from, by the medium of photography. =Phrase.= In Music, a passage of melody or harmony containing a musical idea, more or less complete in respect of cadence. =Phrygian.= Applied to music of a lively kind. (Cf. LYDIAN.) =Phrygian Work=, O. E. Embroidery. (See ORFRAYS.) =Phrygianum= (opus). A name given to all fine embroidery by the Romans, at a period when the work of the Phrygian women was most perfect. =Phrygio=, R. A Phrygian, or embroiderer, because the inhabitants of Phrygia had the reputation of being excellent embroiderers. =Phylactery=, Gen. (φυλακτήριον, a preservative). (1) A general term which included any kind of amulet worn about the person as a protection against dangers of all kinds. (2) Strips of parchment or vellum, upon which the Jews transcribed passages from the sacred books, and which they either wore upon the arm or the forehead, in a small leather box. (3) In the Middle Ages the term was applied to the scrolls held in the hands of angels or other persons represented in painting or sculpture. These scrolls bore inscriptions. (See LABELS.) =Phylaka=, Gr. (φυλακή). A prison; a Greek term corresponding to the Latin words CARCER and ERGASTULUM (q.v.). =Phytography.= A process of nature-printing from plants, by passing them between soft metal plates through a rolling press. =Piazza=, It. A square or open place surrounded by buildings, generally supported by pillars, and forming a vaulted promenade; hence the term is sometimes applied to the archways of a colonnade. =Pibroch=, Scotch. Bagpipe music. =Pica= (_pic_). Printing-type of the size formerly used in printing the _pic_, or service-book. =Piccadilly=, Old Fr. A high, broad, peaked collar or ruff, _temp._ James I. The tailor who made these ruffs is said to have built the street called by this name. =Piccagium=, Med. Lat. (English use). Money paid in fairs for breaking ground. =Piccolo=, It. A small flute. Small pianofortes are so called also. =Pictura=, R. (_pingo_, to paint). The art of painting; _pictura in tabula_, a painting on wood; _pictura in linteo_ or _in sipario_, a painting on canvas; _pictura inusta_, a painting in encaustic or wax; _pictura udo tectorio_, a fresco-painting. Embroidery was called _pictura textilis_. =Picturatus=, R. Painted; _tabella picturata_, a painted panel; _linteum picturatum_, embroidered linen. =Pièce de Maitrise=, Fr. A test-work produced by an apprentice to prove his competence to become a _master_ of his art or craft. =Piedouche=, Fr. A bracket-pedestal. =Pieds de Hérisson=, Fr. Fabulous animals so called represented on Persian pottery, mentioned by Jacquemart (p. 152); having the legs of a stag, the tail of a tiger, and the head of a woman. The legend is that Mohamet and Ali will mount such beasts on the Day of Judgment. =Piers=, in Architecture, are the perpendicular supports from which _arches_ spring. =Pietà=, It. A picture or statue of the Body of Christ, attended by the Virgin Mary, or by holy women and angels. =Pietra Dura.= Mosaic panelling of hard pebbles of variegated colours, representing fruit, birds, &c. in relief, and used as a decoration for coffers and cabinets in the 15th century. =Pietré Commesse=, It. Costly inlaid-work representing flowers, fruit, &c., in precious stones—such as agates, jaspers, lapis lazuli, &c.—introduced in Florence in the 17th century, and still maintained in the royal manufactory of that city. The finest examples are in the chapel of the Medici attached to the cathedral church of St. Lorenzo. =Pig.= A black pig was represented at St. Anthony’s feet, representing his victory over sensuality and gluttony. The monks of the order of St. Anthony used to keep herds of consecrated pigs. =Pigments.= The colours used in painting. A large number are described in their order. Standard works on ancient and modern pigments are _Eastlake’s Materials for a History of Painting_; _Merrifield’s Ancient Art of Painting_; _Hundertpfund’s Art of Painting restored to its Simplest and Surest Principles_. An exhaustive catalogue of other works on the subject has been issued by the Librarian of the South Kensington Museum. =Pike.= A celebrated infantry weapon now replaced by the bayonet, consisting of a strong spear or lance with a spike at the butt for fixing in the ground. The shape of the head has varied at different periods. =Pila=, R. This word has different meanings, according as the first syllable is long or short. In the first case it denotes (1) a mortar; (2) a pillar or conical pier for supporting the superstructure of a bridge; (3) a breakwater. When the first syllable is short, the word denotes (1) a playing-ball. The game of ball, from the earliest times to the fall of the Roman Empire, was one of the favourite exercises of the Greeks and Romans. In the baths and the gymnasiums a room (_sphæristerium_) was set apart for the purpose. _Pila_ was a small ball; _follis_, a large one filled with air: other balls were the _paganica_ and the _harpastum_. (2) _Pila vitrea_, a glass globe. (3) A dummy made to roughly imitate the human form. =Pilaster=, It. A square pillar on a wall, partly embedded in it, one-fourth or one-fifth of its thickness projecting. =Pile.= (1) Her. One of the ordinaries, in form like a wedge. (2) An arrow used in hunting, with a round knob below the head, to prevent it penetrating too far. (3) The nap or surface on velvet. =Pileatus=, R. One who wears the _pileus_, or skull-cap of felt; it was specially worn by the seafaring classes, and also by the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux). =Pilentum=, R. A state carriage in which the Roman ladies rode when attending any ceremony, whereas for purposes of recreation or for visiting they made use of the _carpentum_ or the _harmamaxa_. =Pileolus=, R. Diminutive of PILEUS; it was a small felt skull-cap which hardly covered the top of the head. =Pileus=, =Pileum=, R. (πῖλος, felt). A kind of close-fitting felt cap worn more particularly by the seafaring classes. The _pileus_ varied in form amongst the different nations by whom it was adopted; it was worn exclusively by men. The most familiar form of the pileus, in art, is the Phrygian bonnet, or cap of liberty. (Cf. PETASUS.) =Pillar Dollars= are Spanish silver coins, stamped on the obverse with the royal arms of Spain supported by two columns. =Pillion=, O. E. A soft pad-saddle with a footrest, for a woman or child to ride on behind a man. =Pillow= or =Head-stool=, Egyp. A kind of rest for the head, made sometimes of stone (onyx, alabaster, or sandstone), but more generally of wood, and used by the Egyptians to support and raise the head during sleep. In form it was a half-cylinder, and the base was more or less raised above the ground. This kind of pillow is still in use at the present day among various peoples, particularly the Nubians, the Japanese, and the Ashantees of Western Africa. =Pillow-beres=, O. E. Pillow-cases. They were at all times an object of rich ornamentation. =Pillow Lace.= Lace worked by hand, by throwing _bobbins_ upon a cushion or pillow. (See LACE.) =Pilum=, R. A javelin; the missile weapon of the Roman infantry, but used likewise as a pike for charging the enemy. It was a thick strong weapon, 6 feet 3 inches in length, half of wood and half of iron, with a barbed head of 9 inches of solid iron. The term also denotes a heavy pestle for bruising things in a mortar. =Pilus=, Med. Lat. (Fr. _pieu_). A pointed club or javelin. =Pina=, Sp. An amalgam of silver. =Pinacotheca=, Gr. and R. (πινακο-θήκη). A picture-gallery, one of the ordinary adjuncts to Greek or Roman houses of wealthy private persons. =Pinaculum=, Gr. and R. (a ridge or crest). A roof terminating in a ridge, the ordinary covering for a temple, whereas private houses had a flat roof. =Pinchbeck.= An alloy of 85 per cent. copper or brass, and 15 per cent. zinc; named after its inventor. It is sometimes called _tomback_. =Pindaric.= Of verses, irregular in metre; like the verses of the lyric poet Pindar. =Pingle Pan=, Scotch. A small tin ladle used for mixing children’s food. =Pink Madder.= (See MADDER.) =Pinking.= Stamping out borders and edges upon textile fabrics with a cutting instrument. =Pinks= (Fr. _stil de grain_). These are water-colour pigments of a yellow or greenish-yellow colour produced from the precipitation of vegetable juices, such as saffron, aloes, buckthorn-berries, broom-flowers, &c., upon chalk or whiting. They are _Italian pink_, sometimes called _yellow lake_; _brown pink_, _rose pink_, and _Dutch pink_. =Pinna=, R. (lit. a wing). (1) The top of an embattled wall, the _battlements_. (2) The blade of a rudder. =Pinnacle=, Arch. A small spire, generally with four sides and ornamented; it is usually placed on the tops of buttresses, both external and internal. =Pins.= Metal pins were introduced into this country from France in 1543, previous to which ladies were accustomed to fasten their dresses with skewers of box-wood, ivory, or bone. =Pipe.= A musical wind instrument, represented in the 14th century, in _Strutt’s Sports and Pastimes_, as used with the TABOR to accompany mountebanks, &c. (See also AULOS, PITO, &c.) =Pipe-clay.= An oily clay found in large quantities in Devonshire; used for moulding earthenware, but chiefly for tobacco-pipes. =Piriform=, Arch. Pear-shaped. The term is applied to roofs domed in the form of a pear; the Baptistery of Parma may be cited as an example. =Pirogue.= An Indian canoe, hollowed out of a solid tree. =Piscina=, R. (_piscis_, a fish). (1) A fishpond, an indispensable appendage to the villa of a wealthy Roman. (2) A large uncovered tank in the open air used as a swimming-bath, and distinct from the _baptisterium_, which was under cover. (3) _Piscina limaria_ was the reservoir of an aqueduct. In mediæval archæology the name was given (1) to credence-tables; (2) to baptisteries. (See BAPTISTERIUM, NATATORIUM.) =Pisé-work.= A method of constructing very durable walls of blocks of _kneaded earth_. It was probably suggested by the building processes of the ants, and Pliny calls such walls _formaciæ_. =Pistillum=, =Pistillus=, R. A pestle for a mortar. =Pistol.= Invented at Pistoia in Tuscany. (See _Pallas Armata_, _Sir James Turner_, 1670; _Meyrick_, iii. 76.) =Pistole.= A Spanish gold coin, worth about 16_s_.; the fourth of a _doubloon_. =Pistolese=, It. A long dagger or stabbing-knife of Pistoia. =Pistrina=, =Pistrinum=, R. (_pistor_, a miller). Originally this term denoted a mill for grinding grain; later on it was used exclusively to denote a house of correction for slaves who had to turn the mill. The work was of a most laborious kind. =Pistris=, =Pistrix=, R. (πίστρις). (1) A marine monster, representations of which are to be seen on the walls of several houses at Pompeii (in the legend of Theseus and Andromeda). It is always represented with the head of a dragon, and the fins and tail of a fish; and was adopted in early Christian art for the fish that swallowed Jonah. (2) A military engine. =Pitch-blende.= An ore used in porcelain painting. It produces a fine orange colour; also a black. =Pitch-pipe.= A sort of whistle for ascertaining the _pitch_ of a musical instrument, or for setting the key-note. =Pithos=, R. (πίθος). A large earthenware jar with a narrow neck, used in ancient and modern times for storing wine and oil. It appears upon a bas-relief in the Villa Albani as the tub of Diogenes. =Pito=, Sp. A Mexican name for the _pipe_ of the Aztecs, which resembled a _flageolet_. It was made of red clay, and had four finger-holes. The young man selected as a victim at the sacrifice to Tezcatlepoca was carefully instructed before his death in the art of playing this instrument, and as he ascended the temple or TEOCALLI to the sacrifice, he broke a flute upon each of the steps of the temple. =Piu=, It. Rather; used in Music, as _piu forté_, _rather_ loud. =Pix= or =Pyx=, Chr. (πυξίς). (1) A box to keep the unconsecrated altar breads in. It was generally circular, with a pointed cover, and richly enamelled. (2) The vessel in which the holy eucharist was suspended over the altar. (3) The box kept at the British Mint to contain the coins selected to be tried in assay, to ascertain whether the coinage is of the standard purity. (See CIBORIUM [3], MONSTRANCE, &c.) =Pizzicato= (It.). An expression in music; playing on the violin like a harp. =Placage=, Fr. Veneering or inlaying. =Plack=, Scotch. A small copper coin formerly current in Scotland; equal to the third of an English penny. =Placket=, O. E. A petticoat. (_Shakspeare._) =Plafond=, =Plafonner=, Fr. Arch. (_plat-fond_). The French term for a ceiling, often the subject of elaborate architectural, carved, or painted decoration. The peculiar foreshortened perspective characteristic of figure-pictures on a ceiling is hence described as “plafonné;” and it is generally said of a painter distinguished for bold foreshortenings, “Il excelle à _plafonner_.” _Plafonds_ of different periods are found of wood, lath and plaster, or stone. =Plaga=, R. A hunting-net, the diminutive of which is _plagula_ (small net); the latter term also denotes the curtains hung round a couch or litter, a width of cloth, a strip of paper, &c. =Plagula.= (See PLAGA.) =Planchet.= A name for the smooth coin prepared for stamping before it has passed under the die. =Planeta.= A robe worn by _priests_, resembling the DALMATIC (see Fig. 236) worn by _deacons_. (See CHASUBLE.) =Planetary Machine.= (See ORRERY.) =Planisphere.= A projection of the sphere and its various circles on a plane surface. [Illustration: Fig. 546. Planta Genista.] =Planta Genista=, Her. The broom-plant badge of the Plantagenets. =Plaque=, Fr. A flat plate of metal or painted china. Limoges enamels of the 15th century are described as _plaques_. =Plasm.= A mould or matrix. =Plasma.= A green transparent chalcedony found in India and China. =Plaster of Paris.= The cement or plaster obtained from gypsum, originally prepared near Paris. It is usually sold in the form of white powder, and is largely used in the arts. Verrocchio (1435–1488) is said to have been the first sculptor to cast moulds in plaster of Paris. (See GYPSUM.) =Plastic Art.= Sculpture; opposed to _Graphic Art_, or painting, &c. =Plastron=, Fr. A fencing-pad to cover the body. _Plastron-de-fer_ was an iron breastplate worn under the hauberk, especially when the latter was of ringed mail. =Plat-band.= (See TÆNIA.) =Plata=, Sp. Silver (hence our _plate_). =Plate=, Her. A silver roundle. =Plate armour=, consisting entirely of metal _plates_, became general during the 15th century. =Plate-glass.= A superior kind of thick glass, used chiefly for mirrors and for large windows. =Plate-jack=, O. E. Coat armour. =Plate-marks.= (See HALL-MARKS.) =Plate-paper= is a thick soft paper expressly prepared for printing engravings upon. =Platea=, Gr. and R. (πλατεῖα, i. e. broad). A wide fine street in a city, in contradistinction to a small street called _angiportus_, which means literally a narrow street. =Platen.= Of a printing-press, the flat part by which the impression is made. =Plateresca=, Sp. A name given to goldsmiths’ work of the 14th and 15th centuries, which reflected the complicated and delicate forms of ornament applied in the pointed architecture of the period. =Plates= are properly illustrations taken from copper or steel engravings; _cuts_ are impressions from wood-blocks. =Platina.= Twisted silver wire. =Platina Yellow.= Two pigments, one of a pale yellow colour, the other resembling _cadmium yellow_, are sold under this name. =Plating= is the art of covering metals with a thin surface of silver or gold for ornament. =Platinum= (Sp. _plata_, silver). A white metal exceedingly ductile, malleable, and difficult of fusion. It is found in the Ural Mountains and in South America, and is much used in goldsmiths’ work in Russia. =Plaustrum=, R. (_plaudo_, to rumble). A two-wheeled cart drawn by two oxen, and used for conveying agricultural produce; _plaustrum majus_ was a much larger cart mounted on four wheels. It had a long pole projecting behind, on which blocks of stone or other cargo could be balanced on planks attached. The wheels (_tympana_) were of solid wood nearly a foot in thickness, and their creaking was heard to a great distance (hence the name). =Plectrum= or =Plektron=, Gr. and R. (from πλήσσειν, to strike). A short stem of ivory or metal pointed at both ends, used to strike the chords of the lyre, the _barbiton_, the _cithara_, and some other stringed instruments. =Plemochoê=, Gr. and R. (πλημο-χοὴ, i. e. that pours a flood). A vessel in the shape of a top; it resembled the _cotylê_. =Plenitude=, Her. Said of the moon when in full. =Plenshing-nail.= A large nail for fastening the planks of floors to the joists. =Plethron=, Gr. The basis of land measurement, being 100 feet square, or 10,000 square feet. As a lineal measure, 100 feet, or about 101 of English measurement. =Plinth=, Arch. (πλίνθος). Lit. a _tile_ or _brick_, and thence the lower projecting base of a column, pedestal, or wall, which resembles a strong square tile placed beneath the last torus at the base of a column. (See ABACUS.) =Plinthium=, R. (πλινθίον). A sun-dial, so called because its divisions were marked on a flat surface (πλίνθος). =Plocage=, Fr. Carding-wool. =Plombage.= Lead work. =Plombagine.= Plumbago. =Plostellum.= Diminutive of PLAUSTRUM. =Ploughs= are mentioned in Deuteronomy (1451 B.C.), and represented on Egyptian sculptures of still earlier date. The Roman plough of the date of our era is described by Virgil. =Plough Monday= was the name given by our ancestors to the first Monday after the Epiphany, the return to labour after the Christmas holiday. =Plumæ=, R. (lit. feathers). The scales of armour, arranged to imitate feathers. (See PENNA.) =Plumarium Opus.= (See OPUS P.) =Plumbago.= A carburet of iron commonly known as black-lead, also called GRAPHITE, used for making crucibles and black-lead pencils. =Plumbeous Wares.= Lead-glazed, by the addition of an oxide of lead in the preparation of the glaze. (See POTTERY.) =Plumbum=, R. (lit. lead). A general term denoting anything that is made of lead, such as a lead pipe, a slinger’s bullet, &c. [Illustration: Fig. 547. Pluteus.] =Pluteus=, R. A general term including anything made of boards adapted to afford a support, cover, passage, &c.; and thus sometimes used as a synonym for _musculus_ or protective shed. Fig. 547, a _pluteus_ upon three wheels, was used for protecting soldiers conducting an approach at the foot of a rampart. These _plutei_ were covered with the skins of animals, which were wetted to protect the machines from fire; and helped to deaden the shock of missiles. =Plynteria=, Gr. (πλυντήρια, washing). Festivals held at Athens in honour of Athena Aglauros, in which the statue of the goddess was stripped of its garments and ornaments and washed. It was carefully concealed in the mean time, and the city being thus in a manner deprived of its protecting divinity, the day was considered an ill-omened one. =Pnigeus=, R. (πνιγεὺς, lit. a choker). A kind of funnel employed to stop or repress the air in a hydraulic organ. =Pnyx=, Gr. The site in Athens where the ECCLESIÆ were held. It was a semicircular rising ground, with an area of 12,000 square yards, levelled with a pavement of large stones, and surrounded by a wall, behind which was the BEMA or platform from which speakers addressed the people. =Pocillum= or =Poculum=, R. Any cup or glass for drinking, distinct from the CRATER for mixing, and the CYATHUS for ladling the wine. (Cf. POKAL.) =Poddisoy=, =Padusoy=, O. E. (Fr. _pou de soie_). A rich plain silk. =Podera=, Gr. (ποδήρης, i. e. reaching to the feet). A rich linen dress worn by Greek women, the edges of which were indented. [Illustration: Fig. 548. Podium running round a sepulchral chamber.] =Podium=, Arch. (πόδιον, lit. a small foot). A low wall or basement, generally with a _plinth_ and _cornice_, running round a room or in front of a building, forming a sort of shelf or seat. Fig. 548 shows the _podium_ of a sepulchral chamber. In an amphitheatre, _podium_ was the name for a raised basement which ran like a high enclosure round the whole circumference of the arena. Lastly, the term is sometimes used as a synonym for a socle, and a console or bracket. =Poële=, Fr. (lit. a frying-pan). A square shield with a raised edge and a grating on it, which resembled the German baking-dish. In a tournament, the joust “_à la poële_” was the most dangerous of all, as the champions fought bare-headed and without armour. Their horses were blindfolded, and a coffin was brought into the course before the combat commenced. (_Meyrick._) [Illustration: Fig. 549. Point Lace à bride picotée.] =Point Lace= _à bride picotée_ ground. This lace is made with the needle (see NEEDLE POINT), some parts of the pattern only slightly raised in relief being united by stitches called _bride picotée_. (Fig. 549.) =Point of Sight.= The principal vanishing point, in perspective, to which the horizontal lines converge. =Pointed= or =Christian Architecture= is generally called GOTHIC; and is a general term, descriptive of all the styles that have prevailed subsequent to the introduction of the _pointed arch_, commencing with the 11th century. =Pointel.= The mediæval _stylus_ or _graphium_ (q.v.). =Points.= In the 15th and 16th centuries, before the introduction of buttons, the different parts of dress were fastened with ribands, having ornamental _points_ or metal tags at the end. (See Fig. 559.) =Poitrine=, Fr. A breastplate for man or horse. [Illustration: Fig. 550. Pokal, or German Tankard.] =Pokal=, Germ. (Lat. _poculum_). A drinking-cup. (Fig. 550.) =Poke=, O. E. A bag; modern pocket. =Poker Pictures.= Drawings burned upon wood with hot irons; much patronized in the 18th century. =Pol=, =Edepol=, R. A familiar oath or adjuration especially employed by the Roman women; it was an abbreviation of _By Pollux!_ =Polariscope.= An instrument for exhibiting the polarization of light. =Pole-axe.