1602. Figs. 105, 106, 107 represent different brooches found in France

of the Gallic and Merovingian periods. (Compare FIBULA, PHALERÆ.) [Illustration: Fig. 113. Gallic brooch.] =Brown=, in Egyptian art, was the colour consecrated to Typhon; in ancient times it was the sign of mourning. Regarded as a compound of red and black, BISTRE, it is the symbol of all evil deeds and treason. In a monastic costume it signifies renunciation. With the Moors it was emblematic of all evil. Christian symbolism appropriates the colour of the dead leaf for the type of “spiritual death,” &c. (Consult Portal, _Essai sur les Couleurs symboliques_.) =Brown Madder.= (See MADDER.) =Brown Ochre.= A strong, dark, yellow, opaque pigment. (See OCHRES.) =Brown Pigments= are _asphaltum_, _bistre_, _umber_, _sienna_, _Mars brown_, _Cassel earth_, _Cappagh brown_, _brown madder_, and burnt _terra verde_;—chiefly calcined earths. (See also INDIGO.) =Brown Pink= (Fr. _stil de grain_). A vegetable yellow pigment. (See PINKS.) =Brown Red= is generally made from burnt _yellow ochre_, or _Roman ochre_, or from calcined sulphate of iron. (See MARS.) =Brunswick Green.= A modification of MOUNTAIN GREEN (q.v.). =Bruny=, =Byrne=, or =Byrnan=. Saxon for a breastplate or cuirass, called by the Normans “_broigne_.” =Brushes.= (See HAIR PENCILS.) [Illustration: Fig. 114. Brussels Lace.] =Brussels Point à l’Aiguille= differs somewhat from the lace usually known as Brussels Lace or Point d’Angleterre, but resembles Point d’Alençon in the réseau ground. (Fig. 114.) (See POINT D’ANGLETERRE.) =Buccina= (Gr. βυκάνη). A kind of trumpet anciently made of a conch-shell, represented in the hands of Tritons. =Buccula=, R. (_bucca_, a cheek). The chin-piece or cheek-piece of a helmet, which could be raised or lowered by the soldier at will. =Bucentaur.= A monster, half man and half ox. The name of the Venetian state galley. =Buckets=, Anglo-Saxon. (See BOWLS.) [Illustration: Fig. 115. Heraldic buckle.] =Buckle=, Her. The crest of the Pelham family, now represented by the Earls of Chichester. It is a common ornament of ecclesiastical buildings, houses, and other objects in Sussex. (Fig. 115.) =Buckler.= (See CLIPEUS and SCUTUM.) =Buckram.= A cloth stiffened with gum, so called from Bokhara, where it was originally made. [Illustration: Fig. 116. Bucranium.] =Bucranium=, R. (βουκράνιον). An ox’s head from which the flesh has been stripped; an ox-skull employed in the decoration of friezes by Greek and Roman architects. Fig. 116 represents a _bucranium_ in the temple of Vespasian at Rome. =Budge=, O. E. Lambskin with the wool dressed outwards. Mentioned by Chaucer. =Buffett-stoole=, O. E. A stool with three legs. =Buffin=, O. E. Coarse cloth of Elizabeth’s time. =Bugles=, O. E. Glass beads in the hair, _temp._ Elizabeth and James I. =Buldiellus=, Med. Lat. A baudric. =Bulga=, R. A purse or leathern bag for money which was carried on the arm. According to Festus the word is of Gallic origin. [Illustration: Fig. 117. Bulla (on a door).] =Bulla=, R. (_bullo_, to bubble). A term denoting objects of various kinds, but all more or less approximating in shape to a water-bubble. The heads of certain nails were called _bullæ_; Fig. 117 shows one of the _bullæ_ decorating an ancient bronze door in the Pantheon at Rome. The _bulla aurea_ was an ornament of globular shape, worn round the neck by children of patrician family. The _bulla scortea_ was an ornament made of leather, worn by freedmen or individuals of the lower orders. =Bulting-pipe=, O. E. A bolting-cloth for sifting meal. =Bullula=, R. (_bulla_). Diminutive of BULLA (q.v.). =Bur.= A term in etching for the rough edge of a line, commonly removed, but by Rembrandt and other great masters made effective. =Burdalisaunder=, =Bourde de Elisandre=. Burda, a stuff for clothing (mentioned in the 4th century) from Alexandria. A silken web in different coloured stripes; 14th century. =Burgau.