= A weapon of the 15th century, combining a hatchet, a pike, and a serrated hammer. Used principally by cavalry. =Poleyns=, Fr. (See GENOUILLIÈRES.) =Pollubrum= and =Polubrum=, R. An old term for which there was substituted later on _malluvium_, _aquimanale_, _aquiminarium_, _trulleum_; it was a kind of basin for washing the hands, the χέρνιψ, χερόνιπτρον of the Greeks. =Polos=, Gr. A kind of sun-dial. (See HOROLOGIUM.) =Polyandrion=, Chr. (Gr. πολυ-άνδριον). A common sepulchre in which more than four bodies were buried. (See LOCULUS.) =Polychord.= An instrument for application to the pianoforte for coupling together the strings of two octave notes. =Polychromy.= Colouring statuary, bas-reliefs, and architecture; to be distinguished from forming them of variously-coloured materials. This was not done by painting with an opaque colour, but a sort of staining of the surface by thin, transparent colouring matter. M. de Quincy states that the fine preservation of the surface of some antique statues, such as the Apollo Belvedere, Hercules of Glycon, and Venus de Medici, is attributable to the use of wax colouring. Stones of various colours were used to represent different parts of the figure, and in busts of the Roman emperors the dress is frequently of coloured marble, while the flesh is of white. [Consult _Redford’s Ancient Sculpture_.] =Polyhedron.= A solid with many faces or planes. =Polyptyca=, Gr. (πολύ-πτυχα). (1) Tablets, a sufficient number of which are put together to form what we now call a note-book. (2) A polyptych; a picture with several compartments. (Cf. DIPTYCH.) =Polystyle=, Arch. Surrounded by several rows of columns, as in Moorish architecture. The porticoes of a Greek temple had never more than ten columns in front (decastyle). [Illustration: Fig. 551. A Silver Engraved Pomander, or Scent-box, shown open and closed.] =Pomander=, O. E. (from _pomme d’ambre_, perfume apple). A scent-box worn at the end of the hanging girdles of the 16th century. (See POUNCET-BOX.) (Fig. 551.) Consult an interesting monograph by _R. H. Soden Smith_, “_Notes on Pomanders_.” =Pomme=, Her. A green roundle. =Pomœrium=, R. (_post_ and _mœrium_ (_murus_) behind the walls). A line enclosing a town, marked out at intervals by stone pillars. When the limits of the town were extended, the _pomœrium_ could not be changed without augury by the _jus pomœrii_, and, in any case, only by a town whose inhabitants had contributed to the extension of the limits of the empire. =Pompa=, R. and Gr. (πομπή). A solemn procession, especially that with which the games of the circus were preceded. =Pondus=, =Weight=, R. (_pendo_, to suspend). An object used for weighing, either with the balance (_libra_), or the steelyard (_statera_). The same term was also applied to a weaver’s weights; these were of stone, terra-cotta, or lead. [Illustration: Fig. 552. Pons.] =Pons=, R. (Gr. γέφυρα). (1) A bridge; the causeway (_agger_) which traversed the Roman bridge was paved with large polygonal stones; on either side of it was a pathway (_crepido_). Fig. 552 shows the Roman bridge at St. Chamas, at the ends of which were erected triumphal arches (_fornices_). (See FORNIX.) _Pons sublicius_ was a wooden bridge built upon piles; _pons suffragiorum_, the voting-bridge over which the electors passed as they came out of the _septum_ to cast their vote (_tabella_) into the urn (_cista_). It is probable that the Greek bridges were of wood. (2) A wharf or landing-stage by the water-side. =Poongi=, Hindoo. A curious musical instrument made of a gourd, or sort of cocoa-nut, into which two pipes are inserted. It is the instrument played by the Sampuris, or snake-charmers, to the performing cobras. [Illustration: Fig. 553. Pope in full pontificals.] =Pope.= The illustration represents the Pope of Rome in full pontificals, viz. the _tiara_, consisting of three crowns of gold decorated with precious stones and surmounted by a cross, and over a _rochet_ (surplice) of silk a mantle of gold-work plentifully ornamented with pearls. The under vestment, which is long, is of hyacinth colour. The slippers are of velvet with a cross of gold, which all who wish to speak to the Pope reverently kiss. Late mediæval artists attributed this costume to the First Person of the Trinity. It is given also to St. Clement, St. Cornelius, St. Fabian, St. Gregory, St. Peter, and St. Sylvanus. =Popina=, R. A tavern or refreshment-place where food was sold, in contradistinction to _caupona_, which was a shop for selling wine. =Popinjay=, O. E. A parrot. =Poplin.= A textile of modern introduction, woven of threads of silk and worsted. =Poppy=, Chr. This plant, the seed of which affords a soporific oil, symbolizes, in Christian iconography, death. =Poppy Oil.= A bland drying oil, obtained from poppy-seed, and used in painting. (See OILS.) =Poppy-head.= A term in decorative art for the carved ornaments with which the tops of the uprights of wood-work, such as the ends of benches, backs of chairs, bedposts, &c., were crowned. =Popularia=, R. The second _mænianum_ or tier of seats in an amphitheatre. =Porcelain= (Ancient Chinese) (from the Portuguese _porcellana_, little pigs; a name given to cowrie-shells by the early traders, and applied to porcelain, which they thought was made of them, or because it resembled the interior of a shell). A fine species of transparent earthenware, the chief component part of which is silex. (_Fairholt._) The most ancient examples of porcelain in China are circular dishes with upright sides, very thick, strong, and heavy, and which invariably have the marks of one, two, or three on the bottom thus: I. II. III. The colours of these rare specimens vary. The kinds most highly prized have a brownish-yellow ground, over which is thrown a light shot sky-blue, with here and there a dash of blood-red. The Chinese say there are but a few of these specimens in the country, and that they are more than a thousand years old. (_Fortune._) The first imitations of Chinese porcelain in Europe date from the 16th century, under the Medici family, and include specimens supposed to have been designed by the immediate pupils of Raffaelle. (See RAFFAELLE-WARE.) Among the next earliest produced is that of Fulham, by Dr. Dwight, in 1671, and of St. Cloud in France about 1695. [Illustration: Fig. 554. Pent-house Porch.] =Porch=, Arch. A structure placed in front of the door of a church or other building, and very variable in form. In the ancient basilicas the vestibule is more commonly called NARTHEX (q.v.). Fig. 554 shows a wooden porch also called a _pent-house porch_, and Fig. 555 a plan of what is called a _cupola_ porch, from the fact that, its ground being circular, it is surmounted by a dome. [Illustration: Fig. 555. Ground-plan of a Cupola Porch.] [Illustration: Fig. 556. Porcupine. Device of Louis XII.] =Porcupine= (Fr. _porc epic_). Hereditary device of the Valois family. The “Order of the Porcupine” was instituted in 1397 by Louis, Duke of Orleans, and abolished by Louis XII., who retained the badge (Fig. 556), and had his cannon marked with a porcupine. In numismatics his golden “écus au porc epic” are rare and highly valued. =Porcupine-wood.= The ornamental wood of a palm, the markings of which in the horizontal section resemble porcupine quills. =Porphyry.= A hard stone much used in Egyptian sculpture, and for sarcophagi. It was of a fine red colour, passing into purple and green, and susceptible of a fine polish. (See also _Rosso Antico_.) =Porporino=, It. A yellow powder substituted for gold by mediæval artists. It was compounded of quicksilver, sulphur, and tin. [Illustration: Fig. 557. Porta (Gate of Perusium).] =Porta=, R. This term denotes the gate of a city, a large gate in any enclosure, in contradistinction to JANUA and OSTIUM (q.v.), which denote the doors of a building. Fig. 557 shows the ancient gate of Perugia. =Portcullis.= A kind of iron grating, forming an outer door, which slided up and down perpendicularly in the grooves of a bay. It was suspended by a chain, which could instantly be lowered, as occasion required, in order to prevent ingress and cut off all communication. By the Greeks and Romans they were called _portæ cataractæ_, and in the Middle Ages they were known as Saracenic gates. [Illustration: Fig. 558. Portcullis.] =Portcullis=, Her. A defence for a gateway, borne as a badge by the Houses of Beaufort and Tudor. Motto, “_Altera securitas_.” (Fig. 558.) =Porticus=, =Portico=, R. (_porta_). A long colonnade serving as a covered promenade. In an amphitheatre, the covered gallery at the top which was appropriated to women or slaves. A wooden gallery covered over with a roof, but in some cases entirely open on the side of the country. (See TEMPLUM.) =Portisculus=, R. A director’s staff wielded on board ship by the officer who gave the time to the rowers to make them row in unison. =Portrait Painting.= The earliest portrait on record is that of Polygnotus, painted by himself, B.C. 400. Giotto is said to have been the earliest successful portrait painter of modern times. The different sizes of portraits are the following:— ft. in. ft. in. Bishop’s whole length 8 10 by 5 10. Whole length 7 10 „ 4 10. Bishop’s half-length 4 8 „ 3 8. Half-length 4 2 „ 3 4. Small half-length 3 8 „ 2 10. Kit-cat 3 0 „ 2 4. Three-quarter size 2 6 „ 2 1. Head size 2 0 „ 1 8. =Portula.= A wicket made in a large gate in order to give admittance into a city without opening the _porta_ or large gate. =Posnett=, O. E. A little pot. =Postergale=, Chr. A DORSAL (q.v.). =Postern= (_posterna_, a back door). A private gate in a rampart, either upon the platform or at the angle of a curtain, and opening into the ditches, whence it was possible to pass by the _pas-de-souris_, without being seen by the besiegers, into the covered way and the glacis. =Posticum=, R. (Gr. παραθύρα). (1) A back door to a Roman house. (2) In Architecture, the part of a building opposite to the façade; the posterior façade. =Postis=, R. The jamb of a door, supporting the lintel or _limen superius_. =Postscenium=, R. The part of a Roman theatre behind the stage, in which the actors dressed, and the appointments and machines were kept. =Potichomanie.= A process of ornamenting glass with coloured designs on paper, in imitation of painted porcelain. =Potter’s Clay=, found in Dorsetshire and Devonshire, is used for modelling and for pottery; mixed with linseed oil, it is used as a _ground_ in painting. =Pottery= (=Fayence=, =Terraglia=), as distinct from porcelain, is formed of potter’s clay mixed with marl of argillaceous and calcareous nature, and sand, variously proportioned, and may be classed under two divisions: _Soft_ (Fayence à pâte tendre), and _Hard_ (Fayence à pâte dure), according to the nature of the composition or the degree of heat under which it has been fired in the kiln. What is known generally in England as _earthenware_ is soft, while _stone-ware_, _Queen’s ware_, &c., are hard. The characteristics of the soft wares are a paste or body which may be scratched with a knife or file, and fusibility generally at the heat of a porcelain furnace. These soft wares may be again divided into four subdivisions: _unglazed_, _lustrous_, _glazed_, or _enamelled_. Among the three first of these subdivisions may be arranged almost all the ancient pottery of Egypt, Greece, Etruria, and Rome; as also the larger portion of that in general use among all nations during mediæval and modern times. The _glazed wares_ may be again divided into _silicious_ or _glass-glazed wares_, and _plumbeous_ or _lead-glazed_. In these subdivisions the foundation is in all cases the same. The mixed clay or “paste” or “body” is formed by the hand or on the wheel, or impressed into moulds; then slowly dried and baked in a furnace or stove, after which, on cooling, it is in a state to receive the glaze. This is prepared by fusing sand or other silicious material with potash or soda to form a translucent glass, the composition of the glaze upon vitreous or _glass-glazed_ wares. The addition of oxide of lead constitutes the glaze of _plumbeous_ wares; and the further addition of the oxide of tin produces an enamel of an opaque white of great purity, which is the characteristic glazing of _stanniferous_ or _tin-glazed wares_. Most of the principal seats of the manufacture of pottery, and a description of the objects manufactured, and methods used in the manufacture, will be found mentioned under their respective headings. =Poulaines=, Fr. Long-toed boots and shoes, introduced in 1384. (See CRACOWES.) =Pounce-paper.= A kind of transparent tracing-paper, free from grease, &c.; made in Carlsruhe. =Pounced.= In Engraving, _dotted_ all over. =Pouncet-box=, O. E. A perfume box, carved with open work. (See POMANDER.) =Pouranamas=, Hind. Very ancient books of India, which give a part of Hindoo history from the beginning of the Hindoo monarchy, or the time of the king Ellou or Ella. [Illustration: Fig. 559. Pourpoint. Worn by a Venetian youth of the 16th century.] =Pourpoint=, Fr. A quilted doublet, worn in the 14th and 15th centuries. The illustration represents a Venetian gallant of the 16th century. (See GAMBESON.) =Powder-blue= is pulverized pipe-clay, a good “pounce” for transferring designs upon linen for embroidery. =Powdered=, Her. (See SÉMÉ.) =Powers=, Chr. Guardian angels, usually represented bearing a staff. (See ANGELS.) =Præcinctio=, E. (_præcingo_, to gird). A lobby running quite round the circle formed by the _caveæ_ in the interior of a theatre or amphitheatre; the same term is also used to denote the passages between the tiers of seats comprised within each _mænianum_. According to their importance, theatres and amphitheatres were divided into two, three, and sometimes four præcinctiones. =Præfericulum=, R. A metal basin without handles, used for holding sacred utensils. =Præficæ=, R. Women hired as mourners at the funerals of wealthy persons. [Illustration: Fig. 560. Præfurnium hypocaust.] =Præfurnium=, R. The mouth of a furnace placed beneath a _hypocausis_ or heating-stove in a set of baths. Fig. 560 shows the _præfurnium_ of a hypocausis which was drawn upon the walls of a _laconicum_ situated near the church of St. Cecilia at Rome. (See HYPOCAUSIS.) [Illustration: Fig. 561. Roman maiden wearing the _toga prætexta_.] =Prætexta=, R. A TOGA with a broad purple border. It was introduced by the Etruscans, and was the costume assigned to priests and magistrates, to boys before they came of age, and to women before their marriage. (See TOGA.) (Fig. 561.) =Prætorium=, R. The tent of the commander-in-chief of the army; it was so called because in the earliest times of Rome the consul who commanded the army bore the title of _prætor_. The residence of a governor of a province was also called _prætorium_, and finally the name was given to any large house or palace. =Prandium=, R. (_prandeo_, to breakfast). The midday meal, which came between breakfast (_jentaculum_) and dinner (_cœna_). =Prastura.= (See UPAPITHA.) =Préa-koul=, Hind. An upright stone or sacred boundary among the Khmers. =Préasat=, Hind. The tower of the Khmers; _préasat-stupaï_ means little tower; _préasat-phradamrey_, the elephant tower of the king. =Precarium=, Chr. A temporary benefice granted to a layman by the Church; the holder of the benefice was, however, bound to pay the Church certain dues. =Predella=, It. A ledge behind the altar of a church on which the altar-piece was placed, containing small pictures, of similar subjects to the altar-piece. =Prefericulum=, R. A shallow metal bowl used in sacrifices for carrying the sacred vessels. Its shape resembled the _patera_. =Premier Coup.= (See PRIMA PAINTING.) =Pre-Raphaelites.= A modern school of painters, who, throwing aside all conventional laws and traditions in art, direct their study to the forms and colours of Nature. =Presentoir=, Fr. An épergne or table-stand for flowers; made very shallow, on a tall and richly-decorated stem. A favourite subject of the goldsmith’s art in the 16th century. =Pressed Glass.= Glass pressed into a mould by a machine; differing from _blown glass_. =Presto=, It. In Music, quickly. =Priapeia=, R. (πριάπεια). Festivals in honour of Priapus; they were held chiefly at Lampsacus. =Pricket.= A young stag of two years, when his horns begin to sprout. =Prie-Dieu.= A kneeling-desk for prayers. =Prima Painting= (in French, _peinture au premier coup_) is a modern style directed to the avoidance of extreme finish, described in a work by _Hundertpfund_, “_The Art of Painting restored to its Simplest and Surest Principles_.” =Primary Colours.= Blue, yellow, and red, from which all colours are derived. =Primero=, O. E. A game at cards mentioned by Shakspeare. =Primicerii=, Chr. This term had several meanings, but it was usually employed to denote the first person inscribed on a list, because the tablet on which the names were written was covered with wax; whence _primicerius_ (from _cera_, wax), the first upon the wax. In cathedral churches the primicerius presided over the choir, and regulated the order and method of the ceremonies. =Priming.= (See GROUNDS.) =Prince’s Metal= or =Prince Rupert’s Metal=. An alloy of 72 parts of copper and 28 parts of zinc, which has a resemblance to gold. =Princedoms= or =Principalities=, Chr. An order of THRONES of angels; usually represented in complete armour, carrying pennons. (See Fig. 24.) =Principes=, R. A body of heavy-armed foot-soldiers; thus named, because, in the order of battle, they were placed first. =Principia=, R. (_princeps_, chief, foremost). The headquarters in a Roman camp, comprising not only the tents of the general and the superior officers, but also an open space in which justice was administered and sacrifices offered to the gods; it was in the same open space that all the standards of the legion were set up. =Priory=, Chr. A monastery attached, as a rule, to an abbey; there were also, however, priories which formed the _head of an order_. In the order of Malta each _tongue_ comprehended several great priories. [Illustration: Fig. 562. Prismatic mouldings.] =Prismatic= (mouldings). A kind of moulding resembling the facets of a prism (Fig. 562), which is sometimes met with in archivolts of the Romano-Byzantine period. The same term is likewise applied to mouldings characteristic of the flamboyant style, which assume, especially in their base, the form of prisms. =Proaron=, Gr. and R. (πρόαρον; ἀρύω, to draw water). A vessel of a flattened spheroid form, with two handles. =Proaulium=, R. (_pro_, in front of). The vestibule of any building. =Prochous=, Gr. (πρόχοος, i. e. thing for pouring out). A small jug for pouring liquid into a cask; it had a narrow neck, a very large handle, and a pointed mouth. =Procœton=, Gr. and R. (προ-κοιτών). An antechamber or room preceding other rooms or chambers. =Prodd=, O. E. A light cross-bow, used by ladies, _temp._ Elizabeth. =Prodomos=, Arch. (πρό-δομος). The façade of a temple or building, and sometimes the porch of a church. =Profile.= The side view of the human face. It is observed by Fairholt that “a face which, seen directly in front, is attractive by its rounded outline, blooming colour, and lovely smile, is often divested of its charms when seen in profile, and strikes only as far as it has an _intellectual_ expression. Only where great symmetry exists, connected with a preponderance of the intellectual over the sensual, will a profile appear finer than the front face.” =Projectura=, R. The beaver of a helmet. =Proletarii=, R. The proletariate, or Roman citizens of the lowest class of the people, so called because they contributed nothing to the resources of the republic except by their offspring (_proles_); being, as they were, too poor to pay taxes. =Prom=, Hind. An ornamented carpet in Khmer art. =Prometheia.= An Athenian festival in honour of Prometheus, with a torch-race (_lampadephoria_). =Promulsis.= The first course at a Roman dinner, arranged to stimulate the appetite; eggs were a principal ingredient, whence the proverb _ab ovo usque ad mala_ (from first to last). =Pronaos=, R. (πρό-ναος). A portico situated in front of a temple; it was open on all sides, and surrounded only by columns, which, in front, supported not only the entablature, but the pediment (_fastigium_). =Proper=, Her. Said of a thing exhibited in its natural, or proper, colour. =Proplasma=, Gr. and R. (πρό-πλασμα). A rough model or embodiment of the sculptor’s first idea, executed by him in clay. =Propnigeum=, Gr. and R. The mouth of the furnace of the HYPOCAUSIS (q.v.). =Propylæa=, Gr. The open court at the entrance to a sacred enclosure; e. g. an Egyptian temple, or especially the Acropolis at Athens. =Prora=, R. (πρῷρα). The prow or fore-part of a ship, whence _proreta_, a man who stood at the ship’s head; _proreus_ was a term also used. (See ACROSTOLIUM.) =Proscenium=, R. (προ-σκήνιον). The stage in a Greek or Roman theatre; it included the whole platform comprised between the _orchestra_ and the wall of the stage; the term was also used sometimes to denote the wall of the stage itself. =Proscenium=, Mod. The ornamental frame on which the curtain hangs. =Prostylos=, Gr. (πρό-στυλος). A building or temple which has a porch supported by a row of columns. =Proteleia=, Gr. (προ-τέλεια). Sacrifices which were offered to Diana, Juno, the Graces, and Venus prior to the celebration of a marriage. [Illustration: Fig. 563. Entrance (Prothyrum) of a Roman house.] =Prothyrum=, Gr. (πρό-θυρον). With the Greeks, the vestibule in front of the door of a house, where there was generally an altar of Apollo, or a statue or laurel-tree; with the Romans, the prothyrum was the corridor or passage leading from the street to the atrium (Fig. 563). =Prototype= (πρῶτον, first; τύπον, mould). The model of a plastic design; hence figuratively, a _type_ or forerunner. =Protractor.= An instrument for laying down and measuring angles upon paper. =Protypum=, Gr. and R. (πρό-τυπον). A model, first model or mould for making any object in clay, such as antefixæ. =Prussian Blue.= A valuable pigment of a greenish-blue colour, of great body, transparency, and permanency; a mixture of prussiate of potash and rust, or oxide of iron. (See CYANOGEN.) =Prussian Brown.= A deep-brown pigment, more permanent than madder. =Psaltery.= A stringed instrument or kind of lyre of an oblong square shape, played with a rather large plectrum. =Pschent=, Egyp. The head-dress of the ancient kings of Egypt, which should properly be called _skhent_, since the _p_ only represents the article _the_. This head-dress is the emblem of supreme power, the symbol of dominion over the south and north. It is a diadem composed of the united crowns of the Upper and Lower Egypts. =Psephus=, Gr. (ψῆφος). A round stone used by the Athenian voters to record their votes. =Pseud-iso-domum= (_opus_). (See OPUS PSEUD-ISO-DOMUM.) [Illustration: Fig. 564. Ground-plan of a Pseudodipteral Temple.] =Pseudodipteros=, Gr. and R. (ψευδο-δίπτερος). A building or temple which presents the appearance of being surrounded by a double colonnade, though it possesses only a single one, which is separated from the walls of the cella, as in the dipteral arrangement. (Fig. 564.) =Pseudoperipteros=, Gr. and R. (ψευδο-περίπτερος). A building or temple which presents the appearance of being surrounded by a colonnade, although in reality it does not possess one, the columns being embedded in the walls of the cella. (See PERIPTEROS, under which an example of this kind of temple is given.) =Pseudothyrum=, Gr. and R. (ψευδό-θυρον). Literally, a false door, and thence a secret door, or door hidden by some means or other. =Pseudourbana= (sc. _ædificia_), R. The dwelling-house of the owner of a farm, which was distinct from the buildings set apart for the farm people and the slaves, the _familia rustica_. =Psili=, Gr. (ψιλοί). Light-armed troops, who wore skins or leather instead of metal armour, and fought generally with bows and arrows or slings. =Psychè=, Fr. A cheval-glass or mirror. =Psycter=, Gr. (ψυκτήρ). A metal wine-cooler, often of silver, consisting of an outer vessel to contain ice, and an inner vessel for the wine. =Pterotus=, R. (πτερωτός). That which has wings or ears; an epithet applied to the drinking-cup called _calix_. =Puggaree=, Hind. A piece of muslin worn as a turban. =Pugillares=, R. Writing-tablets small enough to be held in the hand (_pugillus_), whence their name. =Pugio=, R. (Gr. μάχαιρα). A short dagger, without a sheath, worn by officers of high rank. =Pulpitum=, R. The tribune of an orator, or the chair of a professor. In a theatre the term was used to denote the part of the stage next to the _orchestra_. (See PROSCENIUM.) =Pulvinar=, R. (_pulvinus_, a cushion). A cushion or bolster, and thence a state couch or a marriage-bed. =Pulvinarium=, R. (1) A room in a temple, in which was set out the _pulvinar_ or couch for the gods at the feast of the LECTISTERNIUM. (2) See OPUS PULVINARIUM. [Illustration: Fig. 565. Pulvinatus.] =Pulvinatus=, R. Having a contour similar to that of a cushion or bolster, and thence the cylinder formed by the swelling of the volute at the side of the Ionic capital. (Fig. 565.) =Pumice-stone.= A kind of lava of less specific gravity than water. The dome of the mosque of St. Sophia at Constantinople is built of pumice-stone. =Punchau.= (See INTI.) =Punctum=, R. A vote or suffrage, because in early times each citizen, instead of laying down a _tessera_ or tablet with his vote, passed in front of the _rogator_, or voting officer who had the list of candidates before him, and pricked a hole (_punctum_) in the tablet against the name of the candidate for whom the vote was given. =Punkahs.= Swinging fans suspended from the ceilings of houses in India, often richly embroidered and decorated with feathers, brilliant insects, gold and silver, &c. =Puntilla=, Sp. A narrow point-lace edging. =Pupa=, R. A doll; a child’s plaything. Dolls of terra-cotta have been found in various countries. In Egypt dolls have been found, made out of wood, painted, and in perfect proportion, with glass beads on the head in imitation of hair. As a rule, the ancient dolls are made with movable joints. =Puppis=, R. The poop or after-part of a vessel as opposed to the _prora_ or prow. (See PRORA.) =Purbeck-stone.= A rough grey sandstone from Dorsetshire, largely used for building purposes in London. =Purim= (Festivals of), Heb. Jewish festivals called _Festivals of the Lots_, instituted in memory of Esther, who had averted the peril with which Haman threatened the Jews; they were so called because the favourite of Ahasuerus was to have decimated the Jews by casting lots to see who should be put to death. =Purple=, Gen. An insignia of authority pertaining to certain magistrates who wore purple robes or bands of purple on their attire. There were two kinds of purple, the amethyst and the Tyrian; the former was a deep violet, and obtained from a shell-fish (_murex trunculus_); the Tyrian was more brilliant and had a redder tinge; it was obtained from the _murex brandaris_. =Purple= is red graduated with blue, the red predominating; red with black makes purple-black. Purple pigments are _madder purple_, _violet mars_, _burnt carmine_ (for water-colours). =Purple Lakes= and _Green Lakes_ are made by mixing _yellow_ lakes with blue pigments. (See YELLOW LAKE.) =Purple Madder.= (See MADDER.) =Purple-wood.= A beautiful deep-coloured Brazilian wood, used for marquetry and inlaid-work, but principally for the ramrods of guns. =Purpure=, Her. Purple. =Purree=, Hind. A bright golden yellow pigment prepared from camel’s dung. (See INDIAN YELLOW.) =Pursuivants.= The lowest order of officers in Herald’s College; of whom there are four, called respectively Rouge Croix, Rouge Dragon, Blue Mantle, and Portcullis. In the Middle Ages these officers were attached to the households of the nobility, and bore titles generally taken from the armorial insignia of their lords. =Puteal=, R. A place struck by lightning, and thus rendered sacred; in order to keep it from the tread of profane feet, it was surrounded by a low wall similar to that which protected a well (_puteus_); whence the name of _puteal_. [Illustration: Fig. 566. Puteus. Manhole of an Aqueduct.] =Puteus=, R. (1) A well fed by a spring or an underground stream of water; (2) an opening or manhole of an aqueduct (Fig. 566); (3) a pit for preserving grain. =Puticuli=, =Puticulæ=, R. Common pits in which the bodies of those slaves and paupers were buried, who had not the means to pay for a funeral pyre or a private tomb. =Puttock=, O. E. A base kind of hawk. (_Shakspeare._) =Pyanepsia=, Gr. (πυανέψια). Ancient “Beanfeasts.” Athenian festivals in honour of Apollo, instituted by Theseus after his victory over the Minotaur; they were so called because beans were cooked for the banquet in honour of the god (πύανος, a bean, and ἕψειν, to cook). =Pyat=, O. E. A magpie. =Pykers=, O. E. A kind of fishing-boats. =Pylon=, Egyp. (πυλών). A monumental gate composed of two lofty and massive pyramidal towers, forming the entrance to the enclosure of the great Egyptian temples. The interior of a pylon contained staircases and chambers. A splendid example in full preservation is that of the temple at Esneh on the Nile. =Pyra=, Gr. and R. (πυρὰ, lit. the burning-place). A funeral pile before it was set on fire, in contradistinction to _rogus_, a funeral pile which has been lighted. It was built in the form of an altar with four equal sides, which were frequently covered with foliage of dark leaves; and cypress-trees were placed in front of the pile. The corpse was placed on the top, in the bier (_lectica_) on which it had been borne to the place. (See FUNERAL CEREMONIES.) =Pyræum=, Pers. (πυρεῖον). A place in which the Persians kept the sacred fire (_puros_, fire). At Bactria there were seven pyræa, in honour of the seven planets. =Pyramid= (Egyptian, _Pi-rama_, a mountain). In the hieroglyphics called _Abumer_, “a great tomb,” which it essentially is, or rather a great cairn over the cave tomb excavated in the live rock immediately under its apex. This sepulchral chamber having been connected with the upper world by a passage sloping downwards from the north, the graduated structure was regularly built over it, the proportions of the base to the sides being constantly preserved, and the whole forming always a perfect pyramid; so that the building could be continued during the whole lifetime of its destined tenant, and covered and closed in immediately upon his death. It is on record that from Seneferoo, the first king whose name has been found upon monuments, to the last of the Sixth Dynasty, i. e. during the whole period of the Ancient Empire, every king of Egypt built a pyramid. (Consult _Vyse_, _Pyramids of Gezeh_.) =Pyrotechny= (πῦρ, fire, and τέχνη, art). The art of making fireworks. The Chinese had great skill in this art long before its introduction into Europe, and are at this day unrivalled in it. The best English work on the subject is perhaps that by _G. W. Mortimer_ (London, 1853). =Pyrrhica=, Gr. (πυρρίχη). A war-dance in great favour with the early Greeks, and frequently represented in sculptures, in which warriors brandished their weapons and went through a mock combat. =Pythia=, Gr. (πύθια). (1) A priestess of Apollo at Delphi, represented seated on the sacred _tripod_. (See CORTINA.) (2) Games instituted at Delphi in honour of Apollo, and of his killing the Pytho, the monstrous serpent born from the waters in Deucalion’s flood. =Pythoness.= Synonym of PYTHIA (q.v.). The term was also used to denote certain sorceresses, such as the pythoness of Endor. =Pyx=, or =Pix Cloths=. (See =Corporals=.) [Illustration: Fig. 567. Small Ivory Pyx. Ninth Century (?).] =Pyx.= The word in its earliest meaning included any small box or case, and often in the Middle Ages it contained relics. Thus in the Durham treasury there was “a tooth of St. Gengulphus, good for the falling sickness, in a small ivory pyx.” The pyx used for the sacrament was usually ornamented with religious subjects, other than the incidents of the lives of saints. (Fig. 567.) =Pyxis=, Gr. and R. (πυξὶς, lit. a box-wood box). A casket, trinket-box, or jewel-case. Q. _Many Old English words are indifferently spelt with_ qu, ch, _and_ c; _such as_ quire, choir; quoif, coif, _&c._ =Quadra=, R. Generally, any square or rectangular object; such as a table, plinth, or abacus. =Quadragesima=, Chr. Lent is so called, because it has _forty_ days. =Quadrans=, R. (a fourth part). A small bronze coin worth the quarter of an _as_, or about a farthing. =Quadrant.= An instrument for measuring celestial altitudes; superseded by the CIRCLE. (See SEXTANT.) (Consult _Lalande_, _Astronomie_, § 2311, &c., 3me edition). =Quadrantal=, R. A square vessel used as a measure, the solid contents of which were exactly equal to an amphora. A standard model was kept in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. =Quadrelle=, O. E. A mace, with four lateral projections, ornamental like the leaves of a flower. (See _Planché_, _Cycl. of Costume_, Plate xii. 16.) =Quadrellus=, Med. Lat. A quarrel for a cross-bow. =Quadriforis=, R. A door folding into four leaves. =Quadriga=, R. Generally =Quadrigæ= (Greek τετραορία or τέθριππος). A chariot in which four horses were yoked abreast. The two strongest horses were harnessed under the yoke in the centre; the others were fastened on each side by means of ropes. (See CURRUS.) =Quadrigatus=, R. A silver denarius, so called from its having a quadriga on the reverse. =Quadrilateral.= Four-sided. =Quadriliteral.= Consisting of four letters. =Quadrille=, Med. (It. _squadriglia_, dimin. of _squadra_—our “squadron”—a small party of troops drawn up in a square). Small parties of richly-caparisoned horsemen, who rode at tournaments and public festivals. The modern dance so called was introduced in 1808. =Quadriremis=, R. A galley with four banks of rowers. =Quadrisomus=, Chr. A sarcophagus with compartments for four bodies. One discovered in the Vatican cemetery at Rome contained the bodies of the first four popes called Leo. (Cf. BISOMUS.) =Quadrivalves=, Arch. (See QUADRIFORIS.) =Quadrivium= (lit. of four ways). The four minor arts of arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy. (See TRIVIUM.) =Quadrivium=, R. A place where four roads meet. =Quadrumane.= Having four prehensile hands or feet, like monkeys. =Quadruplatores=, R. Public informers, who were rewarded with a _fourth part_ of the criminal’s property on obtaining a conviction. =Quæstiones Perpetuæ=, R. Permanent tribunals established at Rome to take cognizance of criminal cases. =Quæstorium=, R. In a Roman camp, the _quæstor’s_ tent; this was in some cases near the porta decumana, or the rear of the camp; in others, on one side of the PRÆTORIUM (q.v.). =Quaich=, =Queish=, or =Quegh=, Scotch. An old-fashioned drinking-cup or bowl, with two handles. (English MASER [?].) =Quality-binding=, Scotch. A kind of worsted tape used in the borders of carpets. =Qualus=, R. (Gr. KALATHOS, q.v.). A wicker-work basket. =Quandary=, O. E. (from Fr. _qu’en dirai-je_?). Doubt and perplexity. =Quannet.= A tool for working in horn and tortoise-shell. =Quarnellus=, Med., in fortification. (See CRENEL.) =Quarrel= (Fr. _carreau_), Arch. A lozenge-shaped brick, stone, or pane of glass; a glazier’s diamond. =Quarrel=, O. E. An arrow for the cross-bow with a four-square head. =Quarter-deck=, on a ship of war. The deck abaft the mainmast, appropriated to the commissioned officers. These were originally of great height, corresponding with the lofty forecastle for soldiers, and helped to make the ships top-heavy and unmanageable. A commission on ship-building in 1618 says,— “They must bee somewhat snugg built, without double gallarys, and too lofty upper workes, which overcharge many shipps, and make them coeme faire, but not worke well at sea.” =Quarter-gallery= of a ship. A balcony round the stem. =Quarter-round=, Arch. The ovolo moulding (q.v.). =Quarter-tones= (Gr. _diesis_), in Music, were the subject of much discussion among the ancient Greeks, but they were used on the lyre for an occasional “grace-note.” Aristoxenos says “no voice could sing three of them in succession, neither can the singer sing _less_ than the quarter-tone correctly, nor the hearer judge of it.” (Consult _Chappell’s Hist. of Music_.) [Illustration: Fig. 568. Royal Arms of England, _temp._ Edward III., quartered with the fleur-de-lys of France.] =Quartering=, Her. Marshalling two or more coats of arms in the different quarters of the same shield. (Fig. 568.) =Quartet=, =Quartetto=, It. A piece of music for four performers, each of whose parts is _obligato_, i. e. essential to the music. =Quartile.= In Astronomy, distant from each other 90 degrees, or a _quarter_ of a circle. =Quasillum= (dimin. of QUALUS, q.v.) was a small basket in which the quantity of wool was measured, which was assigned to a slave to spin in a day’s work. [Illustration: Fig. 569. Quatrefoil.] =Quatrefoil.= An ornament in pointed architecture consisting of four foils. The term is likewise applied to a rosace formed of four divisions, which figures frequently in the upper part of pointed windows. =Quatrefoil= or =Primrose=, Her. A flower or figure having four foils or conjoined leaves. =Quattrocento=, It. (lit. _four hundred_). A term applied to the characteristic style of the artists who practised in the 15th century; it was hard, and peculiar in colour as well as in form and pose. It was the intermediate of that progressive period of art, which, commencing with Fra Angelico, Masaccio, Mantegna, Botticelli, and other celebrated painters, between A. D. 1400 and 1500, reached excellence in the 16th century (the _cinque-cento_) with Leonardo da Vinci and Raphael. =Quaver.= A musical note of very short time = half a crotchet. [Illustration: Fig. 570. Crown of Her Majesty the Queen.] =Queen.= Crown of Her Majesty. (See Fig. 570.) =Queen-post= (anciently _prick-post_ or _side-post_), Arch. An upright post similar in use and position to the KING-POST, but rising, not in the centre to the point of the gable, but midway between the wall and the centre. =Queen’s Boots.= The interesting fact in English archæology is not generally known, that Her Majesty’s _boots_ are provided for by an annual tax of two shillings (on the whole) upon the village of Ketton in Rutlandshire “_pro ocreis reginæ_.” =Queen’s Ware.= A cream-coloured glazed earthenware of the Wedgwood manufacture at Burslem, 1759–70. =Queen’s Yellow.= A colour formed from the subsulphate of mercury. =Queintise=, O. E. A dress curiously cut or ornamented. (See COINTOISE.) =Querpo= (for =Cuerpo=). Partly undressed. =Querpo-hood.= A hood worn by the Puritans. (_P._) “No face of mine shall by my friends be viewed In Quaker’s pinner, or in _querpo_-hood.” (_Archæologia_, vol. xxvii.) =Queshews=, O. E. _Cuisses_; armour for the thighs. =Queue=, Fr. A support for a lance. It was a large piece of iron screwed to the back of the breastplate, curved downward to hold down the end of the lance. =Queue Fourchée=, Her. Having a double tail, or two tails. =Quichuas.= Remarkable specimens of pottery, from this Peruvian coast province, doubtless of remote antiquity, resemble in their freedom from conventionality and successful imitation of natural forms all primitive Egyptian and other sculpture. Jacquemart describes the vase of the illustration (on page 214) as the _chef-d’œuvre_ of American ceramics; and, from the close resemblance of the features of the figure represented to certain groups of prisoners on the Egyptian bas-reliefs, as well as to the ethnic type of the ancient Japanese kings, makes important deductions with reference to the dispersion of mankind, and the commerce of the old and new worlds in prehistoric times. =Quicksilver=, alloyed with tinfoil, forms the reflecting surface of looking-glasses, and is largely used in the operations of gilding and silvering metals. =Quilled=, Her. A term used to blazon the quills of _feathers_; thus a blue feather having its quill golden is blazoned—a feather _az., quilled or_. (_Boutell._) =Quilts= for bed-coverings, in England, were formerly made of embroidered linen with emblems of the evangelists in the four corners. At Durham, in 1446, in the dormitory of the priory was a quilt “cum iiij^{or} evangelistis in corneriis.” The Very Rev. Daniel Rock (_Textile Fabrics_) suggests that this gave rise to the old nursery rhyme:— “Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, Bless the bed that I lie on.” =Quinarius.= A Roman coin = half a _denarius_, or five asses. =Quincaillerie=, Fr. A general term for all kinds of metallurgical work in copper, brass, iron, &c. [Illustration: Fig. 571. Quince. Device of the Sforzas.] =Quince=, Her. The “_Pomo cotogno_,” the emblem of the town of Cotignola, adopted by the founder of the Sforza family who was born there. The Emperor Robert of Bavaria added a lion in 1401 as a reward of an act of bravery, to “support the _quince_ with his left hand and defend it with his right,” adding “guai a chi lo tocchi!” (Fig. 571.) =Quincunx=, R. (i. e. five-twelfths of anything). (1) A Roman bronze coin, equivalent to five-twelfths of an _as_, and weighing five ounces (_unciæ_). (2) An arrangement of five objects in a square; one at each corner, and one in the middle. (3) In _gardening_, said of trees planted in oblique rows of three and two, or in a _quincunx_ (No. 2). =Quincupedal=, R. A rod five feet in length, for taking measurements in masonry. =Quindecagon.= A plane figure having fifteen sides and fifteen angles. =Quinite.= A Spanish textile of hair with silk or other thread. =Quinquagesima=, Chr. The _fiftieth_ day before Easter; Shrove Sunday. (_S._) =Quinquatrus= (or —=ia=), R. Festivals of Minerva, celebrated on the 19th of March. They lasted five days; on the first no blood was shed, but on the last four there were contests of gladiators. Another festival called _Quinquatrus minores_, also in honour of Minerva, was celebrated on the ides of June. =Quinquennalia=, R. Games celebrated every four years at Rome; instituted by Nero, A. D. 60. They consisted of music, gymnastical contests, and horse-races. =Quinqueremis=, R. A galley with five banks of oars. =Quinquertium=, R. (Gr. _Pentathlon_). A gymnastic contest of Greek origin, so called because it consisted of five exercises, viz. _leaping_, _running_, _wrestling_, _throwing the discus_, and _throwing the spear_. Introduced in the Olympic games in Ol. 18. =Quintain=, O. E. A post set up to be tilted at by mounted soldiers; sometimes a man turning on a pivot; sometimes a flat board, on a pivot, with a heavy bag of sand at the other end, which knocked the tilter on the back if he charged unskilfully. (See _Strutt_, _Sports and Pastimes_, p. 89, Plates ix. and x.) =Quintana=, R. A causeway fifty feet wide in a Roman camp. =Quintetto=, It. A piece of music for five performers, _obligati_. (Cf. QUARTET.) =Quintile.= In Astronomy, distant from each other 72 degrees, or a _fifth_ of a circle. =Quippa=, Peruv. (lit. a knot). A fringe of knotted and particoloured threads, used to record events in ancient Mexico. =Quippos= or =Quippus=, Peruv. A plaited cord of strings of different colours and lengths, used as a substitute for writing among the ancient Peruvians. =Quire.= O. E. for CHOIR. =Quirinalia=, R. A festival sacred to Romulus—Quirinus—held on the 17th of February, as the anniversary of the day on which he was supposed to have been carried up to heaven. The festival was also called _Stultorum feriæ_. (See FORNACALIA.) =Quirk=, Arch. An acute channel by which the convex parts of Greek mouldings (the ogees and ovolos) are separated from the fillet or soffit that covers them. In Gothic architecture quirks are abundantly used between mouldings. =Quishwine=, =Quusson=, and =Qwissinge=. Old ways of spelling the word “cushion.” =Quivers.