= A univalve shell, _Turbo marmoratus_, producing a mother-of-pearl; and hence all works in mother-of-pearl, of whatever material, are called “burgau.” (_Jacquemart._) =Burin.= An instrument for engraving on copper. =Burnisher.= A steel instrument used by engravers to soften lines or efface them. An agate is used to burnish gold. =Burnt Sienna.= (See SIENNA.) =Burnt Terra Verde.= (See GREEN EARTH.) =Burnt Umber.= (See UMBER.) =Burr=, O. E. (1) The broad iron ring on a tilting-lance, just below the gripe, to prevent the hand slipping back. (2) Projecting defences at the front of a saddle. (_Meyrick._) (3) The rough edge produced on the metal by an incised or etched line in an engraving. =Buskin.= (See COTHURNUS.) =Bustum=, R. (_buro_, to burn). An open spot upon which a pyre was raised for burning the corpse of a person of distinction. When the area adjoined the burying-ground, it was called _bustum_; when it was separate from it, it was called _ustrina_. [Illustration: Fig. 118. Arch-buttress.] =Buttress=, Arch. An abutment employed to increase the solidity or stability of a wall; it may either immediately abut on the wall, or be connected with it by a flying or arch-buttress (Fig. 118). In the Romano-Byzantine and lanceolated styles buttresses are largely employed to strengthen the walls of naves which have to support high vaulted roofs. =Buxum=, R. (πύξος). Box, an evergreen, the wood of which was used for various purposes, as with us. By analogy, the term _buxum_ was applied to objects made of this wood, such as combs, flutes, children’s shoes, and waxed tablets for writing. =Buzo=, O. E. The arrow for an arquebus, or cross-bow. French, _boujon_: “a boult, an arrow with a great or broad head.” (_Cotgrave._) =Byrrus.= (See BIRRUS.) =Byssus=, Gr. and R. (βύσσος). The precise meaning of this term is unknown; there is no doubt it was a texture made of some very costly material, since we learn from Pliny that the byssus cloth which he calls _linum byssinum_ was exceedingly dear. Everything leads us to suppose that it was a linen material of the finest quality. This opinion would seem to be confirmed by Herodotus and Æschylus. The word comes from the Hebrew _butz_. [Illustration: Fig. 120. Byzantine ornament on an English font.] [Illustration: Fig. 119. Byzantine Font.] [Illustration: Fig. 121. Roman-Byzantine Cross at Carew.] =Byzantine Period.= Time, about 6th to 12th century A. D. (_Byzantium_, the Latin name of Constantinople.) Byzantine Architecture is noteworthy for a bold development of the plan of Christian places of worship. It introduced the cupola, or dome, which was often surrounded by semi-domes; an almost square ground-plan in place of the long aisles of the Roman church; and piers instead of columns. The apse always formed part of Byzantine buildings, which were richly decorated, and contained marble in great profusion. St. Sophia, Constantinople (A. D. 532–537), is the finest example of Byzantine architecture. St. Mark’s, Venice (A. D. 977), and the Cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle (A. D. 796–804), are also of pure Byzantine style. Byzantine Painting was that which succeeded the decline of the early Christian Art in the catacombs and basilicas of Rome, and which preceded and foreshadowed the Renaissance of Art in Italy. In style it was based on that of the catacombs, but with a reminiscence of the excellence of ancient Greece; it was, however, restrained and kept within narrow limits by the conventionalities which were imposed upon it by the Church, and which almost reduced it to a mechanical art. The mosaics of the 10th and 11th centuries in St. Mark’s, Venice, are perhaps the best existing examples of the Byzantine period. Specimens are also to be seen in St. Sophia, Constantinople; and at Ravenna. C. =Caaba=, Arabic (lit. square