= The ancient Greeks and Etruscans, the Normans and Saxons wore quivers (_pharetra_) on a belt slung over the shoulder. Archers of the 12th to 14th century carried their arrows stuck in their belts. “A shefe of peacock arwes bryght and kene _Under his belt_ he bare ful thriftely.” (_Chaucer._) Quivers were probably introduced into England in the 15th century. =Quoif= or =Coif=, O. E. A close-fitting cap worn by both sexes, and by lawyers, _temp._ Elizabeth. =Quoin= or =Coin=. (1) Arch. The external angle of a building. (2) O. E. A wedge. =Quoits.= A very ancient game derived from the Roman DISCUS (q.v.). R. =Ra.= The sun-god with hawk head is a common object of Egyptian pottery and architectural ornament, subsequent to the Asiatic invasions. It typifies the union of the yellow Asiatic and the native Egyptian races. =Rabato=, Sp. A neck-band or ruff. (See REBATO.) =Rabbet= (from _rebated_). In Joinery a groove in the edge of a board. =Rabyte=, O. E. (for Arabyte). An Arab horse. =Racana=, Chr. A blanket of hair-cloth prescribed for the couches of monks, &c., in summer. “Pro anis _rachinis_ propter æstus utantur.” =Rack=, O. E. The last fleeting vestige of the highest clouds. =Racon=, O. E. The pot-hook by which vessels are suspended over a fire. (See GALOWS.) =Radiant=, =Rayonée=. Encircled with rays. (Fig. 395.) =Radius=, R. A pointed rod employed by certain professors of astronomy and mathematics for tracing figures on the sand. Also the spoke of a wheel, a ray of light, and lastly, a stake used in constructing intrenchments (_valla_). =Radula=, R. A scraper, an iron tool used for paring or scratching off. =Raffaelle-ware.= A fine kind of Urbino majolica, the designs for which were probably furnished by pupils of the great master. =Rag.= In Masonry, stone that breaks in jagged pieces. =Ragged Staff=, Her. (See RAGULÉE.) =Ragman’s= or =Rageman’s Roll=, O. E. (1) In History, a roll of the nobles of Scotland, who swore fealty to Edward I. at Berwick, in 1296; hence (2) a game of chance, in which a number of versified descriptions of character were drawn from a roll by the members of a company; 13th to 15th century. The game survives among children of the present age in the custom of drawing _Twelfth-Night_ characters. =Ragstone.= A rough kind of sandstone found in Kent. [Illustration: Fig. 572. Ragulée.] [Illustration: Fig. 573. Bear and Ragged Staff.] =Ragulée=, =Raguly=, Her. Serrated. A “ragged staff,” or “staff _ragulée_,” is a part of a stem from which the branches have been cut off roughly. The illustration is the well-known device of the Earls of Warwick, originating with Arthgal, one of the Knights of the Round Table; because, says Leland, “this Arthgal took a bere in his arms, for that, in Britisch, soundeth a bere in Englisch.” (Fig. 573.) =Rahal=, Arabic. A load for a camel; about 5 cwt. =Rains=, or =Raynes=, =Cloths= (A. D. 1327–1434, &c.). Fine linen woven at _Rennes_ in Brittany. =Rajeta=, Sp. A coarse cloth of mixed colours. =Rallum=, R. A piece of iron on the end of a stick, used to scrape off earth from the plough-share. [Illustration: Fig. 574. Assyrian Battering-ram.] =Ram=, in Christian iconography, is a symbol not fully explained. It was probably connected with the idea of a manful _fight_ with the powers of evil. Two rams face to face with a cross between them are a frequent symbol. (Consult _Martigny_, _Dict. des Antiq. Chrét._ s. v. Belier.) =Ram=, O. E. for rain. (_Shakspeare._) =Ram= or =Battering-ram=. (See ARIES.) The illustration (Fig. 574) is from the Assyrian sculptures, showing the invention of the _testudo_ to be of great antiquity. =Ramadhan.= The ninth month of the Arabian calendar, and the Mohammedan month of fasting; it is followed by the festival of the _Little Bairam_. =Ramalia=, R. (_ramus_, a ram) Roman festivals instituted in honour of Ariadne and Bacchus. =Ramillete=, Sp. A nosegay; a pyramid of sweetmeats and fruits. [Illustration: Fig. 575. Lion Rampant.] [Illustration: Fig. 576. Demi-lion Rampant.] =Rampant=, Her. Erect, one hind paw on the ground, the other three paws elevated; the animal looking forward, and having his tail elevated. =Rampant guardant=, Her. The same as rampant, but looking out of the shield. =Rampant reguardant=, Her. The same as rampant, but looking backwards. =Ranseur=, Fr. A sort of partisan in use in the time of Edward IV., having a broad long blade in the centre, and projecting shorter blades on each side. =Rantle-tree=, Scotch. (1) The beam in the chimney from which the crook is suspended, when there is no grate (Angl. GALOWS. See also REEKING-HOOK). (2) A tree chosen with two branches, which are cut short, and left in the shape of a Y, built into the gable of a cottage to support one end of the roof-tree. =Rapier=, introduced from Spain in the 16th century, remained the favourite weapon of gentlemen. It is a light sword with a narrow blade adapted only for thrusting. It used to be called a _tuck_. =Rapier-dance.= A theatrical dance still practised in Yorkshire, consisting of evolutions of the dancers with naked rapiers round a performer who kneels in the centre and finally simulates death. (Compare SWORD-DANCE.) =Raploch=, Scotch. Coarse undyed woollen cloth. =Rareca.= Peruvian aqueducts; distinct from the subterranean aqueducts called HUIRCAS or _Pinchas_ (q.v.). =Rash.= “A species of inferior silk, or silk and stuff manufacture.” (_Nares._) =Raster=, =Rastrum=, R. (_rado_, to scrape). A rake. =Rat.= In Chinese symbolism, the month of November. (See TCHY PERIODS.) =Rath=, Celtic. An ancient fortress or castle of the Irish chiefs, consisting of a circular intrenched enclosure, with buildings in the centre. =Rational=, Heb. A square piece of richly embroidered cloth worn by the Jewish high priest upon the breast, above the ephod. =Ratis=, R. A raft of strong beams or planks; and thence a flat boat, a bridge of boats, &c. =Raunle-tree.= Scotch; for RANTLE-TREE (q.v.). =Raven=, the ensign of the ancient Danes, was the bird of Odin. In Christian art, the emblem of Divine Providence (in allusion to the history of Elisha); attribute of certain saints, especially of ascetics. (See CROW.) =Ray=, Chr. The fish (_rina diaudan_) which was burned by Tobias (vii. 2, 3), and the eggs of which are still burnt for intermittent fevers among the Greeks. (_Harris_, 408.) =Ray=, O. E. (i. e. _rayed_). Striped cloth much worn in the 13th and 14th centuries. =Raynes=, O. E. (from Rennes in Brittany). Fine linen. “Cloth of raynes to sleep on soft.” (_Chaucer._) =Rayonnée=, Her. (See RADIANT.) =Real= (Eng. ROYAL). A Spanish coin. There are two kinds: a _real of plate_, worth 4¾_d._, and a _real of vellon_, worth 2½_d._ (Cf. RIAL.) =Realgar.= A red pigment, formed of arsenic in combination with sulphur. A fugitive and _corrosive_ pigment. (See _Merimée_, _De la Peinture à l’huile_, p. 124.) =Realism=, =Realistic=, in Art. (See IDEAL and REAL.) =Rebated.= Turned back, as the head of a MORNE or jousting-lance. =Rebato=, Sp. The turn-down collar of the 15th and 16th centuries. =Rebec=, Sp. A musical instrument of three strings, tuned in fifths, and played with a bow like a fiddle. It was originally introduced into Spain by the Moors. =Rebiting.= A process of renewing the lines of a worn-out plate, by etching them over again; a difficult and delicate operation, which is rarely performed with entire success. [Illustration: Fig. 577. Rebus (Prior Bolton). The Bolt and Tun.] =Rebus=, Her. An allusive charge or device. A _ton_ or _tun_ pierced by a bird-bolt is in the church of Great St. Bartholomew, of which Prior Bolton was the last prior. “Prior Bolton With his bolt and tun.” (_Ben Jonson._) =Recamo=, Sp. Embroidery of raised work. =Recel=, Sp. A kind of striped tapestry. =Receptorium=, R. (_recepto_, to receive). A kind of parlour, also called _salutatorium_, which generally adjoined the ancient basilicas. [Illustration: Fig. 578. Cross _Recercelée_.] =Recercelée=, Her. A variety of the heraldic cross. =Recheat=, O. E. A sound on the horn to call dogs away from the chase. =Recinctus.= Equivalent in meaning to DISCINCTUS (q.v.). =Recorders.= A musical instrument mentioned by Shakspeare. It resembled a very large clarionet. Milton also speaks of “the Dorian mood Of flutes and _soft recorders_.” (_Paradise Lost_, i. 550.) =Recta=, R. A straight tunic, made out of a single piece, which took the form of the body; it hung from the neck, and fell down as far as the feet. =Rectilinear= figures are those composed entirely of straight or _right_ lines. =Red.= One of the three primary colours, producing with YELLOW, _orange_, and with BLUE, _violet_. The principal red pigments are _carmine_, _vermilion_, _chrome red_, _scarlet lake_, _madder lake_, _light red_, _burnt sienna_, for _yellow_ reds; and _Venetian red_, _Indian red_, _crimson lake_, for _blue_ reds. Red, in Christian art, represented by the ruby, signified fire, divine love, the Holy Spirit, heat or the creative power, and royalty. In a bad sense, red signified blood, war, hatred, and punishment. Red and black combined were the colours of purgatory and the devil. (See REALGAR, INDIGO.) =Red Chalk= or =Reddle= is a mixture of clay and red iron OCHRE, used as a crayon in drawing. (See OCHRE.) =Red Lake.= (See CARMINE.) =Red Lead.= A pigment which mixes badly with other pigments. (See MINIUM.) =Red Ochre= includes _Indian red_, _scarlet ochre_, _Indian ochre_, _reddle_, &c. =Red Orpiment.= (See REALGAR.) =Redan=, the simplest kind of work in field fortification, generally consists of a parapet of earth, divided on the plan into two faces, which make with one another a salient angle, or one whose vertex is towards the enemy. =Reddle.= (See RED CHALK.) =Redimiculum=, R. (_redimio_, to bind round). A long string or ribbon attached to any kind of head-dress. =Redoubt= is a general name for nearly every kind of work in the class of field fortifications. =Redshank=, Scotch. A Highlander wearing buskins of red-deer skin, with the hair outwards. =Reduction.= In Art, a copy on a smaller scale. The work is done mechanically by a process of subdivision of the original into segments or squares. =Reekie=, Scotch. Smoky; hence _Auld Reekie_, the city of Edinburgh. =Reeking-hook=, O. E. A pot-hook hung in the chimney, to suspend vessels over an open fire. (See GALOWS.) =Re-entering=, in Engraving, is the sharpening or deepening with a graver the lines insufficiently _bitten in_ by the acid. =Refectory=, Mod. (_reficio_, to refresh). A hall in which the monks of a monastery assembled to take their meals; one of the most important rooms of the establishment; it was often divided into two naves by a row of columns called the spine (_spina_), which received the spring of the vaultings forming the roof of the refectory. =Reflected Lights= thrown by an illuminated surface into the shadows opposed to it, modify the LOCAL COLOUR of every object that we observe in nature, and should accordingly be made to do so in painting. =Reflexed=, =Reflected=, Her. Curved and carried backwards. =Refraction= is the diversion of a ray of light which occurs when it falls obliquely on the surface of a medium differing in density from that through which it had previously moved. The differently-coloured rays have different degrees of refrangibility. Refraction is the cause of the phenomena of the _mirage_, _Fata Morgana_, &c., and presents to us the light of the sun before his actual emergence above the horizon. [Illustration: Fig. 579. Regals or Portable Organ.] =Regal= or =Regals=, O. E. (1) A small portable organ, with single or double sets of pipes (the attribute of St. Cecilia, and of saints and angels of the heavenly choir). The illustration (Fig. 579) of an angel playing the regals, is taken from an ancient MS. (2) A kind of harmonica, with sonorous slabs of wood. [Illustration: Fig. 580. Regalia. Grand Duke of Tuscany in state costume, with crown and sceptre, &c.] =Regalia.= The ensigns of royalty. The regalia of England are the crown, sceptre, verge or rod with the dove, St. Edward’s staff, the orb or mound, the sword of mercy called Curtana, the two swords of spiritual and temporal justice, the ring of alliance with the kingdom, the armillæ or bracelets, the spurs of chivalry, and some royal vestments; and are kept in the Jewel Office in the Tower of London. The Scottish insignia, a crown, a sceptre, and a sword of state, are kept in the Crown-room at Edinburgh. The illustration shows the regalia and state vestments of the Grand Duke of Tuscany, in the 16th century. (Fig. 580.) =Regifugium=, R. (lit. flight of the king). An annual festival held on the sixth day of the calends of March (24th of February), in commemoration of the flight of Tarquin and the establishment of the Roman republic. =Regioles=, Fr. Chr. Small doors in the _confessio_ or _martyrium_ of an altar, containing relics of a saint or martyr. The faithful used to introduce handkerchiefs by these doors, that they might consecrate them by contact with the relics. =Regrating= or =Skinning=, in Masonry, is the process of scraping or hammering off the outer surface of old stones to make them look white and new; it has been greatly abused in the restoration of ancient buildings. =Reguardant=, Her. Turning the head and looking back; emblematic of circumspection and prudence. =Regula=, R. A straight rule used by artisans. =Regulares=, Chr. Horizontal _rods_ of wood or metal in churches for the suspension of veils or curtains. These were often made of gold or silver, with a row of images on the upper part. =Regulus= (in Greek βασιλίσκος) is the name given by ancient astronomers to a line drawn from the polar star, between the pointers, &c., to the bright star called α Leonis or Cor Leonis (the lion’s heart). =Reindeer=, Her. A hart with double antlers, one pair erect, the other drooping. =Reisner-work.= A corrupt spelling of the name of Riesener, a celebrated worker in marquetry in France in the 18th century. “Riesener used tulip, rosewood, holly, maple, laburnum, purple-wood, &c. Wreaths and bunches of flowers, exquisitely worked and boldly designed, form centres of his marquetry panels, which are often plain surfaces of one wood. On the sides, in borders and compartments, we find diaper patterns in three or four quiet colours.” (See _Pollen_, _Ancient and Modern Furniture_, &c.) =Relief= (It. _rilievo_). Sculpture projecting—ALTO-RELIEVO, more than half; MEZZO-RELIEVO, exactly half; BASSO-RELIEVO, less than half. (See also RONDO BOSSO, INTAGLIO-RELIEVATO, STACCIATO.) =Reliquary=, Chr. A portable shrine or casket made to contain relics. A reliquary made to be worn round the neck was called _encolpium_ (ἐν κόλπῳ, in the bosom), _phylacterium_, &c.; one to be carried processionally, _feretrum_. (See FERETORY, Fig. 307.) =Remarque=, Fr. A slight sketch on the margin beneath an etching or engraving, to denote the earliest proof impressions. =Removed=, Her. Out of its proper position. =Remuria=, R. A Roman festival in honour of Remus, held on the third of the ides of May (13th of May) on the Palatine mount, on the spot where Remus had taken the auspices, and where he was buried. =Renaissance= (lit. new-birth or revival). The term is popularly applied to the gradual return to classical principles in Art in the 13th and 14th centuries. The Italian renaissance, begun by NICCOLA PISANO in architecture and sculpture, and by GIOTTO in painting, was fostered by the Medici family, and culminated in Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael. Teutonic art (Flemish, German, and Dutch) had also their periods of revival. It is, however, impossible to indicate their representatives without entering upon debateable questions. Goldsmith’s work, pottery, and other useful arts passed through parallel periods of revival concurrent, or nearly so, with those in painting. =Rengue=, Sp. A kind of gauze worn on official robes in Spain. =Reno= and =Rheno=, R. A very short cloak, often made of skins, peculiar to the Gauls and Germans, and adopted by the Roman soldiery. =Repagula=, R. (lit. fastening back). A double fastening to a door; of two bolts (_pessuli_), one of which was shot towards the right, and the other to the left. =Replica.= A duplicate of a picture, done by the same painter. =Repose.= (See RIPOSO.) =Repositorium=, R. (_repono_, to lay down). A side-board for plates and dishes in a dining-room; it was divided into several stories, and formed a kind of dinner-wagon; and many examples were richly ornamented, and inlaid with variegated woods, or tortoise-shell and silver, &c. =Repoussé=, Fr. Metal-work hammered out from behind into ornaments in _relief_. =Requiem=, Chr. The Roman _Missa pro Defunctis_, or service for the dead, beginning with the anthem “_Requiem æternam dona eis, Domine_.” =Rerebrace=, O. E. (for the French _arrière bras_). Armour for the upper part of the arm. =Rerebrake=, O. E. A pommel at the back of a saddle to support the horseman under the shock of a tilting-bout. (See _Meyrick_, vol. ii. p. 137.) =Reredos=, Chr. (1) The wall or screen at the back of an altar. In the primitive churches, in which the bishop’s seat was at the back of the altar, there was no _reredos_. Its introduction dates from the period (about the 12th century) when the episcopal seats and the choirs were established in front of the altars. (2) The ROOD-SCREEN was sometimes so called. (3) The open hearth was so called. Hollinshed relates that, before the invention of chimneys, “each man made his fire against a _reredosse_ in the hall, where he dined and dressed his meat.” =Rere-supper= (Fr. _arrière souper_). The last meal taken in the day; 15th century. =Resins.= (See AMBER, COPAL, DAMARA, MASTIC, &c.) =Ressaunt=, O. E. Arch. An obsolete term applied to members of architecture inflected or curved like an OGEE moulding. =Rest.= In Music, a character denoting silence for a length denoted by the character used to express the rest, i. e. _semibreve_, _minim_, _crotchet_, _quaver_, &c. =Restoration.= In Architecture, a drawing of an ancient building in its original design. =Retable= (Fr.), Chr. (See REREDOS.) =Rete= and =Retis=, R. A net. =Retiarius.= A gladiator whose only arms were a trident and net; with the latter he tried to embarrass the adversary by casting it over his head, and, having done so, to wound him with the trident; failing in their throw, their only resource was to run round the arena preparing the net for a second attempt. They fought generally with the Mirmillones, and had no helmet nor other protective armour excepting for the left arm. (See GLADIATORS.) [Illustration: Fig. 581. Venetian Reticella Lace.] =Reticella= (Lat. _reticulus_, a little net). This was the first known needle-made lace, produced in all lace-making countries under different names. (See GREEK LACE.) It was made in several ways: the first consisted in arranging a network of threads on a small frame, crossing and interlacing them in various complicated patterns. Beneath this network was gummed a piece of fine cloth, open like canvas, called quintain (from the town in Brittany where it was made). Then with a needle the network was sewn to the quintain by edging round those parts of the pattern which were to remain thick, then cutting away the superfluous cloth: hence the name of cutwork in England. A more simple mode was to make the pattern detached without any linen; the threads radiating at equal distances from one common centre served as a framework to others, which were united to them in geometric forms worked over with button-hole stitch (or _point noué_). The engraving shows a fine specimen of reticella from Venice, 1493. (See also MILAN RETICELLA.) =Reticulated.= Latticed like the meshes of a net (_rete_). =Reticulated Glass.= (See GLASS.) [Illustration: Fig. 582. Reticulated Vase. Japanese.] =Reticulated Porcelain= is an Oriental product, of which the outer side is entirely cut out in geometric patterns, honeycomb, circles intercrossed and superposed to a second vase of similar, or of simply cylindrical form. Fig. 582 is a specimen of this style. [Illustration: Fig. 583. Reticulatum opus.] =Reticulated Work=, Arch. (Lat. _reticulata structura_, literally, made like a net). Masonry constructed with diamond-shaped stones, or QUARRELS, shown in Figs. 493 and 583. The latter shows one of the mouths of the _cloaca_ opening on the Tiber. _Reticulata fenestra_ was a window grated over with bars of wood or metal crossing in the form of network. =Reticulum=, R. Diminutive of _rete_, a net. =Retinaculum=, R. (_retineo_, to hold back). A rope used to moor a vessel to the shore. =Retorted=, Her. Intertwined. =Retro-choir=, Chr. Arch. Chapels behind or about the choir. =Reverse.= The back of a medal. In very ancient coins this had no mark except that of the instrument by which it was fixed to receive the stamp of the _obverse_. By degrees this grew into a figure of a dolphin or some other animal. Some ancient Greek reverses are _intaglios_ of the stamp in relief of the _obverse_. Complete reverses appear on Greek coins about 500 B.C., and are of exquisite execution. (Cf. OBVERSE.) =Revinctum= (opus), R. (_revincio_, to bind fast). Dove-tailed masonry. (See Fig. 269.) =Rhabdion= (lit. a small rod). An instrument used in _encaustic painting_, with which the wax tints were blended. It was probably flat at one end, and kept heated in a small furnace close at hand. (See _Eastlake_, _Materials_, &c., i. 154.) =Rheda=, R. A roomy four-wheeled carriage, of Gallic origin, with several seats. The driver was called RHEDARIUS. =Rheno=, Gr. (ῥὴν, a sheep). A sheepskin cloak, covering the shoulders and as far as to the waist, worn by the ancient Germans as a protection against rain. =Rhingrave.= The petticoat breeches worn in the reign of Charles II. (_Planché._) =Rhomboid.