house). The sacred mosque at Mecca. The temple is an almost cubical edifice, whence its name. It is a favourite subject of representation upon Mussulman works of art. =Caballaria=, =Cavalherium=, =hevallerie= (Gr. κλῆρος ἱππικὸς), Med. A meadow set apart for military exercises. =Caballerius=, Med. Lat. A cavalier, or knight. =Cabeiri= were the personification of the element of fire. The precise nature attributed to them is unknown. There were two principal branches of their worship, the Pelasgian and the Phœnician. It is probable that this religion originated in Asia Minor, and penetrated to the island of Samothrace, in remote antiquity; it was very popular throughout Greece in the Pelasgic period. The principal temples were at Samothrace, Lemnos, Imbros, Anthedon, and other places. =Cabeiria=, Gr. (καβείρια). Annual festivals in honour of the Cabeiri. (See THRONISMUS.) =Cabinet Pictures.= Small, highly-finished pictures, suited for a small room. [Illustration: Fig. 122. Cable and tooth-mouldings.] =Cabling=, or =Cable-moulding=. A moulding in Roman architecture, made in imitation of a thick rope or cable. [Illustration: Fig. 123. Lion’s head cabossed.] =Cabossed=, Her. Said of the head of an animal represented full-face, so as to show the face only. (Fig. 123.) =Cabulus=, Med. Latin (Old French, _chaable_). A machine for hurling stones; a large BALLISTA. =Caccabus=, Gr. and R. (κάκκαβος or κακκάβη). A sort of pot or vessel for cooking any kind of food. It was made of bronze, silver, or earthenware, and assumed a variety of forms; but the one in ordinary use resembled an egg with an opening at the top which closed by a lid. The _caccabus_ rested upon a trivet (_tripus_). =Cadafalsus=, =Cadafaudus=. (See CAGASUPTUS.) =Cadas=, O. E. An inferior silken stuff used for wadding; 13th century. =Cadency=, Her. Figures and devices, by which different members and branches of a family are distinguished. =Cadet=, Her. Junior. =Cadlys-drain=, Welsh. Chevaux-de-frise. =Cadmium Yellow= is the sulphide of cadmium, the finest and most permanent of all the yellow pigments in use. =Cadpen=, Welsh. A chief of battle; captain. =Cadrelli=, Med. Lat. Cross-bow quarrels. (See CARREAUX.) =Cādūceus= or =Caduceum=. A wand of laurel or olive, given by Apollo to Mercury in exchange for the lyre invented by the latter. Mercury, it is said, seeing two snakes struggling together, separated them with his wand, whereupon the snakes immediately twined themselves round it. This was the origin of the caduceus, as we know it; it was always an attribute of Mercury, who thence obtained his name of _Caducifer_, or caduceus-bearer. The caduceus was an emblem of peace. =Cadurcum=, R. This term is applied to two distinct things: (1) the fine linen coverlets, and (2) the earthenware vases, manufactured by the Cadurci, or Gauls inhabiting the district now called Cahors. =Cadus=, Gr. and R. (from χανδάνω, to contain), (1) A large earthenware jar, used for the same purposes as the amphora; especially to hold wine. An ordinary _cadus_ was about three feet high, and broad enough in the mouth to allow of the contents being baled out. (2) The ballot-urn in which the Athenian juries recorded their votes with pebbles, at a trial. =Cælatura= (_cælum_, a chisel). A general term for working in metal by raised work or intaglio, such as engraving, carving, chasing, riveting, soldering, smelting, &c. Greek, the _toreutic_ art. Similar work on wood, ivory, marble, glass, or precious stones was called SCULPTURA. =Cæmenticius=, =Cæmenticia= (structura). A kind of masonry formed of rough stones. There were two methods of construction to which this name applied. The first, called _cæmenticia structura incerta_, consisted in embedding stones of more or less irregular shape in mortar, so as to give them any architectural form, and then covering the whole over with cement. The second, called _cæmenticia structura antiqua_, consisted in laying rough stones one on the top of the other, without mortar, the interstices being filled by drippings or smaller stones. =Cæmentum.