= “An equilateral oblique parallelogram.” =Rhomphæa=, =Romphæa=, =Rumpia=, R. A sword with a long blade, used by the Thracians. [Illustration: Fig. 584. Rhyton. Greek Drinking-cup.] =Rhyton=, Gr. and R. (ῥυτὸν, lit. flowing). A drinking-vessel of earthenware in the form of a horn or trumpet; in many instances with a handle. [Illustration: Fig. 585. Rial. Queen Elizabeth.] =Rial= or =Royal= (Sp. _real_). A Spanish coin introduced into England in 16th cent. (See REAL.) =Riband= or =Ribbon= (Welsh _rhibin_; Irish _ruibin_, &c.). A long narrow web of silk worn for ornament or use; especially for a _badge_ of devotion in love or war. “See in the lists they wait the trumpet’s sound: Some love-device is wrought on every sword, And every ribbon bears some mystic word.” (_Granville._) The Ribbons of the various orders of Knighthood are:—of the GARTER, a broad dark blue ribbon passing over the left shoulder; of the THISTLE, a broad dark green ribbon; of St. PATRICK, a light blue; of the BATH, red; of the STAR OF INDIA, pale blue with white borders. =Ribbon=, =Riband=, Her. A diminutive of a BEND. =Ribibe.= A kind of fiddle; 15th century. =Ribs=, Arch. Projecting bands on ceilings, &c. =Rica=, R. A square piece of cloth with a fringe, worn by priests and women on the head, and especially by the former when they were offering a sacrifice; _ricula_ was a smaller veil worn in the same fashion. (Cf. FLAMMEUM.) =Rice-paper.= A delicate vegetable film brought from China, and used as a substitute for drawing-paper in the representation of richly-coloured insects or flowers, &c. =Ridels.= French word for bed-curtains; 15th century. =Rimenato=, It. (See CRUSCA.) =Ring Mail.= Flexible armour of iron rings interwoven; introduced from the East by the Crusaders. [Illustration: Fig. 586. Ring of chiselled iron. French. 16th century.] [Illustration: Fig. 587. Venetian Ring. 16th century.] =Rings.= The symbolic use of signet-rings is mentioned in many passages of the Holy Scriptures, especially as a transfer of authority; as Pharaoh to Joseph (Gen. xli. 42), Ahasuerus to Haman, &c. A large collection of Egyptian signet-rings is in the British Museum, many being much too large to be worn on the hand. EGYPTIAN rings were of ivory, porcelain, or stone, but generally of gold. The ETRUSCANS and SABINES wore rings at the foundation of Rome, 753 B.C., those of the former being remarkable for beauty and intrinsic value. The LACEDÆMONIANS wore iron rings. The ROMANS also under the Republic were proud of wearing an iron ring; under the Empire the privilege of wearing a ring raised the wearer to the equestrian order. GREEK and ROMAN rings were, generally speaking, massive and simple, and of obvious value in metal and stone, until in the degenerate times of the Empire luxury spread, and the lower classes began to disfigure themselves with cheap jewellery. Solid rings were carved out of rock-crystal in Christian times; and others were made of stone, chiefly of calcedony. Rings of amber, glass, earthenware, and other materials were exhumed at Pompeii. The BRITONS and SAXONS had beautiful jewellery. The former wore the ring on the middle finger; the Anglo-Saxons on the third finger of the right hand, which was thence poetically called the “golden finger.” A beautiful specimen of enamelled art is the gold ring of Ethelwulf, king of Wessex (the father of Alfred the Great), now in the medal room of the British Museum. Among the _niello_ rings of the Saxon period is one in the British Museum inscribed “Ahlreds owns me, Eanred engraved me.” Plain wire rings, or plain bands of metal merely twisted round the finger, are common objects in Saxon tombs; but the most beautiful specimens of this, as of other branches of the goldsmith’s art in antiquity, are from IRELAND. In SCANDINAVIA the earliest forms are spiral, and of simple workmanship. RINGS were a part of the official jewellery of kings, bishops, and cardinals; and the _fisherman’s ring_, with a representation of St. Peter in a boat fishing, was the papal ring of investiture. A copious literature on this special subject deals with the superstitions, ceremonies, customs, and anecdotes connected with finger-rings, as well as with their exemplification of the history of the development or decadence of art. A collector divides his rings into _Antique_, _Mediæval_, and _Modern_; the former period ending A. D. 800, and classified by nationalities. The later collections are classified as _Official_: ecclesiastical, civil, and military; or _Personal_, viz. signet-rings, love and marriage, mourning, &c.; historical, religious (i. e. devotional, &c.), magic, and simply ornamental. (The substance of the above is drawn from _Finger-ring Lore_, &c., by _W. Jones_, Chatto, 1877; and _Antique Gems_, by the _Rev. C. W. King_. For the significance of rings in connexion with the history of Christianity, see _Smith and Cheetham_, _Dict. of Christ. Ant._ s. v.) =Rinman’s Green.= (See COBALT.) =Rip-rap=, Arch. A builder’s term for a foundation of loose stones. =Riposo=, It. The rest of the Holy Family during the Flight into Egypt is often shortly designated the _Riposo_; it is treated by different masters in a great variety of styles. =Riscus=, R. (ῥίσκος). A wardrobe or chest for clothes. =Rising=, =Roussant=, Her. Said of birds about to take wing. =Rivers=, Chr. The four rivers of Paradise are variously represented in primitive Christian art; e. g. the LAMB standing on a mountain, from which they flow; or they are personified, and symbolize the four Evangelists: the Gihon is St. Matthew; Pison, St. John; Tigris, St. Mark; and Euphrates, St. Luke. The following lines in one instance accompany such a representation on an engraved copper plate:— “Fons paradisiacus per flumina quatuor exit; Hec quadriga levis te _Χρε_ per omnia vexit.” In CLASSIC art generally, rivers are personified as half-prostrate figures reclining upon an urn, and marked by certain attributes; e. g. of the Nile, a hippopotamus; of the Tiber, a wolf suckling Romulus and Remus; other rivers by the flora or by certain cities of their banks, &c. (Consult _Didron_, _Iconographie Chrét._; _Martigny_, &c.) =Roan.= (1) A kind of leather much used for bookbinding; it is of sheepskins tanned with sumach. (2) Said of a _bay_ or _sorel_ horse marked with grey. =Robigalia=, R. Roman festivals held every year on the sixth of the calends of May (25th of April), in honour of the god Robigus, to preserve the wheat from mildew. =Roborarium= (_robur_, strength). An enclosure within a wooden palisade. [Illustration: Fig. 588. Robur. Prison at Rome.] =Robur=, R. The subterranean dungeon of a prison (_carcer_), in which criminals were executed. In Fig. 588 the character of the _robur_ is clearly seen; it is that of the prison of Ancus Martius and Servius Tullius at Rome, of which some ruins still remain. =Rochet=, Chr. (Lat. _rochetum_; Anglo-Saxon _roc_, a loose upper garment). A short surplice without sleeves, open at the sides; imitated from a linen outer garment of the same name, much worn by women in the 14th century. Chaucer says,— “There is no clothe sytteth bette On damoselle than doth rokette.” =Rock-crystal.= A material much used for carving in China. _Fortune_ says, “Fine specimens of rock-crystal, carved into figures, cups, and vases, are met with in the curiosity shops of Foo-chow-foo. Some of these specimens are white, others golden yellow, and others again blue and black. One kind looks as if human hair was thrown in and crystallized. _Imitations_ of this stone are common in Canton, made into snuff-bottles, such as are commonly used by the Chinese.” The GREEK name (κρύσταλλος, ice) refers to the belief that it was frozen water; the INDIANS believe it to be the husk of which the _diamond_ is the kernel, and call it the _unripe diamond_; in JAPAN it is cut into round balls used for cooling the hands; in CHINA also it is extensively carved; in the MIDDLE AGES it was highly valued throughout EUROPE as a detector of poison. Still more recently crystal balls have been supposed to have magical influence, and used for divination and conjuring. =Rockets=, O. E. Slabs of wood used on lances, during exercise, for the same purpose as the buttons of foils. =Rococo=, It. The style of decoration into which that of the Louis Quinze period culminated, distinguished for a superfluity of confused and discordant detail. (See LOUIS XV.) =Rod.= In measurement, 16½ feet linear, or 272½ square feet. =Rodomel=, O. E. The juice of roses, mixed with honey. =Rogus=, R. A funeral pile when in process of burning, in contradistinction to PYRA (q.v.). =Rokelay=, O. E. A short cloak. =Roll-moulding= (Arch.), profusely used in the Early English and Decorated styles, is a round moulding, divided longitudinally along the middle, the upper half of which projects over the lower. _Roll and fillet moulding_ is a roll-moulding with a square _fillet_ on the face of it. =Rolls of Arms.= Heraldic records of ancient armorial insignia, preserved on strips of parchment. The earliest known are of the 13th century. (Consult _Boutell_.) =Romal=, Hind. A silk fabric, of which cotton imitations are made in England. [Illustration: Fig. 589. Temple of Vesta at Tivoli, with Roman-Corinthian columns.] =Roman Architecture= is a combination of the _Etruscan_ and the _Greek_, principally distinguished from the latter by the circular arch, and the _monopteral_ or circular temple unknown to the Greeks, but a favourite form with the tomb-building ancestors of the Etruscans. The _orders_ of Roman architecture were the Doric and Ionic, detrimentally modified; the Corinthian, which they greatly enriched; and the Composite, of which the upper part of the capital was Ionic, and the remainder Corinthian. The distinguishing feature of the Roman architecture is, however, less in the modifications of the orders, than in their application in _composite arcades_, or plain arches of Etruscan design, faced by and supporting a purely ornamental arrangement of a long horizontal entablature on two columns. (Consult _Fergusson_, _Hist. of Arch._, vol. i.) =Roman Doric Order of Architecture.= A deteriorated imitation of the Grecian Doric, adopted, with considerable modifications, by modern Italian architects. =Roman Ochre= or =Italian Earth=. A pigment of a rich orange yellow, used both raw and burnt in oil and water-colours. (See OCHRE.) =Roman Sepia= is _sepia_ (q.v.) mixed with red. =Romanesque.= A degenerated and hybrid style of architecture and ornament, transitional from the classical Roman to the introduction of the Gothic. In the architecture there is an incongruous combination of the horizontal and arched methods of construction; and in the ornament a similar dissonance of natural and conventional or fanciful objects. _Fairholt_ calls it the _classic rococo_. _Fergusson_ (_Hist. of Arch._, vol. i. p. 352) defines the _Romanesque_ as “that modification of the classical Roman form, which was introduced between the reigns of Constantine and Justinian, and was avowedly an attempt to adapt classical forms to Christian purposes.” He says, “If _Romanesque_ is to be applied to our Norman architecture, the Parthenon ought to be called _Egyptianesque_, and the Temple at Ephesus _Assyrianesque_.” There seems to be no universally-received definition of this term. =Rondache=, Fr. A round shield for foot-soldiers. It had a slit near the top to look through, and another at the side for the sword. =Ronde Bosse= (It. _rondo bosso_). Sculpture in relief with a complete rounded outline, detached from the ground. =Rood=, Chr. (1) A cross or crucifix. (2) A space of 1210 square yards; the fourth of an acre. (3) In building, 36 square yards of work. (4) As a linear measure variable, from 21 feet to 36 yards. =Rood-beam=, Chr. The beam across the church by which the _rood_ was supported when there was no _rood-loft_. =Rood-cloth=, Chr. The veil by which the large crucifix or _rood_ was hidden during Lent. =Rood-loft=, =Rood-screen=, Chr. A gallery, generally placed over the chancel screen in parish churches, in which the cross or _rood_ was set to view. =Rood-tower=, =Rood-steeple=, Chr. Arch. A tower or steeple of a cruciform church, built above the intersection, i. e. immediately over the _rood_. =Roquelaure.= “A short abridgment or compendium of a cloak, which is dedicated to the Duke of Roquelaure.” =Rorarii=, R. (_ros_, the dew). A body of light skirmishers in the Roman army, who were ranged in the second rank of the _triarii_, with the _accensi_ behind them in the third line. They took their name from the light missiles which they scattered upon the enemy, which were like the drops of rain before a thunder shower. It was their business to begin the attack, and retire behind the _triarii_ when pressed. Their skirmishing was a prelude to the charge of the heavy-armed spears (_hastati_). =Rosary=, Chr. A string or chaplet of beads for numbering prayers, an Oriental and ante-Christian custom of great antiquity. They are called _tasbih_ by the Indian Mohammedans; in Sanscrit _Japanata_, “the muttering chaplet,” &c. [Illustration: Fig. 590. Heraldic Roses.] =Rose=, Her. Represented in blazon without leaves. The rose of England is generally drawn like the natural flower, or with natural stem, branches, leaves, and buds, but with heraldic rose-flowers. (See Fig. 395.) In Classic art, a rose upon a tomb is an emblem of a short life. The ancient Romans were passionately fond of roses, and cultivated them assiduously in their gardens, and introduced them plentifully in their feasts and symposia. In _mediæval_ England roses were the favourite presents on birthdays; and Whitsuntide was called, from the plenty of them, Rose Easter. Sticking a rose in the ear was the boast of an accepted lover. “That in mine ear I durst not stick a rose, Lest men should say, Look where three farthings goes.” (_Shakspeare._) The allusion refers to a thin silver coin of the reign of Elizabeth, called the three-farthing rose. (_Planché._) =Rose-engine Pattern= (Fr. _guillochis_). (1) An architectural moulding, also called Greek fret, meanders, and quirked torus. (2) In goldsmiths’ work it is an ornament of network made by means of a machine called a rose-engine. (_Bosc._) =Rose Lake=, =Rose Madder=. A rich tint prepared from lac and madder. (See MADDER.) =Rose Pink.= A coarse kind of lake; a delicate and fugitive colour. (See PINKS.) =Rose-quartz.= A massive quartz of a rose-red colour, common in Ceylon. [Illustration: Fig. 591. Rose-window in the Church of St. Croix, Orleans.] =Rose-window= (sometimes called a Catherine wheel), Arch. A large circular window divided into compartments by curved mullions. The most beautiful examples are met with in churches of the Florid Gothic period. (Fig. 591.) =Rose-wood=, =Rhodes-wood=, largely used in furniture as a favourite veneer, is a name applied to a large variety of trees, mostly imported from Brazil. =Rosemary=, in Old England, was closely connected with wedding-feasts and with funerals. “There’s rosemary: that’s for remembrance; pray you, love, remember: and there is pansies; that’s for thoughts.” (_Hamlet._) “There’s Rosemarie; the Arabians justifie, It comforteth the braine and memorie.” (_A Dialogue between Nature and the Phœnix_, _by R. Chester, 1601._) =Rosetta-wood.= A beautifully-veined East Indian wood, of a bright red orange colour. =Rosettes.= (See RIBANDS.) =Rosins.= (See RESINS.) =Rosso Antico=, It. Ancient marble of a deep red tint, probably deepened in colour by antiquity, like the NERO ANTICO (q.v.). It is the material of many ancient Egyptian and early Greek sculptures, unequalled in tone by the products of any modern quarries. It contains white spots and veins. =Rostrum=, R. (Gr. _Embolos_). The prow of a ship. The plural _rostra_ was used to denote a tribune in the Roman forum, from which orators addressed the people; it was so called because it was decorated with the figure-heads of the ships taken from the Volscians in the Latin War. =Rota=, R. (1) A wheel composed of a nave (_modius_), spokes (_radii_), felloes (_absides_), and iron tires (_orbes_ or _canthi ferrarii_). (2) It was also an instrument of punishment. _Rota aquaria_ was a hydraulic wheel; _rota figularis_, a potter’s wheel. =Rotta= (Germ. _rotte_; Eng. _rote_), a stringed instrument of the early Middle Ages, sounded either as a harp or a fiddle. =Rotunda.= A dome-shaped or _monopteral_ (q.v.) structure. The largest _rotunda_ ever made was that of the Vienna Exhibition in 1873. [Illustration: Fig. 592. Gallic coin.] =Rouelle=, Fr. (lit. a small wheel). A French term which has been applied by antiquaries to numerous objects more or less resembling a wheel, such as brooches and coins. The Gallic coin (Fig. 592) is from the bas-reliefs on a Roman arch at Orange. [Illustration: Fig. 593. Rouen Plate. Decorated à la Corne.] =Rouennais Faience.= This style, of strongly Oriental character, and mostly applied to the decoration of what are called “lambrequins” (or mantlings) and “dentelles” (lace), has been the object of universal imitation in France and other countries. Figs. 593 and 594 are representative specimens remarkable for great originality. [Illustration: Fig. 594. Slipper in Rouen Faience.] =Rouge Croix=, =Rouge Dragon=. Two of the four _Pursuivants_ (heralds of the lowest type) of Herald’s College. =Rouge Royal=, Arch. A kind of red marble. =Round Towers.= There are upwards of a hundred in Ireland, of which about twenty are perfect. Generally the tower is a hollow circular column from 50 to 150 feet high, capped by a short pointed roof of stone. The base, frequently of cyclopean masonry, measures from 40 to 60 feet in circumference, and the form of the whole tower is tapering towards the summit. The single entrance door is always from 8 to 15 feet above the ground; the windows, scattered, light the internal stories or rooms. Innumerable and wild conjectures of the origin and purpose of these towers have been made. The most sober appears to be that they were the earliest form of buildings of a monastic order, adapted to the exigencies of a Christian settlement in the midst of pagans and pirates. (See _Petrie_, _The Round Towers of Ireland_.) [Illustration: Fig. 595. Bezant.] =Roundels.= (1) Wooden platters decorated with painting and gilding; 16th century. (2) Small round shields borne by soldiers in the 14th and 15th centuries. (3) Arch. The bead or astragal moulding. =Roundle=, Her. A circular figure in Heraldry, of which there are many kinds: as the BEZANT, PLATE, TORTEAU, &c. (q.v.). In modern Heraldry a roundle _gules_ is called TORTEAU; _azure_, HURT; _sable_, PELLET or OGRESS; _vert_, POMME; _purpure_, GOLPE. (See also FOUNTAIN, ANNULET.) =Roussant=, Her. About to fly. =Rowan-tree=, Scotch. The mountain ash. =Rowel.= The wheel of a spur. =Rowel Lights=, Chr. Lights in a church, let up and down by a pulley, especially a star-like light made to move at the Epiphany, when the coming of the wise men was acted as a religious play. Any small hoop or ring movable on the place that holds it is a “_rowel_.” =Rowell= or =Ricel=, O. E. A vessel mentioned, but not described, in Church records (of _Walberswick_, Suffolk), to be used twice in the year; “whereby, and the great quantity of Wax and Frankincense, a ceremonial Imitation of the Birth and Burial of our _Saviour_ seems to have been celebrated.” (_Gardner, T._, _Historical Account_.) =Royal.= (1) _Paper_: 21 inches by 19. (2) _Artillery._ A very small mortar. (3) _Sailing._ The upper sail above the top-gallant. (4) O. E. A RIAL (q.v.), a coin of the value of ten shillings. =Royal Blue= (Fr. _bleu du roi_). A vitreous pigment used in porcelain painting, resulting in a rich, deep blue colour. It is prepared from _smalt_. =Rubelite.= A precious stone not much used for jewellery. It is a species of _tourmaline_, red and pink in colour. =Rubens Brown.= A rich brown pigment. =Rubiate.= A name for _Liquid Madder Lake_ (q.v.). =Rubicelle.= An orange-coloured stone, a variety of the _spinel ruby_. =Rubrica=, R. Red ochre; and thence _rubric_, an edict or ordinance of the Civil Law written in red ochre, while the ordinances and rules of the prætors were written in black on a white ground on the ALBUM (q.v.). =Ruby=, in Christian art. (See RED.) =Ruby= or =Red Sapphire=. A _corundum_, the most valuable of all gems; when perfect and large, exceeding even the diamond in value. The colour varies from the lightest rose tint to the deepest carmine. The most valuable tint is called “pigeon’s blood,” a pure deep rich red, without any admixture of blue or yellow. Brahmin traditions speak of the abode of the gods lighted by enormous rubies; and one name of the Kings of Pegu was “Lord of Rubies.” In mediæval times the ruby was regarded as an amulet against poison, plague, sadness, evil thoughts, wicked spirits, &c. It also kept the wearer in health, and cheered his mind, and blackened when he incurred danger. (Consult _Emanuel_, _Diamonds and Precious Stones_, &c.) =Rudder.= On ancient coins, &c., with the orb and fasces, emblem of the supreme power. =Rudens=, R. The smaller ropes in a ship. =Rudiarii.= Veteran gladiators discharged from the service by the presentation of a wooden sword (_rudis_). =Rudis=, R. (1) A spoon or similar instrument. (2) A wooden sword. (See RUDIARII.) When a gladiator received his discharge, a _rudis_ was given him, together with a freedman’s cap, by way of declaration that he had been granted his liberty, a fact expressed by the phrase _rude donari_. =Rue=, Her. A _chaplet of rue_ is blazoned _bend-wise_ (see PER BEND) across the shield of Saxony. (See CRANCELIN.) =Ruffles.= Lace frills worn over the wrists, introduced _temp._ Henry VIII. =Ruff and Honours.= An ancient game of cards from which Whist is derived. [Illustration: Fig. 596. Silesian Maiden with Ruff.] =Ruffs.= Large collars of lace or muslin. A fashion of the 16th century; it commenced at the end of the reign of Henry VIII. Cambrics and lawn for making ruffs were first imported under Elizabeth. For illustrations of various modifications of this fashion, see Figs. 267, 283, 304, 559, 561, 580, &c. (Consult _Planché_, _Cycl. of Costume_.) =Rugæ=, Chr. The metal _cancelli_ or screens of the more sacred parts of a church. The presbytery of St. Peter’s was fenced in with silver “rugæ,” and the confessional with rugæ of gold. (See _Smith and Cheetham_.) =Rullions=, Scotch. Shoes made of untanned leather. =Rum-swizzle.