= Unhewn stones employed in the erection of walls or buildings of any kind. =Caer=, British (Lat. _castrum_; Saxon, _chester_). A camp or fortress. =Cæsaries= (akin to Sanscrit _keça_, hair, or to _cæsius_, bluish-grey). This term is almost synonymous with COMA (q.v.), but there is also implied in it an idea of beauty and profusion, not attaching to _coma_, which is the expression as well for an ordinary head of hair. =Cæstus=, =Cestus=. A boxing gauntlet. It consisted of a series of leather thongs, armed with lead or metal bosses, and was fitted to the hands and wrists. =Cætra.= (See CETRA.) =Cagasuptus=, Med. Lat. A CHAT-FAUX, or wooden shed, under which the soldiers carried on the operations of attack. (_Meyrick._) =Cailloutage=, Fr. Fine earthenware; pipe-clay; a kind of hard paste; opaque pottery. “Fine earthenware is most frequently decorated by the ‘muffle;’ the oldest specimens, those made in France in the 16th century, are ornamented by incrustation.” (_Jacquemart._) =Cairelli=, Med. Lat. (See CADRELLI.) =Cairn.= A heap of stones raised over a grave, to which friends as they pass add a stone. The custom still prevails in Scotland and Ireland. =Caisson=, Arch. A sunken panel in a ceiling or soffit. (See COFFER.) =Calamarius= (_calamus_, q.v.). A case for carrying writing-reeds (_calami_). Another name for this case was _theca calamaria_. =Calamister= and =Calamistrum=. A curling-iron, so named because the interior was partly hollow like a reed (_calamus_), or perhaps because in very early times a reed heated in the ashes was employed for the purpose; hence, CALAMISTRATUS, an effeminate man, or discourse. (Compare CINIFLO.) =Calamus= (κάλαμος, a reed or cane). A haulm, reed, or cane. The term was applied to a variety of objects made out of reeds, such as a Pan’s pipe, a shepherd’s flute (_tibia_), a fishing-rod (_piscatio_), a rod tipped with lime, for fowling, &c. (See ARUNDO.) It was specially used, however, to denote a reed cut into proper shape, and used as a pen for writing. =Calantica.= (See CALAUTICA.) [Illustration: Fig. 124. Calash.] =Calash= (Fr. _calèche_). A hood made like that of the carriage called in France _calèche_, whence its name. It is said to have been introduced into England in 1765 by the Duchess of Bedford, and was used by ladies to protect their heads when dressed for the opera or other entertainments. =Calathiscus= (καλαθίσκος). A small wicker basket. =Calathus= (κάλαθος, a basket; Lat. _qualus_ or _quasillus_). A basket made of rushes or osiers plaited, employed for many purposes, but above all as a woman’s work basket. The _calathus_ was the emblem of the γυναικεῖον or women’s apartments, and of the housewife who devoted herself to domestic duties. The same term denoted earthenware or metal vases of various shapes; among others a drinking-cup. =Calautica= or =Calvatica=, R. (Gr. κρήδεμνον, from κρὰς and δέω; fastened to the head). A head-dress worn by women; the Greek MITRA (q.v.). =Calcar= (_calx_, the heel). A spur. It was also called _calcis aculeus_ (lit. heel-goad), a term specially applied to the spur of a cock. The latter, however, was just as often called _calcar_. In mediæval Latin _calcaria aurea_ are the golden, or gilt, spurs which were a distinctive mark of knighthood; _calcaria argentea_, the silver spurs worn only by esquires. _Calcaria amputari_, to hack off the spurs, when a knight was degraded:— “Li esperons li soit copé parmi Prés del talon au branc acier forbi.” (_Roman de Garin MS._) =Calcatorium= (_calco_, to tread under foot). A raised platform of masonry, set up in the cellar where the wine was kept (_cella vinaria_), and raised above the level of the cellar-floor, to a height of three or four steps. On either side of this platform were ranged the casks (_dolia_) or large earthenware vessels in which the wine was made. The _calcatorium_ served as a receptacle for the grapes when crushed (whence its name), and as a convenient place from whence to superintend the making of the wine. =Calceamen.