= “The name given in Dublin to a fabric made from undyed foreign wool, which, while preserving its natural property of resisting wet, possesses the qualities of common cloth.” (_Simmonds’ Commercial Dict._) =Rumex=, R. A weapon of similar character to the SPARUM, the head of which was formed like a spear with a hook on the blade. =Runcina=, R. A carpenter’s tool of the nature of a plane. =Runco=, R. A hoe. =Runes=, Scand. Magical inscriptions in a character believed by the northern nations to have been invented by Woden. “The Runic alphabet,” says _Mr. Wheaton_, “consists properly of sixteen letters, which are Phœnician in their origin.... They are only Roman, with the curves changed into straight lines for the convenience of engraving on hard substances.” (_Hist. of the Northmen_, p. 61.) =Ruskie=, Scotch. A coarse straw hat; a basket or beehive of plaited osiers or straw. =Russells=, O. E. A kind of satin. =Russet.= A _red_ grey colour; violet mixed with orange. Its complementary is _green_ grey. =Rust= (oxide) of iron. “The best _rust_” is mentioned in a list of colours of the 17th century. (_Brown_, _Ars Pictoria_, _Appendix_, p. 5.) [Illustration: Fig. 597. Rustic Work. Bossage.] =Rustic Work= (Fr. _bossage_). Ashlar masonry, the joints of which are worked with grooves or channels to render them conspicuous; sometimes the whole of the joints are worked in this way, and sometimes only the horizontal ones. (See Fig. 597.) =Rustre=, Her. A LOZENGE pierced with a circular opening. =Rustred Armour= seems to have grown out of the _ring armour_. It consisted of one row of flat rings about double the usual size, laid half over the other, so that two in the outer partly covered one. S. =S=, as a _numeral_, was used to represent 7; as an _abbreviation_ it generally means _socius_ or Fellow (of a society); S. P. Q. R., on Roman monuments, stands for _senatus_, populusque Romanus. =Sabanum=, R. (σάβανον). A kind of cloth, towel, or napkin. =Sabaoth=, Heb. Armies; hosts of angels. It is also written _Zabaoth_. =Sabatines=, O. E. (1) Steel armour for the feet; 16th century. (2) Slippers, or clogs. =Sabianism.= The worship of the heavenly bodies. =Sable.= (1) The best and most costly brushes for painting are made from this fur. (2) In Heraldry, the colour black, represented in engraving by crossed lines. (See Fig. 375.) =Sabre=, Fr. A curved sword with a broad and heavy blade. =Sabretasche=, Fr. A pocket worn, suspended, from the sword-belt, by a cavalry officer. =Sac-friars.= (See SACCUS.) =Sacciperium=, R. A large sackcloth bag. A pocket. =Saccus=, R. (σάκκος). A large sack of coarse cloth for wheat, flour, &c. (2) A beggar’s wallet. (3) Chr. (Angl. _sack_). A coarse upper garment of sack or hair-cloth, worn by monks; hence called SAC-FRIARS. (Cf. SACQUE.) =Sacellum=, R. (dimin. of _sacrum_). A small precinct enclosing an altar, and consecrated to a divinity. In Christian architecture, small monumental chapels within churches. =Sachem.= The chief of a tribe of North American Indians. =Sackbut=, O. E. (9th century). A wind instrument resembling the _trombone_. [Illustration: Fig. 598. Sacque of the time of Louis XIV.] =Sacque.= Part of a lady’s dress in the reign of Louis XIV. It was a silk cloak, and hung from the shoulders, spreading over the dress to the ground. In England it was worn in part of the reign of George III. (Fig. 598.) =Sacrarium= (_sacrum_, holy). A place in which sacred things are kept; the sacristy in a temple. In a private house a place used as a chapel or oratory. =Sacring Bell=, Chr. A hand-bell rung at the elevation of the Host. “Her eye was as bright as the merry sunlight, When it shines on the dewy grass; And her voice was as clear as a _sacring bell_, That is rung at the holy mass.” (See also SANCTUS BELL.) =Sacristy=, of a church, the apartment where the vestments and vessels are kept. =Sacro Catino=, It. An extraordinary hexagonal glass dish preserved in the cathedral at Genoa, which was for a long time supposed to have been formed of a single emerald; and to have been either, “a gift from the Queen of Sheba to Solomon, or the dish which held the Paschal Lamb at the Last Supper,” &c. It was obtained in the Crusades in 1101, and was for many generations an object of superstitious reverence. Its principal interest now is in the evidence it bears to the early perfection of the art of making and colouring glass. =Sadda=, Pers. (lit. a hundred gates). An abridgment of the Zend-Avesta or sacred books of the ancient Persians. =Saddle-bars.= Said of small iron bars, in glazing casements, to which the lead panels are fastened. =Saddle-roof=, Arch. A roof of two gables. (French, _en batière_.) =Safety-arch=, Arch. An arch in a wall over a door or window, to keep the weight of the wall above off the lintel. =Safflower.= A delicate red colour obtained from the flower of that name. =Saffron= (It. _zafferano_). Produced from the flowers of the crocus; a yellow pigment principally used as a glazing. =Saga=, R. A woman skilled in religious mysteries; and thence a witch or sorceress. =Sagaris=, Orient. (σάγαρις). A two-edged axe, also called _bipennis_; it was used by the Amazons, Massagetæ, and Persians. (See BIPENNIS.) =Sagena=, Gr. and R. (σαγήνη). A large fishing-net; modern _seine_. It was fitted with leaden weights at the bottom and corks at the top. =Sagitta=, R. (1) An arrow; primitively with heads of flint, afterwards of bronze and iron. The heads of the arrows of the Greeks and Romans were oval; among other nations they were triangular and barbed, like those carried by the SAGITTARIUS in Fig. 599. This kind of arrow was called _sagitta hasta_ or _adunca_. (2) A lancet for bleeding animals. [Illustration: Fig. 599. Sagittarius.] =Sagittarius=, R. An archer; a sign of the zodiac, represented as a centaur. (Fig. 599.) In Christian art, a symbol of Divine vengeance. =Sagma=, R. (σάγμα). A wooden pack-saddle. =Sagmarius=, R. A beast of burden carrying the _sagma_. =Sagochlamys=, R. A military cloak which combined the Roman _sagus_ and the Greek _chlamys_. =Sagus= or =Sagum=, Celt. A woollen cloak with a long nap, worn folded and fastened round the neck by a clasp, especially by soldiers on a campaign (Fig. 44); hence _saga_ is a sign of war, as _toga_ is of peace. At a later period the same name was given to a kind of blouse, striped or checked in staring colours, and adorned with flowers and other ornaments, and bordered with bands of purple and gold and silver embroidery, worn by the Gauls in Artois and Flanders. =Saic=, Turk. A sailing vessel common in the Levant. =Saie=, O. E. A delicate serge or woollen cloth. =Saints-bell=, O. E. for SACRING BELL. =Salade=, =Sallet=. A light helmet resembling the KETTLE-HAT (Fig. 407), introduced from Germany in the 15th century. =Salam-stone.= A name given to the blue or oriental sapphire from Ceylon. [Illustration: Fig. 600. Salamander. Device of Francis I., the “Father of Letters.”] =Salamander=, Chr. In Christian art, a symbol of fire, and supposed to live in fire; or, according to Pliny, “to quench it as if ice were put into it.” In Heraldry it is either represented as a lizard, or as a kind of dog breathing flames. Fig. 600 is the device of Francis I. of France, with a motto implying that a good prince nourishes that which is good, and expels the bad. At the meeting of the Field of the Cloth of Gold, the king’s guard at the tournament was clothed in blue and yellow, with the salamander embroidered thereon. =Salamander’s Hair.= The variety of asbestos called _amianthus_. =Salet=, O. E. A light helmet. (See SALADE.) =Salic Dances.= (See SALII.) =Salient=, Her. In the act of leaping or bounding, the hind-paws on the ground, both the fore-paws elevated. =Salinum=, R. (_sal_, salt). A salt-cellar. =Saltatio=, R. (_salto_, to dance). Dancing; applied to religious dances, gymnastic or war dances, CORYBANTIC, SALIC, MIMETIC or theatrical dances, &c. [Illustration: Fig. 601. Argent a _saltire_ gules.] =Saltire= or =Saltier=, Her. An ordinary in the form of St. Andrew’s Cross. The illustration (Fig. 601) is “_argent_ a SALTIRE _gules_.” =Salutatorium.= (See RECEPTORIUM.) =Salute at Sea.= The English claim the right, formerly claimed by the Venetians, of being saluted _first_ in all places, as sovereigns of the seas. The naval salute to the British flag began in the reign of King Alfred. =Sambuca=, R. (σαμβύκη). (1) A stringed musical instrument, which varied in form, but resembled a harp. (2) Military. A scaling-ladder. =Sam-cloth=, O. E. (needlework). A sampler. “A _sam-cloth_, vulgarly a sampler.” =Samit=, for =Exsamit= (ἑξ, six; μίτοι, threads). A splendid tissue, having six threads of silk in the warp, and the weft of flat gold shreds. =Sammaron-cloth=, O. E. A woven mixture of linen and hemp. =Samnites.= Gladiators armed like the Samnite soldiers, with a close helmet, shield, and greaves. =Sampan.= A Chinese canoe or small boat. =Sampler= (Lat. _exemplar_). A piece of ornamental needlework, done for a sample or specimen. =Sanctus Bell=, Chr. (1) A fixed bell rung at the elevation of the Host, at the words “_sanctus, sanctus, sanctus, Deus Sabaoth_.” It was fixed outside the church, generally on the eastern gable of the nave. (See SACRING BELL.) (2) In the absence of a fixed bell, small bells carried by acolytes, often the subject of rich ornamentation, sometimes consisting of a carillon of three small bells hidden within one large one, thus blending their sounds. =Sandal.= (See CENDAL.) =Sandal-wood.= Ornamental wood highly valued for cabinet-work; when old it becomes yellow and highly odoriferous. =Sandalium=, Gr. and R. (σανδάλιον). A richly ornamented sandal worn exclusively by women. =Sandapila=, R. A rough kind of bier for the poor. (See LECTICA.) =Sandarac.= A resin used for spirit varnishes. =Sandyx=, Gr. (σάνδυξ). A Lydian tunic, of a fine and transparent texture, dyed with the juice of the sandyx, which gave it a flesh-coloured tint. =Sang-réal= (Saint Graal). The Holy Grail said to have been brought to England by Joseph of Arimathea. The legend is that it is an emerald cup, or the cup used at the Last Supper, containing the real (or it may mean “royal”) Blood (_sang-réel_ or _réal_). “The cup, the cup itself, from which our Lord Drank at the last sad supper with his own.” (_Tennyson._) =Sanglier=, Her. A wild boar. =Sanguine.= A deep blood colour, prepared from oxide of iron. =Sanguinolentæ= (sc. ampullæ). Glass vessels found in the catacombs at Rome, containing a red sediment, ascertained by analysis to be _blood_; and canonically pronounced by the Roman Church to be that of the early Christian martyrs in whose tombs it has been found. (The subject is discussed at length by _V. Schultze_: _die Katakomben_, Leipzig, 1882.) =Sanhedrim=, Heb. The supreme council of the Jews, which sat at Jerusalem in a circular hall, one half of which was within the temple, and the other outside. (_Bosc._) =Sap-green.= The only green vegetable pigment; used in water-colour painting. Obtained by evaporating the juice of the berries of the buckthorn, mixed with lime. =Sap-wood.= The soft white wood immediately under the bark of a tree. =Sapphire= (Syriac _saphilah_). The _oriental sapphire_ from Arabia, which has been known from the earliest antiquity, was one of the stones on the breastplate of Aaron, and was dedicated to Apollo by the Greeks, by whom it was regarded as the gem of gems—the sacred stone _par excellence_. The sapphires from Brazil are also called oriental sapphires. The sapphires of Puy, found in a mountain in Central France, vary from the deepest to the palest blue, passing sometimes to a reddish blue or even to a yellowish green. The sapphire, although extremely hard, has been engraved by the ancients. There is a beautiful sapphire among the crown jewels of Russia, representing a draped female figure: the stone is of two tints, and the artist has skilfully used the dark tint for the woman and the light for the drapery. (_L. Dieulafait._) =Sapphire=, in Christian art. (See BLUE.) =Saraballa=, =Sarabara=, Gr. and R. (σαράβαλλα). Loose trousers, which reached from the waist to the instep, worn by the Parthians, Medes, and Persians. =Saraband=, Sp. A slow dance derived from the Saracens; the music for _sarabands_, by Corelli and other old masters, is interesting. (See _Chappell’s History of Music_, &c.) =Saracenic Architecture=. (See ALHAMBRAIC, MOORISH, MORESCO-SPANISH.) =Sarapis=, Pers. (σάραπις). The tunic of the kings of Persia; it was made of a fine purple-coloured cloth, with a white band in front embroidered with gold. =Sarcenet.= A fine thin woven silk. An improved _cendal_, introduced in the 15th century by the Saracens of the south of Spain; hence its name. (See CENDAL.) =Sarcilis=, Chr. A woollen garment—not described. =Sarcoline= (Gr. σὰρξ, flesh). Flesh-coloured. =Sarcolite.= A stone of a rose-flesh colour. =Sarcophagus=, Gen. (σαρκοφάγος; σὰρξ, flesh, and φαγεῖν, to eat). A coffin of a limestone called Lapis Assius, in which the corpse was rapidly consumed. The great sarcophagus called “of Alexander the Great,” in the British Museum, is a celebrated specimen. (See BISOMUS, QUADRISOMUS, and TRISOMUS.) =Sard= or =Carnelian=. A brownish-red variety of chalcedony. =Sard-achates.= A name given by the ancients to varieties of _agate_, which contained layers of _Sard_ or carnelian. =Sardonic Laughter.= A distortion of the features of the dying, the closing symptom of several fatal diseases; named from the poisonous herb Sardonia. =Sard-onyx.= A precious stone composed of alternate layers of carnelian and _chalcedony_; extensively used for gem-engraving. =Sardel=, =Sardine=, =Sardius=. A precious stone mentioned in Scripture in the description of Aaron’s breastplate. =Sarissa=, Gr. (σάρισσα). The longest and heaviest spear of the Greeks peculiar to the Macedonian phalanx. =Sarrazinois Carpets.= Embroidered stuffs resembling tapestry, made in the 10th and 11th centuries, doubtless imitated from work by the Saracens. =Sarsen-stones.= Boulders of sandstone found on the Chalk downs in Wiltshire. =Sarsnet.= (See SARCENET.) =Sartago=, R. A frying-pan; in the patois of Languedoc, _sartan_. =Satin.= This fine silk, originally imported from China, was first known in England in the 14th century. It is thicker than ordinary silk, and remarkable for its smooth glossy surface, not exhibiting the marks of the reticulations of the threads. =Satin-spar.= An ornamental stone, having a soft _satiny_ surface when polished. =Satin-wood.= An ornamental yellow wood much used in cabinet-making. =Satinet.= A thin kind of satin. =Saturn=, Her. The black colour in the arms of sovereign princes. =Saturnalia=, R. Festivals of Saturn, held on the seventh of the calends of January (14th of December), instituted by Numa. During the four or five days that this festival lasted, both public and private business was interrupted; and banquets and festivities were held, in which masters and slaves met on a temporary footing of equality. In the feasts at rustic places, the hollow statue of Saturn was filled with oil; he held a pruning knife in his hand, and his feet were surrounded with a band of wool. =Satyrs.= Greek deities of the wooded plains, as the Roman _fauns_ were of the fields. They are usually represented as the attendants of Bacchus, or the lovers of the Nymphs, with goat’s legs and horns, and human bodies covered with short hair; often with LACINIA on the neck. =Saunders’ Blue= (=Green=) (from the French _cendres’ bleu_). The blue ashes of calcined _lapis lazuli_. (See CARBONATES OF COPPER.) =Saurians.= Animals of the lizard tribe, crocodiles, &c., antediluvian and other. [Illustration: Fig. 602. Device of Charles d’Amboise, Sieur de Chaumont.] =Savage-man= or =Wood-man=, Her. A wild man, naked, or clothed in skins or leaves, and carrying a club. The illustration is the device of De Chaumont, Marshal of France (+ 1510), with the motto, “_Mitem animum agresti sub tegmine scabro_,” which he bore embroidered on the pennon of his company. =Savonnerie.= (See TURKEY-STITCH.) =Saxon Blue.= Sulphate of indigo used as a dye-stuff. =Saxon Gold-work= of elegant design and skilful workmanship, may be attributed to the 5th and 6th centuries. The art was doubtless imported by Roman colonists. Specimens may be studied in the South Kensington Museum. (See METALLURGY.) =Scabellum=, R. (dimin. from SCAMNUM, q.v.) (1) A stool or step to get into bed with. (2) A shoe with a castanet in the sole, with which the wearer beat time, as an accompaniment to music. =Scagliola= (It. _scaglia_, a chip of marble). Artificial marble made of gypsum, glue, &c., of variegated colours, in imitation of marble, applied in ornamental work like _stucco_, but admitting a fine polish. =Scalæ=, R. (_scando_, to climb). A ladder or staircase. =Scald=, Scand. A poet or bard. =Scaldino=, It. A copper. =Scale=, in Music (It. _scala_, a ladder). (See TONES.) =Scalmus=, R. (σκαλμός). The thole, or strong peg with a thong, with which an oar was attached to the side of a ship. =Scalper=, =Scalprum=, R. (_scalpo_, to cut). A general term for all kinds of cutting tools, such as chisels, knives, &c. =Scalptura.= Engraving in precious stones. (See INTAGLIO, CAMEO.) =Scamnum=, R. (_scando_, to climb). A stool for a bed or arm-chair, or a stone bench with a step. =Scandula=, R. A wooden shingle used for tiles (_tegulæ_). =Scansoria Machina= or =Scansorium=, R. (_scando_, to mount). A scaffolding, such as a tower, which enables work to be carried on at various heights from the ground. =Scantling.= In _Masonry_, the size of a stone, in length, breadth, and thickness. In _Carpentry_, the dimensions of a timber in breadth and thickness only. Any piece of timber less than five inches square is called _scantling_. =Scapha=, R. (σκάφη, i. e. dug out). A long-boat or cutter attached to a larger vessel; obviously, from the etymology, a sort of canoe in its origin; our “skiff.” =Scaphium=, R. (σκάφιον). A vessel of Greek origin and of small size, and in the form of a boat (_scapha_), which, though used as a drinking-cup, is especially to be classed among sacrificial utensils. =Scapple.= In Masonry, to reduce a stone to a straight surface, without making it smooth. =Scapulary=, Chr. A part of the monastic dress, worn by both sexes over the shoulders (_scapula_). It is generally a narrow strip of cloth contrasting with the colour of the dress, reaching almost to the feet. =Scapus=, Gr. and R. (σκᾶπος). A shaft or stem. This term is applied to several distinct things, which all, however, imply an idea of use in support of some other thing; as, for instance, the shaft of a column, which supports a capital, and occasionally an entablature; the central shaft or newel which supports the staircase of a column; the stem of a candelabrum or lamp-rest, and so on. [Illustration: Fig. 603. Scarabæus, sacred.] =Scarabæus= (Egyp.), or sacred ateuchus, is an attribute of Phtha, and the symbol of creation. Under the name of _Kheper_ (creator), the scarabæus was given to the soldiers in exchange for their oath of fidelity, and worn by them as a finger-ring. With wings extended (as in Fig. 603) it is a funereal ornament. =Scarlet.= (See IODINE SCARLET.) =Scarlet Ochre.= (See VENETIAN RED.) =Scarpe=, =Escarpe=, Her. A diminutive of a bend sinister. =Scauper.= A tool used by engravers; a kind of gouge. (Angl. _scooper_.) =Scena=, Gr. and R. (σκηνή). (1) The stage of a theatre, including not only the part so called at the present day, but the wall at the back, which was provided with three doors, one in the centre (_valvæ regiæ_), and two lateral ones (_valvæ hospitales_). (2) A double-edged axe, used in the sacrifices; one of the iron sides of this axe had the broad blade of the _securis_, and the other that of the _dolabra_. In the sense of “an axe,” _scena_ is the contracted form of an old Latin word _sacena_. =Scene-painting= was invented by Inigo Jones, about 1610. =Scenographia=, R. (σκηνο-γραφία). The drawing of a building in _perspective_. A _geometrical_ plan is called _orthographia_. =Sceptre=, Gr. and R. (σκῆπτρον). Originally, in early antiquity, a long staff similar to the shaft of a spear, which was carried by great persons to lean on when walking. Afterwards it became the _truncheon_, and a weapon of offence and defence. Later on, an ornament was added to the upper end of this staff, and it became the insignia of power and authority. The ivory sceptre of the kings and consuls of Rome was surmounted by an eagle. The sceptre was an attribute of Jupiter and Juno, as sovereigns of the gods. =Schafte=, O. E. (See SHAFT.) =Scheele’s Green.= A green pigment; an arsenite of copper; arsenite of potash mixed with sulphate of copper; used in oil and water-colours. =Scherzo=, It. (_playful_). A lively style in music; faster than the minuet (such as in _Beethoven’s_ Second Symphony, op. 36, in D major). [Illustration: Fig. 604. Schleswig Lace.] =Schleswig Lace.= North Schleswig (or South Jutland) is the only province of Denmark in which there was a regular manufacture of lace. The art itself is supposed to have been introduced, in 1515, by Queen Elizabeth (sister of the Emperor Charles V., and wife of Christian II. of Denmark). About 1712 lace-making was much improved by Brabant women. The earlier specimens are all of Flemish character, made on the pillow in the same way, occasionally imitating the Mechlin ground with the pattern apparently run in with the needle. All Schleswig laces are remarkable for their fine quality and excellent workmanship. The engraving shows part of a shirt-collar of Christian IV., of a Brabant pattern to be seen in his portrait in Hampton Court Palace. =Schmeltz=, Germ. Glass ornament; produced by fusing lumps of coloured glass together to imitate marble, cornelian, and other stones. (See GLASS.) =Schweinfurth’s Green.= A brilliant sea-green pigment. =Scimitar.= (See SCYMETAR.) =Scimpodium=, Gr. and R. (σκιμπόδιον, lit. footprop). A couch or long chair for an invalid. =Scintillant=, Her. Emitting sparks. (See Fig. 342.) =Sciolist= (from σκιὸς, a shadow). A man of superficial acquirements, who sees only the _shadows_ of things. =Scioptics= (σκιὰ, a shadow). The branch of the science of optics applied in the construction of the _camera obscura_. =Sciothericon= (σκιοθηρικόν). A sun-dial. =Scipio.