= Synonym of CALCEUS (q.v.), a term far more frequently employed. =Calceamentum.= A general term denoting any description of boot and shoe. (Each will be found separately noticed in its place.) =Calcedony= or =Chalcedony= (from the town _Chalcedon_). A kind of agate, of a milky colour, diversified with yellow, bluish, or green tints. The Babylonians have left us a large number of chalcedony cylinders, covered with inscriptions. (See also AGATE, CAMEOS.) =Calceolus= (dimin. of CALCEUS, q.v). A small shoe or ankle-boot worn by women. There were three kinds: the first had a slit over the instep, which was laced up when the boot was on. A second shape had a very wide opening, and could be fastened above the ankle by a string passed through a hem round the top. In the third description there was neither cord, lace, nor slit. The shoe was always low in the heel, and was worn like a slipper. =Calceus= (_calx_, the heel). A shoe or boot made sufficiently high to completely cover the foot. The Romans put off their shoes at table; hence _calceos poscere_ meant “to rise from table.” =Calculus= (dimin. of _calx_, a small stone or counter). A pebble, or small stone worn by friction to present the appearance of a pebble. _Calculi_ were used in antiquity for recording votes (for which purpose they were thrown into the urn), for reckoning, and for mosaic paving (hence the English word “calculation”). =Caldarium= (_calidus_, warm). The apartment in a set of Roman baths which was used as a kind of sweating-room. This chamber, which is constructed nearly always on the same plan in the different baths which have been discovered, included a LACONICUM, a LABRUM, a SUDATORIUM, and an ALVEUS. (See these words.) Fig. 56 (on p. 32) represents a portion of the _caldarium_ of Pompeii, restored. =Caldas Porcelain= is from the Portuguese factory of that name, specialized for faiences in relief; the greater number are covered with a black coating; the others with the customary enamels of the country, violet, yellow, and green. =Caldron=, for domestic use of the 14th century, is depicted as a tripod with a globular body, and broad mouth and two handles. =Calibre= (or =Caliper=) =Compasses=. Compasses made with arched legs. =Caliga.= A military boot worn by Roman soldiers and officers of inferior rank. The _caliga_ consisted of a strong sole, studded with heavy pointed nails, and bound on by a network of leather thongs, which covered the heel and the foot as high as the ankle. =Caliptra.= (See CALYPTRA.) =Caliver.= A harquebus of a standard “calibre,” introduced during the reign of Queen Elizabeth. =Calix.= A cup-shaped vase, used as a drinking-goblet. It was of circular shape, had two handles, and was mounted on a tolerably high stand. The term also denotes a water-meter, or copper tube of a specified diameter, which was attached like a kind of branch-pipe to a main one. =Calliculæ.= A kind of very thin metal disk, more or less ornamented, worn by rich Christians, and especially priests, as an ornament for the dress. _Calliculæ_ were also made of purple-coloured cloth. Many of the pictures in the catacombs represent persons wearing _calliculæ_ on their _colobia_ and other garments. (See COLOBIUM.) =Callisteia= (καλλιστεῖα). A Lesbian festival of women, in which a prize was awarded to the most beautiful. =Callot.= A plain coif or skull-cap (English). =Calones= (κᾶλα, wood). (1) Roman slaves who carried wood for the soldiers. (2) Farm servants. =Calote=, Fr. A species of sabre-proof skull-cap worn in the French cavalry. =Calotype.= A process of printing by photography, called also _Talbotype_. =Calpis=, Gr. A water-jar with three handles, two at the shoulders and one at the neck. =Calthrops.= (See CALTRAPS.) [Illustration: Fig. 125. Caltrap.] =Caltraps= (for _cheval_-traps). Spikes of metal thrown on the ground to resist a charge of cavalry. In Christian art, attributes of St. Themistocles. =Calvary=, Chr. An arrangement of small chapels or shrines in which the incidents of the progress to the scene of the crucifixion are represented. To each such “station” appropriate prayers and meditations are allotted. =Calvatica.= (See CALAUTICA.) =Calyptra= (from καλύπτω, to hide). A veil worn by young Greek and Roman women over the face. It is also called _caliptra_, but this term is less used. =Camail= (for cap-mail). A tippet of mail attached to the helmet. In mediæval Latin called _camale_, _camallus_, _camelaucum_, _calamaucus_, _calamaucum_. =Camara.= (See CAMERA.) =Camayeu.= Monochrome painting, i. e. in shades of one colour, or in conventional colours not copied from nature. =Camber=, Arch. A curve or arch. =Camboge= or =Gamboge=. A gum-resin, forming a yellow water-colour. The best gamboge is from Siam, and the kingdom of Camboja (whence its name). It should be brittle, inodorous, of conchoidal fracture, orange-coloured or reddish yellow, smooth and somewhat glistening. Its powder is bright yellow. An artificial gamboge, of little value, is manufactured with turmeric and other materials. =Cambresian Faience.= The “poterie blance” of Cambrai is mentioned in a MS. of the 16th century. It was an enamelled faience. =Camella.= An earthenware or wooden vessel employed in certain religious ceremonies. It probably served for making libations of milk. =Cameo= (Ital. _cammeo_). A precious stone engraved in relief; it is thus opposed to the INTAGLIO (q.v.), which is cut into the stone. Cameos are generally carved from stones having several layers. They were employed in the decoration of furniture, vases, clasps, girdles, and to make bracelets, rings, &c. Cameos were largely made by the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans; by the two latter generally of sardonyx and onyx. (See INTAGLIO, SHELL CAMEO, &c.) =Cameo-glass.= (See GLASS.) =Camera=, more rarely =Camara=. The vault or vaulted ceiling of an apartment. _Camera vitrea_, a vaulted ceiling, the surface of which was lined with plates of glass. The term was also used to denote a chariot with an arched cover formed by hoops; an underground passage; a pirate-vessel with a decked cabin; and, in short, any chamber having an arched roof, as for instance the interior of a tomb. =Camera Lucida.= An optical instrument for reflecting the outlines of objects from a prism, so that they can be traced upon paper by a person unacquainted with the art of drawing. =Camera Obscura.= A darkened room in which the coloured reflections of surrounding objects are thrown upon a white ground. =Camfuri=, =Camphio=, Med. Lat. A decreed duel: from the German “kampf,” battle; and the Danish “vug,” manslaughter. (_Meyrick._) =Camies=, O. E. A light thin material, probably of silken texture. [Illustration: Fig. 126. Caminus.] =Caminus.= Literally, a smelting furnace, and then an oven for baking bread; also, a hearth or fireplace. Fig. 126 represents a baker’s oven at Pompeii. =Camisado=, O. E. A sudden attack on a small party; a Spanish term. “To give camisadoes on troupes that are lodged a farre off.” (_Briefe Discourse of Warre._) =Camisia= (a Gallic word, whence prob. Ital. _camicia_). A light linen tunic worn next the skin (_tunica intima_). =Camlet= or =Chamlet=, O. E. Originally a tissue of goat’s and camel’s hair interwoven. In Elizabeth’s reign the name was given to a cloth of mixed wool and silk, first manufactured in Montgomeryshire, on the banks of the river Camlet. =Cammaka.