= An official staff. (See SCEPTRE.) =Scirophoria.= Athenian festivals held in the month Scirophorion or June. =Scirpea=, R. A waggon formed of basket-work of plaited rushes (_scirpus_), and used principally for agricultural operations. =Scobina=, R. (_scabo_, to scrape). A rasp for wood; distinct from _lima_, a file for metals. =Scobs.= Shreds of ivory, metals, &c., turned off the lathe or rasp, &c. =Sconces.= Brackets projecting from the wall, supporting candlesticks: originated in the 15th century, and from that date form an important branch of metallurgical art-work. =Scopæ=, R. A broom made of small twigs of wood. This term survives in the Languedoc _escoube_. =Scopulæ=, R. A little broom. =Scorpers.= In wood-engraving, tools used for cutting away large spaces after outlining or engraving, so as to leave only the drawing in relief. =Scorpio=, Gr. and R. (lit. a scorpion). (1) A kind of cross-bow. (2) A pyramid of stones raised for a landmark in country places. [Illustration: Fig. 605. Scotia or Trochilus.] =Scotia= or =Trochilus=, Arch. (σκοτία, τροχίλος). A concave moulding employed especially in the decoration of the bases of columns or pilasters, between the fillets of the tori. In plain bases the _scotiæ_ are smooth, and in decorated bases they are ornamented with sculptures, as shown in Fig. 605. =Scourge.= (See FLAGELLUM and FLAGRUM.) =Scraper.= An engraver’s tool for removing BURRS (q.v.). =Screen=, Chr. An open barrier of wood-work or stone enclosing the choir or chancel of a church, chapel, or tomb; generally highly enriched by carving and gilding, and the lower panels decorated with painting. (See ROOD-LOFT.) =Scrinium=, =Scrinia=, Chr. and R. (1) Chr. A chest which held chiefly liturgical writings; according to the writings they contained, these cases were variously distinguished as _scrinia epistolarum_, _scrinia dispositionum_, _scrinia libellorum_, _scrinia memoriæ_, _scrinia sacra_, &c. _Scrinia_ were generally kept in the _diaconicum_ or _scevophylacium_. (2) Cylindrical boxes or cases used for carrying volumes (i. e. rolls) and papers (cf. HANAPER). (3) _Scrinia unguentaria_ were used to contain phials of oils and perfumes, &c., for the toilette. =Scriptorium=, Chr. An apartment in large monasteries where manuscripts were transcribed. =Scripulum.= (See SCRUPULUM.) =Scrupulum=, R. (_scrupus_, lit. a small stone). A scruple, the smallest Roman gold coin; it weighed a third of the _denarius aureus_. (See DENARIUS.) =Scrutoire=, Fr. An old way of spelling _escritoire_. =Scudo=, It. A silver coin worth about 4_s._ In Rome the gold scudo is worth 65_s._ =Sculponeæ=, R. A common kind of boot, with a wooden sole; it was worn by the _familia rustica_, or slaves who worked in the country. =Sculpture= (from _sculpo_, to carve) includes all carved work, in wood, ivory, stone, marble, metal, or other material; and also those works formed in a softer material not requiring carving, such as wax or clay. It includes STATUARY, carved ornament, and GLYPTICS or incised gems and cameos. From the practice of preparing the model in clay, sculpture is also called _the plastic art_. A most remarkable incident in the history of sculpture, is the fact that the most ancient specimens are carved of the hardest stones, such as basalt, granite, and porphyry; and that this work was done at a period antecedent to the introduction of steel tools. (Consult _Redford’s Ancient Sculpture_.) =Scumbling.= The process of going over a painting with a nearly dry brush, to soften and blend the tints. =Scutage=, O. E. (from _scutum_, a shield). A tax upon lands held by _knight-service_. =Scutale=, R. (from _scutum_, i. e. shield-shaped). The hollow in the thongs of a sling in which the missile is laid. =Scutarius=, Med. An esquire or shield-bearer. =Scutcheon=, for ESCUTCHEON (q.v.). =Scutella.= Diminutive of SCUTRA (q.v.). =Scutica=, Gr. and R. A whip made with a leather thong (σκυτικός). =Scutiform.= Shaped like a shield. =Scutra=, R. (from _scutum_, i. e. shield-shaped). Diminutive _scutella_. A square wooden tray for plates, dishes, and cups. =Scutum=, R. and Egyp. The large oblong shield of the Roman infantry, in contradistinction to _clipeus_, a round shield. (See SHIELDS.) =Scymetar.= A sword of oriental origin, with a curved blade, very sharp. =Scyphus=, Gr. and R. (σκύφος). A drinking-cup of wood or silver, of smaller capacity than the BROMIAS (q.v.). It was sacred to Hercules. =Seals.= Ancient porcelain seals, to which the Chinese attribute an antiquity of from 1000 to 2000 years, are met with in collections; and precisely identical specimens have been found in the bogs of _Ireland_. They are of a peculiar white or cream-coloured porcelain, such as has not been made in China for several hundred years. It is believed that the Irish specimens must have lain buried there from a period anterior to history. (_Fortune._) (See SIGILLUM, RINGS.) =Seax.= A Saxon sword. =Secco=, It. Fresco-painting _in secco_ is that kind which absorbs the colours into the plaster, and gives them a dry sunken appearance. (_Fairholt._) =Second Distance.= In a picture, the part of the _middle distance_ next the foreground. =Secondary Colours.= The three _primary colours_ (containing nothing of any other colour)—blue, red, and yellow—when mixed in _equal_ proportions produce three _secondary_ colours:—blue and yellow produce _green_; blue and red, _violet_; and yellow and red, _orange_. Mixed in _unequal_ proportions they produce what are called TONES (q.v.). =Secos=, Egyp. (σηκός). The name for the NAOS in an Egyptian temple. =Secretarium=, Chr. (_secretum_, secret). A _sacristy_ (not a _tabernacle_, as maintained by some authors) in the apse, at the side of the altar. In the ancient basilicas there were two such recesses, one on each side of the altar. =Sectilis.= (See PAVIMENTUM.) =Securicula= (diminutive of _securis_). In Architecture, a dove-tail mortise. =Securis=, R. (_seco_, to cut). An axe or hatchet of any kind; but esp. that borne by the lictors in the FASCES. (See DOLABRA, BIPENNIS, FASCIS, &c.) =Securis Dannica=, Med. (See BIPENNIS.) =Secutores=, R. Gladiators appointed to fight with the _Retiarii_ (whom they were constantly _pursuing_ round the circus); or those who replaced others killed were so called. =Sedes=, =Sedile= (dimin. _sedicula_). Any kind of seat. =Sedilia.= (1) R. The rows of seats in the amphitheatre. (2) Chr. In a Catholic church, the stone seats on the south side of the altar, for the use of the clergy in the intervals of the services. =Segestrium=, R. (lit. of straw). A coarse wrapper made of skins or straw-matting. =Segmenta=, R. (_seco_, to cut off). Strips of rich cloth or tissues of gold or silver worn as a border to the dresses of wealthy Roman ladies. =Segno.= In Music, a direction to repeat:—_al segno_, as far as the sign; _dal segno_, from the sign. =Segreant=, Her. A griffin or wyvern rampant. (See Fig. 369.) [Illustration: Fig. 606. Sejant.] =Sejant=, Her. Sitting:—of a lion, at rest with his fore-legs stretched on the ground, but awake, and his head and tail elevated. [Illustration: Fig. 607. Sejant Rampant.] =Sejant Rampant.= Seated like a cat, with his fore-legs erect. =Sejugis=, R. (_sex_, six, and _jungo_, to join). A chariot drawn by six horses abreast. =Seliquastrum=, Chr. A seat of highly archaic character met with on certain monuments of Christian art. =Sella=, R. (_sedeo_, to sit). A low seat without back, a stool; _sella curulis_, a curule chair; its feet were of ivory, and took the form of an X, and it folded like a camp-stool; _sella castrensis_, a real camp-stool; _sella balnearis_, a bath-seat, we possess a specimen in ancient red marble of the greatest beauty, another name for it was _sella pertusa_; _sella tonsoria_, a barber’s chair. Again, the term _sella_ was applied to a sedan-chair (_sella portatoria_, _gestatoria_, _fertoria_), and a pack-saddle for beasts of burden (_sella bajulatoria_), and to a riding-saddle (_sella equestris_). =Sellaria=, R. A large reception-room, so called because it was furnished with a number of _sellæ_. =Sellaris= (sc. _equus_), R. A saddle horse. =Sellula=, R. (dimin. of SELLA). A small sedan-chair. =Sembella=, R. A nominal subdivision of the _denarius_, of which it was worth a twentieth part, or about fivepence. [Illustration: Fig. 608. _Fleur-de-lis_ (_semée_). Ancient France.] =Semée= or =Aspersed=, Her. Sown broadcast, or scattered, without any fixed number, over the field. (Fig. 608.) =Sementivæ=, R. (_sementis_, a sowing). A festival which took place at seed-time in honour of Ceres and Tellus. =Semi-= (ἡμι-), as an adjunct, is the Greek form of _demi_ = half. =Semibreve.= In Music, half a breve; the longest note in modern music, marked [Semibreve symbol]. =Semicinctium=, R. (_semi_, half, and _cingo_, to gird). A short kilt worn by men when going through violent exercises or severe bodily labour; it reached from the waist to the knees. =Semidiapason.= In Music, an octave lessened by a semitone. =Semiquaver.= A sixteenth of a semibreve—[Semiquaver symbol]. =Semis=, =Semissis=. The half of an As, or six ounces; hence _Semisses_ = six per cent. interest. =Semita=, R. (_se_ and _meo_, i. e. going aside). A pathway in a field; a narrow lane in a town. =Semitarge=, Med. Fr. A scimitar. (See TARGE.) =Semitone.= In Music; the smallest interval in modern music; the ancients had _quarter-tones_ (q.v.). =Semi-uncials.= During the 6th and 7th centuries, a transition style of illuminating prevailed, the letters of which have been termed _semi-uncials_. This, in a further transition, became more like the old Roman cursive, which was called then _minuscule_; it began to prevail over _uncials_ about the 8th century, and in the 10th its use was established. (See UNCIAL LETTERS.) =Semuncia.= Half an ounce. =Senaculum=, R. A place in which the senate used to meet. There were at Rome three _senacula_; one between the Capitol and the Forum, a second near the Porta Capena, and a third near the temple of Bellona. =Senio=, R. The number _six_ inscribed on the face of dice, and thence the throw when all the sixes turned up. =Sentina=, R. The well or hold of a ship. =Sentinaculum=, R. A ship’s pump. =Sepia.= A warm, brown, water-colour pigment obtained from the ink-bag of the cuttlefish. (See ROMAN SEPIA.) =Sept-foil=, Chr. A figure of _seven_ foils, typical of the seven sacraments of the Church, and other mysteries of religion linked to the number seven. =Septilateral.= Having seven sides. =Septimontium=, R. A festival of the seven hills, celebrated at Rome in December. =Septizonium=, =Septemzonium=, R. A building of great magnificence, which had seven stories of columns one above the other; each set supported an entablature and cornice running right round the building (_zona_), whence the name Septizonium. =Septum=, R. and Chr. (_sepio_, to fence in). In general, any enclosure shut in by walls, palisades, barriers, hedges, &c. In Christian archæology, _septum_ was the name given to a barrier, which, in the ancient Roman basilicas, separated the nave from the absides. =Septunx=, R. (_septem_ and _uncia_). Seven-twelfths of any quantity, whatever its nature. =Sepulchre=, Chr. The Holy Sepulchre is a favourite subject of architectural sculpture, in cathedrals and continental churches. It is generally found on the north side of the chancel near the altar. =Sepulcrum=, R. (_sepelio_, to bury). A sepulchre, the general term for any kind of tomb in which the dead were buried, or in which their ashes were deposited in urns. _Sepulcrum familiare_, a sepulchre erected for a single person, or for the members of a family. The _sepulcrum commune_ was a tomb held in common by a number of persons belonging either to a single family, or several families, or a group of individuals, such as that given in Fig. 182, which represents the tomb of the freedmen of Octavia. =Sequin= (It. _zecchino_). A gold coin in Italy, worth about 9_s._ 6_d._; and in Turkey worth about 3_s._ 6_d._ =Sera=, R. (_sero_, to fasten). A padlock or movable lock to a door. =Serapeum=, Egyp. (σαραπεῖον). A general term for sepulchral monuments in Egypt, but more especially that of Memphis. (_Bosc._) =Seraph=; pl. =Seraphim=, Heb. (See ANGELS, CHERUBIM.) “They are usually represented with wings and a flaming heart, to typify spiritual emotion and divine affection; or covered all over with eyes, to denote their knowledge of all human events as counsellors of the Most High. The Seraph’s head in Heraldry, is usually delineated with six wings, two above and two below, which cross each other, and one on each side of the head.” (_Fairholt._) =Serges=, Chr. Fr. The large wax candles used in churches. They are often covered with texts and devices. =Seria=, R. An earthenware vessel used chiefly for holding wine and oil; it was larger than the amphora, and smaller than the _dolium_. =Serpent.= A musical wind instrument, of a powerful bass; invented by a French priest at Auxerre in 1590. =Serpent.= (1) In Christian archæology an emblem of the principle of evil; the Virgin Mary is frequently represented trampling on the head of the serpent. It is especially a symbol of cunning, lying, and envy. (2) Generally. The serpent with its tail in its mouth describes a circle which is the symbol of eternity. In Classic Art it is an attribute of Æsculapius, and of Apollo; and a symbol of the _Genius Loci_ (esp. of temples, &c.). =Serpentine Verses= begin and end with the same word: “Ambo florentes ætatibus, Arcades ambo.” =Serrated.= Having an edge like the teeth of a saw (_serra_). =Set-offs=, Arch. The mouldings and slopes on _buttresses_, dividing them into stages. =Setting= drawings in pencil or crayon is done by simply passing them through a dish of milk, or by washing the surface with a weak solution of isinglass. =Severey=, Arch. A bay, or compartment in a vaulted ceiling. [Illustration: Fig. 609. Sèvres Vase, with jewelled ornament.] =Sèvres Porcelain.= The celebrated manufactory at Sèvres was established in 1756. Soon afterwards it became the property of the king, Louis XV., and was much patronized both by him and Madame de Pompadour. Some of the first artists of France were employed to decorate the plaques and vases, and the productions of this factory are more highly prized than any others in the world. In 1870 three _jardinières_ were sold by auction in London for over 10,000_l._ The finest colours of this porcelain were the _bleu du roi_ and the _rose de Pompadour_. =Sewer.= (See CLOACA.) =Sextans=, R. (_sextus_, sixth). A copper coin worth the tenth of an as, in weight about two ounces (_unciæ_). =Sextant.= The sixth part of a circle; an arc of 60 degrees. =Sextarius=, R. (_sextus_). A measure of capacity used for liquids, grain, &c.; it held the tenth of a CONGIUS (q.v.). =Sextertius=, R. A coin originally of silver, and afterwards of fine copper (_aurichalcum_); it was worth two ases and a half. =Sextula=, R. The sixth part of the ounce (_uncia_); the smallest denomination of Roman money. =Sforzato= (It.). In Music; with force, louder than the rest. =Sfregazzi= or =Sfregature=, It. By this term is meant a peculiar thin kind of glazing, which is executed by dipping the finger into the colour, and drawing it once lightly and evenly along the part of the picture on which it is to be applied—such as the shade on the cheek, the limbs, &c., or wherever it is wished to lay a soft thin shadow. (Consult _Mrs. Merrifield_, _Ancient Practice of Painting_, vol. ii. p. 879.) =Sgraffito=, It. (lit. scratched). A method of painting on stucco, in which a ground of dark stucco is covered with a coat of white, and the design is formed by scraping this away for the shadows. (Consult an article by _Mr. Alan Cole_ in the _House Furnisher and Decorator_, May 10, 1873.) [Illustration: Fig. 610. Shackle.] =Shackle= and =Padlock=, Her. A badge of the Yorkist party during the wars of the Roses; called also a FETTER-LOCK. =Shades.= (See UMBRÆ.) =Shaft=, Arch. The part of the column comprised between the base and the capital. =Shaft=, O. E. The May-pole. May-poles seem to have existed in most villages until the Civil War. They were abolished by an ordinance of the Long Parliament, April 6, 1644, as heathenish vanities “generally abused to superstition and wickednesse.” =Shaftman=, O. E. A measure roughly six inches; “the measure of the fist with the thumb set up.” (_Ray_, 1674.) =Shagreen.= A grained leather prepared from the skin of a species of shark, and stained green. A close imitation is made from horses’ or asses’ skins, in Russia, and dyed red, blue, or black. =Shalm= or =Shawm=. A musical instrument, a pipe with a reed in the mouth-hole. =Shamrock=, Her. A trefoil plant or leaf, the badge of Ireland. =Shard=, O. E. A piece of broken pottery. (It has other meanings. Consult _Halliwell_.) =Shay-le=, Chin. A relic of Buddha. [Illustration: Fig. 611. Sheaf. Device of Alphonso d’Avalos.] =Sheaf.= (1) A bundle of ripe corn bound up in the field; the device assumed by Alfonso d’Avalos, when he was made captain-general of the army of Charles V., with the motto implying incessant devotion to his work,—that, as soon as one harvest is reaped, its successor must be sown. (2) A bunch of twenty-four arrows, enough to fill a quiver. =Sheep.= In Christian art, the twelve apostles occur in early mosaics as twelve sheep, and our Lord in the midst as their Shepherd. =Shekel.= A Jewish coin, value about 2_s._ 6_d._ =Shell=, Chr. In Gallic as in Christian tombs shells are of frequent occurrence; there is no doubt that they symbolize the resurrection, the body of man being looked upon as a shell which he leaves behind him at death. Different kinds of shell are met with, but that of most frequent occurrence is the common snail-shell (_helix pomatia_). (See ESCALLOP.) =Shell-cameos.= Cameos carved on shells. These are certain conch shells or strombs, the substance of which consists of two distinct layers of different colours. The black conch offers the most decided contrast in the colours. =Shell-lac.= Crude lac-resin melted into plates or _shales_. (See LAC.) =Shenti=, Egyp. A short pair of drawers, fastened round the hips by a belt, worn by the ancient Egyptians. =Shepherd’s Crook.= (See PEDUM.) =Shepherds.= (See HYCSOS.) =Shingles.= Wooden tiles; frequently used for church spires. =Ship.= A symbol of the Church. (See NAVETTE.) =Shoes.= The shoes worn by the Greeks generally reached to the middle of the leg; the ROMANS had the _calceus_ and the _solea_ or sandal; the former was worn with the toga on ordinary occasions; the sandal on a journey or at a feast; but it was considered effeminate to appear in public with them. Black shoes were worn by the citizens of ordinary rank (see ATRAMENTUM, CHALCANTHUM), and white ones (sometimes red) by the women; on ceremonial occasions the magistrates wore red shoes. Patricians and their children wore a crescent shoe-buckle (see LUNA). Slaves went barefooted. The Jews had shoes of leather, wood, &c., tied with thongs passed under the soles of the feet; to “untie the latchets” of a man’s shoes was a sign of deep subservience. In ancient as in modern times the Oriental peoples put off their shoes as we uncover the head. (Consult _Herbert Spencer on Ceremonies_.) =Shop.= (See TABERNA.) [Illustration: Fig. 612. Shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral. 13th century.] =Shrine.= A repository for relics; either fixed, as a tomb; or movable, as a _feretory_. (See Fig. 307.) The Shrine of the Three Kings in Cologne Cathedral is one of the most celebrated and costly in the world. (Fig. 612.) =Sibina=, =Sibyna=, Gr. and R. (σιβύνη). A kind of boar-spear employed in hunting. =Sibylline= (Books), R. The Sibylline books were a series of oracles of the destiny of the Roman Empire; they were three in number, and were placed by Tarquin in a vault of the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, and were consulted in cases of difficulty by an order of the senate. They perished in 670 A.U.C., when the Capitol was burnt. A set of Sibylline oracles in existence, which predict very clearly the establishment of the Christian religion, have been ascertained to be a forgery of the 2nd century of the Christian era. =Sibyls=, Gr. and R. (Σίβυλλα). Prophetesses of antiquity recognized by the ancient Christian Church, and a common object of symbolical ecclesiastical sculpture, with reference to their foreknowledge of the fulfilment of inspired prophecy; they are twelve in number, having each a proper emblem. (Cf. _Smith and Cheetham_.) =Sica=, R. (dimin. _sicilla_). A curved dagger or scimitar; distinct from PUGIO, a straight dagger. It was the weapon preferred by thieves and assassins on account of the convenience of its shape for concealment. (From this word our English _sickle_ is derived.) =Siccative.= A synonym for DRYING (q.v.). =Sicilis=, R. A sickle. =Sienite.= A statuary marble from Syene (Assouan) on the Nile. =Sienna=, =Terra di Sienna=. A brown pigment. (See OCHRES.) =Sigilla=, R. (dimin. of _signum_, an image), (1) A seal or signet. (2) Small sculptured or moulded bosses, used to decorate vases or architecture. (3) Small statuettes, called also SIGILLARIA. =Sigillaria=, R. (1) The last days of the festival of the Saturnalia, when _sigilla_, or statuettes of gold and silver or terra-cotta, were offered to Saturn, and amongst the people, as presents to each other. =Sigillatus=, R. Ornamented or decorated with _sigilla_. (See SIGILLUM.) =Sigla=, It. (contraction of _sigilla_). A conventional sign used instead of a word or phrase; such as = for _equal to_, and + for _plus_; A.U.C. for _ab urbe conditâ_, &c. =Sigma=, R. A semicircular couch, so called because it assumed the form of the Greek Σ, which was originally written like our C. Hence, the seat which ran round the walls of the PISCINA in a bath. (See STIBADIUM.) =Signa Militaria.= (See ENSIGNS.) =Signature=, in printing, is a letter put at the bottom of the first page in every sheet, as a direction to the binder in collating them. =Signets.