= A cloth of which church vestments were made, _temp._ Edward III. =Camoca=, O. E., 14th century. A textile probably of fine camel’s hair and silk, and of Asiatic workmanship, much used for church vestments, dress, and hangings. =Campagus= or =Compagus=. A kind of sandal. It was worn especially by the Roman patricians. =Campana=, It. A bell; hence, CAMPANOLOGY, the science or study of bells. =Campanile.= A belfry. =Camp-ceiling.= Where all the sides are equally inclined to meet the horizontal part in the centre (as in an attic). =Campestre=, R. (from _campester_, i. e. pertaining to the Field of Mars). A short kilt worn by gladiators and soldiers when going through violent exercises in public. The kilt fitted close to the body, and reached two-thirds down the thigh. =Campio Regis=, Engl. The king’s champion, who on the day of the coronation challenges any one who disputes the title to the crown. =Campus Martius= (i. e. Field of Mars). At Rome, as in the provinces, this term had the same meaning which it bears in some countries at the present day; i. e. a ground on which soldiers went through their exercises. In ancient times, however, the Field of Mars, or simply the Field, served also as a place of assembly for the _comitia_. [Illustration: Fig. 127. Canaba.] =Canaba=, Gr. and R. A Low Latin name for the slight structures common in country places, such as we should now call sheds or hovels. Those who lived in them were called _canabenses_. Fig. 127 is from a terra-cotta vase found near the lake Albano. [Illustration: Fig. 128. Canaliculus.] =Canaliculus= (dimin. of CANALIS, q.v.). A small channel or groove; or a fluting carved on the face of a triglyph. (Fig. 128.) =Canalis= (akin to Sanscrit root KHAN, to dig). An artificial channel or conduit for water. The term _canalis_ is also given to the fillet or flat surface lying between the abacus and echinus of an Ionic capital. It terminates in the eye of the volute, which it follows in such a way as to give it the proper contour. =Canathron= (Gr. κάναθρον). A carriage, of which the upper part was made of basket-work. =Canberia=, Med. Lat. (Fr. _jambières_). Armour for the legs. =Cancelli= (from _cancer_, a lattice). A trellis, iron grating, or generally an ornamental barrier separating one place from another. In some amphitheatres the PODIUM (q.v.) had _cancelli_ at the top. In a court of law the judges and clerks were divided from the place set apart for the public by _cancelli_ (hence “_chancel_”). =Candela.= A torch, made of rope, coated with tallow, resin, or pitch. It was carried in funeral processions (hence “_candle_”). [Illustration: Fig. 129. Candelabrum.] =Candelabrum.= A candlestick, candelabrum, or generally any kind of stand by which a light can be supported. There were many different kinds. The same term is also used to denote the tall pedestal of a portable lamp (Fig. 129). (See CANDLEBEAM.) =Candellieri=, It. A style of grotesque ornamentation, characteristic of the Urbino majolica ware. =Candlebeam=, O. E. A chandelier of the Middle Ages with “_bellys of laton_” (or brass cups) slung by a pulley from the ceiling. =Candles.= The A.S. poets called the sun “rodores candel,” the candle of the firmament, “woruld candel,” “heofon candel,” &c. Originally, no doubt, the candle was a mere mass of fat plastered round a wick (candel-weoc) and stuck upon a “candel-sticca,” or upright stick; when the candlestick had several branches, it was called a candle-_tree_. There were iron, bone, silver-gilt, and ornamented candlesticks. Through the Middle Ages candles were stuck on a spike, not in a socket, and a chandelier of the 16th century shows the same arrangement. [Illustration: Fig. 130. Persian Candys.] =Candys= (κάνδυς). A Persian cloak of woollen cloth, generally purple in colour. =Canephoria.