= (See RINGS.) =Signinum= (opus), R. A kind of concrete for floorings, invented at _Signia_, and formed of broken tiles consolidated with mortar, and levelled with a pavior’s beetle. =Signum=, R. A general term for any kind of sign or mark by which anything can be recognized; such as an image or figure, the intaglio on a ring, the sign of a shop, or a military standard or ensign (_signa militaria_), as represented in Fig. 665. [Illustration: Fig. 613. Wall of Silex.] =Silex=, R. In general a flint or flint-stone, and thence, by extension, any kind of hard stone hewn into polygonal blocks, as shown in Fig. 613. =Silhouette=, Fr. A profile portrait, or representation of the shape contained in the outline of an object, with no attempt to fill in the parts. =Silicernium=, Gr. and R. A funeral feast in honour of the dead. =Silicious Wares.= (See POTTERY.) =Sill= or =Cill= of a window or door. The LIMEN INFERIUS (q.v.). [Illustration: Fig. 614. Silver-gilt dish and ewer; the property of St. John’s College, Cambridge. (Work of the late 17th century.)] =Silver.= The history of working in silver is identical with that of Goldsmiths’ work in general. (See GOLD.) _Pollen_ remarks that though Phidias and his contemporaries made great statues of gold, many artists who devoted themselves mainly and altogether to working in the precious metals executed their best work in silver. Silver was also largely used for the surfaces of mirrors, which were hung on the walls of temples. The best collection of antique silver plate was found at Hildesheim, in Germany, in 1869, and is now in the Berlin Museum. The silver stoup (Fig. 615) belonging to the Corporation of Norwich, is of the time of Elizabeth. The illustration (Fig. 614) of the silver dish and ewer at St. John’s College (1670), is representative of the change that the goldsmiths’ style underwent about the middle of the 17th century, after which time the light and graceful leaf work gave way to heavier designs. (Consult _Pollen_, _Gold and Silversmiths’ Work_.) [Illustration: Fig. 615. Silver tankard of the 16th century. (Belonging to the Norwich Corporation.)] =Silver.= In Christian art, an emblem of purity. (See WHITE.) As one of the two _metals_ among the _tinctures_ of Heraldry, represented by a white space. (See ARGENT.) =Silver, Cloth of.= Josephus tells us that the royal robe of Herod Agrippa was a tunic made of silver. In the Middle Ages it was woven, like gold, in long narrow shreds unmixed with anything else, into a web for garments. =Sima=, Arch. (See CYMA.) =Simikion=, Gr. (σιμίκιον). A musical instrument of the Greeks; it had thirty-five strings. =Simpulum= or =Simpuvium=, R. A small cup used for libations. It was in the form of a ladle with a long handle. =Sinciput.= The front part of the head. The back part is the _occiput_. =Sindon= (σινδών). (See CORPORAL.) =Singing-bread=, Chr. The larger altar breads used in the mass were called _singing-bread_; the smaller ones consecrated for the people were known as _houseling bread_. (See also HOLY BREAD.) =Sinister=, Her. The left side of a shield (considered from the back, or wearer’s point of view). The _bendlet_ or _baton sinister_ is generally (not rigorously) regarded in modern Heraldry as the most appropriate _difference_ of illegitimacy. (Consult _Boutell’s English Heraldry_, p. 194.) =Sinopia.= A fine red pigment found upon ancient mural paintings. =Sinum= or =Sinus=, R. A vessel of small dimensions, but tolerably wide and deep, which was used for holding wine or milk. =Siparium=, R. The curtain of a theatre. It was divided in the middle and withdrawn to the sides to disclose the stage. =Sipho=, Gr. (σίφων, a hollow body). A siphon for exhausting liquids from a vessel by the pressure of the atmosphere. A painting at Thebes shows that the principle of the siphon was known to the Egyptians as early as the eighteenth dynasty. The same name was applied to a suction and forcing pump, which was generally employed as a fire-engine. =Sirens= (Gr. Σειρῆνες [probably from σειρὰ, a _chain_, to signify their attractive power]). These mythical representatives of the evil side of the seductive power of music, are represented in art as lovely women to the waist, and fishes or birds below. Sometimes they have wings, which the Muses are said to have plucked (see MUSES) of their feathers; as Orpheus, by opening their minds to the unattainable higher music, drove them to suicide in the end. In Christian symbolism the sirens typify the three carnal lusts. (See Fig. 455.) =Sirpea.= (See SCIRPEA.) =Sispa-sastra=, Hind. A Hindoo work, the title of which means literally the science of manual art. It was a kind of encyclopædia, and comprised about thirty treatises on the manual arts, and included a treatise on architecture written by a Hindoo whose name has not come down to us; but a sage or mage called Dupayana compiled, abridged, and edited, about 1500 B.C., the lost treatise of the Hindoo architect. (_Bosc._) =Sistrum=, Egyp. (σεῖστρον; σείω, to shake). A kind of rattle formed by a certain number of metallic rods which passed through a framework also of metal; this was attached to a short handle ending in a head of Athor. By shaking the instrument by the handle the metallic rods and the movable rings suspended from them were made to give out a sharp rattling sound. The Egyptians made use of the sistrum in the ceremonial worship of Isis and at funerals. Roman coins of Hadrian present a personification of Egypt as a female figure seated with the sacred ibis at her feet, and a _sistrum_ in her hand. The instrument is still in use on the Nile. =Sitella.= Diminutive of SITULA (q.v.). =Situla=, R. A bucket for drawing water from a well. =Situlus.= Synonym of SITULA (q.v.). [Illustration: Fig. 616. Sixfoil.] =Sixfoil=, Her. A flower of six leaves. =Size= is used to prepare paper for printing upon, and as a _vehicle_ in oil painting. (See DISTEMPER.) =Skeens=, Celtic. Long sharp knives; “_sheen dubh_,” black knife, the Highlander’s _dernier ressort_. =Skinning=, in Masonry. (See REGRATING.) =Skirophorion.= (See SCIROPHORIUM.) =Sling.= (See BALEA, FUNDA.) =Slipped=, Her. Pulled or torn off. =Smalt.= A vitreous substance coloured by cobalt, used for painting on china, not being affected by fire. It makes also a bad pigment in water-colour painting, and is largely used for giving a blue tinge to writing-paper, linen, &c. (See COBALT.) =Smalti=, It. Cubes of coloured glass applied in the modern MOSAICS. =Snail=, Chr. In Christian iconography the snail is an emblem of sloth and of the resurrection. =Snood= (A.S. _snôd_). A head-band for ladies, of the Anglo-Saxon period, similar to that now used by young unmarried women in Scotland. =Soapstone.= (See STEATITE.) =Socculus.= Diminutive of _soccus_. =Soccus=, Gr. and R. A slipper worn in Greece both by men and women, but at Rome by women only. It was worn by actors upon the stage. =Socle=, Arch. A plain block or plinth forming a low pedestal to a column; or a plinth round the bottom of a wall. =Soffit=, Arch. The flat surface on the lower side of an arch or cornice. =Solarium=, R. (_sol_, the sun). (1) A sun-dial; (2) a water-clock or clepsydra (_solarium ex aquâ_); (3) a terrace constructed on the top of a house or portico. =Soldurii=, Gaul. A body of Gallic warriors forming a CLAN under one chief. =Solea=, R. and Chr. (_solum_, sole of the foot). A sandal of the simplest kind, consisting of a sole fastened on with straps over the instep. _Solea ferrea_, a horse-shoe, or _soccus_ of iron; _solea sparta_, a sock of Spanish broom for the feet of beasts of burden or of cattle; _solea lignea_, wooden clogs fastened to the feet of criminals. Lastly the term denoted a machine for crushing olives, the nature and shape of which are entirely unknown. In Christian archæology, the term _solea_ was used to denote, in the early basilicas, a space in front of the choir. =Soler= (Lat. _solarium_; A.S. _up-flor_). The upper floor of a house, approached by a _staeger_ (Ang. stair) outside. =Soles of the Feet=, Egyp. and Chr. On a great number of Christian tombs there occur representations of the soles of the feet. This symbol has been variously explained. In our opinion, one which has never been broached before, it denoted that the dead were in the power of God; for among the Egyptians, whenever a god or powerful king was spoken of, it was said of him that he put his enemies under the sole of his foot. Ezekiel uses the same terms in speaking of Jehovah. Whenever an Egyptian went on a pilgrimage to a distant place, he never left the country without engraving on some stone the impression of his feet, to which he added his name and titles. (_Bosc._) =Soliferreum= or =Solliferreum=, R. A javelin made entirely of massive iron. =Solium=, R. This term denotes (1) a chair or arm-chair with a high back; (2) a bier of wood or terra-cotta for a dead body; (3) the granite or marble seat in an ancient bath. =Solstice.= The time when the sun appears to _stand still_, at one of the solstitial points, i. e. at his greatest distance from the equator; the summer solstice is the longest day, June 22nd; the winter solstice December 22nd, in the North Hemisphere; reversed in the South. =Sonata=, Ital. A piece of music with various movements, composed for a single instrument with or without accompaniment. _Sonate di camera_, sonatas adapted for chamber music; _sonate de chiesa_, for churches. =Sonnachiosi of Bologna.= One of the Italian Academies, having for their device a bear, which sleeps through the winter; and the motto _spero avanzar con la vigilia il sonno_. (I hope by vigils to make up for sleep.) =Sorrows of the Virgin.= (See JOYS OF THE VIRGIN.) =Sortes=, R. Lots; small tablets or counters thrown into a SITELLA or urn full of water, and withdrawn for soothsaying. =Soteria=, Gr. and R. (σωτήρια, i. e. of saving). Sacrifices in honour of the gods offered by way of thanksgiving for escape from any danger. =Sounding-board=, Chr. A sort of dome or canopy, placed above pulpits to convey the voice of the preacher to his auditory. In the centre of the lower part of the canopy there is often a carved dove, symbolizing the Holy Ghost. Sounding-boards must be placed five feet above the speaker’s head, and their diameter should exceed that of the pulpit by six to eight inches on either side. =Soutane=, Fr. A white woollen cassock, worn by priests under the _rochet_. =Sow=, Chr. In Christian iconography, the sow is a symbol of evil, impurity, gluttony, and fecundity. It is borne in the crest of Hamilton, Duke of Hamilton, with the motto, “Through.” =Span.= Of an arch, the breadth between the imposts. =Spandril=, Arch. The triangular space between the upper arch of a door and the square mouldings which form a frame to it. =Spangles=, of gold and silver, were, in the Middle Ages, artistically shaped concave, and sewed on like tiles, one overlapping the other, producing a rich and pleasing effect. Our present flat spangles are quite modern. =Spanish Black.= A pigment of burnt cork. =Spanish Brown.= (See OCHRE.) =Spanish Ferreto.= A rich reddish-brown pigment. =Spanish Red.= An ochreous red pigment, yellower than the _Venetian red_. =Spanish Stitch.= A kind of embroidery introduced into England by Katharine of Aragon in 1501. =Span-roof=, Arch. Having _two_ inclined sides; not a _pent-roof_. =Spartea.= (See SOLEA.) =Sparum=, R. A weapon specially employed by the agricultural population, whence its name of _sparum agreste, telum rusticum_. It was a kind of halberd. A form _sparus_ was also in use. =Spatha=, Gr. and R. (σπάθη). (1) A _batten_ or wooden blade used by weavers for beating the threads of the woof. (2) The spatula of a druggist or chemist. (3) A long, broad, two-edged sword, with a sharp point. =Spathalium=, Gr. and R. (σπαθάλιον:). A kind of bracelet with bells attached, so that it bore some resemblance to the flower-sheath of the palm-tree (_spatha_), whence its name. =Speak-house=, O. E. A parlour. =Spean=, Hind. A monumental bridge, of no great height, among the Khmers or ancient inhabitants of Cambodgia. The balustrade of this bridge was formed by means of NAGAGAS (q.v.). =Spear=, Her., is seldom seen in blazon, though it appears as a “punning device” in the arms granted to Shakspeare’s father. (See LANCE, CUSPIS, &c.) =Specillum=, R. A surgeon’s probe, of iron, bronze, or silver. =Spectra.= Impressions which remain for a time on the retina of the eye, after looking at certain bright and coloured objects. They are either similar in colour and form to the objects which excited them, or vary according to the laws of the spectrum; e.g. if the eye is fixed on a _red_ wafer, lying on a sheet of _white_ paper, it will appear fringed with a faint _green_; then if, after a time, the eye is turned to another part of the paper, where there is no wafer, a _green_ wafer will appear. =Spectrum.= The series of colours that a beam of white light slips into under refraction:—red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet. =Specula=, R. A watch-tower. =Specularia=, Gr. and R. Window-panes made with a kind of transparent stone (_lapis specularis_). =Speculum=, R. (_specio_, to behold). A mirror; they were made in ancient times of a white composition of copper and tin, and afterwards of silver. The back of the mirror was decorated with beautiful engraved or enchased designs. There were also glass mirrors backed with a thin leaf of metal. Mirrors were not contrived to be hung against a wall, or to stand on a table, but were generally held by female slaves in front of their mistresses. (See MIRRORS.) =Specus=, R. Originally a dark grotto or cave; later the covered canal of an aqueduct. =Spence=, O. E. The buttery attached to the hall; 13th, 14th century. =Speos=, Egyp. (σπέος). HYPOGEA or subterranean Egyptian temples. _Hemispeos_ was the name given to temples built partly above and partly under the ground. =Sperlings=, O. E. Sprats. =Sperthe=, O. E. A battle-axe. =Spetum=, Med. A kind of PARTISAN, but narrower and lighter. =Sphæristerium=, Gr. and R. (σφαιριστήριον, lit. place for ball). An apartment attached to a gymnasium or set of baths for playing with balls. =Sphæromachia=, Gr. and R. (σφαιρο-μαχία). A game of ball. =Sphendone=, Gr. A band or fillet with which Greek ladies confined their hair. (See DIADEMA, HAIR, &c.) [Illustration: Fig. 617. Andro-Sphinx.] [Illustration: Fig. 618. Crio-Sphinx.] =Sphinx=, Egyp. (Σφίγξ). An emblem peculiarly Egyptian, signifying the religious mystery; in this sense it was adopted by the Romans and placed in the pronaos of their temples. The ANDRO-SPHINX (Fig. 617), a human head upon a lion’s body, typified generally the union of intellectual and physical power; the CRIO-SPHINX (Fig. 618) had the head of a ram; and the HIERACO-SPHINX (Fig. 619) that of a hawk. The two latter are complex emblems; the hawk being the sun-god’s and the king’s special figure, and the ram that of the god Neph. The symbolical importance of these figures was completely disregarded in the course of their application to the purposes of Greek art. [Illustration: Fig. 619. Hieraco-Sphinx.] =Sphyrelata=, Gr. Hammered metal-work; the earliest form of art manufacture in metal. Archaic statues, antecedent to the invention of the art of casting, were formed of hammered plates fastened together with rivets. (See METALLURGY.) =Spicæ Testaceæ=, R. (_spica_, ear of corn). Oblong bricks for pavements; applied in the Spicatum Opus. [Illustration: Fig. 620. Spicatum Opus.] =Spicatum= (opus), R. A term answering to our HERRING-BONE. work; it was a kind of construction in which the stones were arranged so as to resemble the setting of the grains in an ear of corn. (Fig. 620.) [Illustration: Fig. 621. Spiculum.] =Spiculum=, R. (dimin. of _spicum_, a point). The barbed iron head of an arrow or lance. The custom of barbing weapons dates from a very early period, since it is met with in prehistoric times. Fig. 621 shows a barbed bone arrow. =Spider-work= (_opus araneum_). A kind of embroidery; specimens of the 13th and 14th centuries are in South Kensington Museum. =Spike.= _Oil of spike_ used in wax painting is prepared from the wild lavender. =Spina=, R. (lit. a spine). A long, low wall along the middle of a circus, marking off the course in a race. At each end were the goals, (_metæ_). (See CIRCUS, META.) [Illustration: Fig. 622. Spinet. 18th century.] =Spinet= (Ital. _spinetta_). An old-fashioned musical instrument on the principle of the _harpsichord_ and pianoforte. Brass and steel wires were struck by quills fixed to the tongues of jacks which were moved by the keys of a finger-board. (Fig. 622.) =Spinther=, R. (σφιγκτήρ). A bracelet; it was worn upon the left arm, and retained in its place merely by the elasticity of the material. The term is really a corruption of _sphincter_, the muscle which remains naturally contracted. (See ARMILLA.) =Spira=, R. (σπεῖρα). Anything spiral or coiled; such as (1) a coil of rope; (2) an ornament worn by women on the head; (3) the string by which the cap of the Salian priests was fastened under the chin; (4) the base of a column. =Spire=, Arch. An acutely-pointed termination crowning a steeple. (See CHAMFER.) =Spirit Fresco.= A new method of painting in _fresco_, introduced by Mr. Gambier Parry, 1880. =Spirits of Wine= are used to dissolve resins in the preparation of varnishes. =Spirula.= Diminutive of _spira_. =Spittle= or =Spittlehouse=, O. E. A hospital. =Spolarium=, R. (_spolio_, to strip off). A cloakroom in the baths, where the bathers left their clothes; in an amphitheatre or circus the term was applied to a cella in which gladiators who had been killed in the arena were stripped of their clothes and weapons. =Spolia=, R. Booty taken in war. PRÆDA means plunder generally; MANUBIUM, the share of the commander or the state; EXUVIÆ, the personal spoils of an enemy; and SPOLIA, properly speaking, arms or implements of war. (See OPIMA SPOLIA.) [Illustration: Fig. 623. Carved ivory Spoon with figure of “January.”] [Illustration: Fig. 624. Folding Spoon of carved box-wood.] =Spoon=, Chr. In early times, especially among the Greeks, Syrians, and Copts, the sacrament in one kind only was administered with a small gold or silver spoon, into which a few drops of the consecrated wine were poured. In the Middle Ages spoons were frequently ornamented with figures, some carved in ivory or wood, and others of metal. APOSTLE SPOONS had figures of the Apostles on the handles. (See LABIS and COCHLEAR.) =Sporta=, R. A broad plaited basket made of wood and usually furnished with two handles. Diminutives of this term are _sportella_ and _sportula_. =Springers=, Arch. The lowest stones of an arch resting on a column, pilaster, or cluster of small columns. =Spurs= with rowels appear first in the 13th century; in early times and in antiquity they were merely sharp goads fixed to the heel. In the middle of the 15th century spurs were of extravagant length. In Heraldry, the _knightly spur_ had a single point, up to about 1320, and was known as the “pryck-spur;” the later form is called the “rouelle-spur.” =Spurn=, O. E. A piece of stone or wood protecting a corner house or gate-post from wheels. One end is fixed in the ground, and the other attached at an angle to the post or wall. =Squinch=, Arch. Small arches built across angles of towers to support projecting masonry above. =Stadium=, Gr. (στάδιον). The course for the foot-race at Olympia, which measured exactly one stadium (606¾ feet). The stadium was the principal Greek measure for distance, and equalled the eighth of a Roman mile. =Stag= (_cervus_). Representations of the stag occur in many Christian bas-reliefs and paintings. It is the emblem of many dissimilar moral ideas, but more especially of a longing desire for baptism, from an application of the text in the 42nd Psalm, “Like as the hart,” &c. (See HART.) =Stalactite= (Gr. στάλαγμα, an icicle). Spar, in the form of icicles hanging from the roof of a cavern. =Stalagmites= are heaped up from their droppings on the floor, forming when they unite with the Stalactites the so called Organ pipes. =Stalagmium=, Gr. and R. (σταλάγμιον). An ear-ring decorated with pearls, or small gold or silver drops, which bore more or less resemblance to the shape of a drop of water (στάλαγμα), whence its name. =Stall-plate=, Her. The plate bearing the arms of a knight, and placed in his stall in the chapel of his order. =Stalls=, Chr. Seats in a chapel; made to be used in two ways: either with the flap of the seat let down called “sellette,” which formed the regular seat, or with the flap raised, affording only a small resting-place called _miserere_. The elbows are often called “museaux” from their being in many cases ornamented with the head of some animal. (See MISERERE.) =Stamen=, R. The spun thread as it comes off the spindle. =Stamnos=, Gr. and R. A vessel in the shape of a Panathenæan water-jar or amphora, but with a wider neck, and with two ears and no handle. =Stanchion=, Arch. The upright iron bar between the mullions of a window. =Standard= or =Banner=, Chr. The symbol of victory over sin, death, and idolatry. (See ENSIGNS, LABARUM, SIGNA, &c.) In heraldry, a long narrow flag introduced in the 14th century. The ROYAL STANDARD bears the blazonry of the Queen’s arms. The UNION JACK was produced in the reign of James I., in 1606, as the national flag of united England and Scotland, combining the banners of St. George and St. Andrew. The latest UNION JACK shows, over the saltire of St. Andrew, the _gules_ of St. Patrick, and was introduced upon the occasion of the _union_ with Ireland. The word “Jack” is a corruption of the French “Jacques,” for James. =Standing Stones.= Celtic monuments, also called _megalithic_, consisting of a row of stones standing in a line. (See DOLMEN, MENHIR, MEGALITHIC, &c.) =Standish=, O. E. A case for pens and ink; an inkstand. =Stanniferous Wares.= (See POTTERY.) =Stapes=, =Stapia=, Med. Lat. A stirrup. [Illustration: Fig. 625. Badge of the Star of India.] =Star of India.= An order of knighthood instituted by Queen Victoria in