= Greek festivals of Diana; _or_ an incident of another feast, called _pratelia_, in which virgins about to marry presented baskets (_canea_) to Minerva. The name, CANEPHORUS, or “basket-bearer,” was common to the virgins who attended processions of Ceres, Minerva, and Bacchus, with the consecrated cakes, incense, and other sacrificial accessories, in the flat baskets called _canea_. [Illustration: Fig. 131. Canette of white stone-ware, 1574.] =Canette.= A conic-shaped German drinking-mug, resembling the modern “schoppen,” of which highly ornamented examples in white stone-ware have been produced by the potters of Cologne and other parts of Germany. (Fig. 131.) =Caniple=, O. E. A small knife or dagger. =Canis= (akin to Sanscrit ÇVAN, Gr. κύων). A dog. This term has numerous diminutives: _catulus_, _catellus_, _canicula_. However ancient any civilization, the dog is always met with as the companion of man, and in each nation it follows a particular type. Thus a distinct difference is perceptible in the dogs of the Etruscans, Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, Indians, and Gauls. The Egyptians had terriers and greyhounds, wolf-dogs, and others for hunting or watchdogs. All these breeds are met with on the bas-reliefs of Egyptian monuments. The Egyptian name for a dog, _wou_, _wouwou_, is evidently onomatopoietic or imitative. (See also DOG.) =Canistrum=, =Canister=, or =Caneum= (κάνιστρον, from κάνη, a reed). A wide shallow basket for carrying the instruments of sacrifice and offerings for the gods. It was generally carried on the head by young girls, who were called _Canephoræ_ (κανηφόραι, i. e. basket-bearers), q.v. =Canon= (κανὼν, from κάνη, i. e. anything straight like a reed). A fixed rule or standard which is supposed to have served, in antiquity, as a basis or model in forming statues, the various members of which bore a definite proportion one to the other. The Greeks had some such _canon_. The δορυφόρος (spearman) of Polycletus was, it is said, looked upon as affording a standard for the proportions of the human body. The Egyptians are also supposed to have had a canon, in which the middle finger formed the unit of measurement. =Canopea= or =Canopic Vases=. An Egyptian vase, made of clay, and so named from its being manufactured at Canopus, a town of Lower Egypt, the present Aboukir. The same name was given to funereal urns made in the shape of the god _Canopus_, who is described by Russin as _pedibus exiguis, attracto collo, ventre tumido in modum hydriæ, cum dorso æqualiter tereti_ (i. e. having small feet, a short neck, a belly as round and swelling as a water-jar, and a back to match). Canopean vases were made of earthenware, alabaster, and limestone. They were placed at the four corners of tombs or sarcophagi containing mummies. In them were deposited the viscera of the dead, which were placed under the protection of the four genii, symbolized each by the head of some animal which served at the same time for the lid of the canopea. =Cant=, Arch. (1) To truncate. (2) To turn anything over on its angle. =Cantabrarii=, Med. Lat. Standard-bearers: from CANTABRUM, a kind of standard used by the Roman emperors. (Consult _Meyrick_.) =Canted Column=, Arch. A column polygonal in section. =Cantellus=, Med. Lat. (Fr. _chanteau_ and _cantel_; Lat. _quantillus_). (1) A cut with a weapon, or the portion cut away. (2) Heraldic for the fourth part of a shield, since called a canton. (3) The hind part of a saddle. =Canteriolus= (dimin. of _canterius_, a prop). A painter’s easel. The term, which is of doubtful Latinity, corresponds to the Greek ὀκρίβας. =Canterius=, R. This term has numerous meanings; it serves to denote a gelding, a prop, the rafters forming part of the wood-work of a roof, and a surgical contrivance, of which the form is unknown, but which was used for suspending horses whose legs chanced to be broken, in such a way as to allow the bone to set. [Illustration: Fig. 132. Cantharus (Greek).] =Cantharus= (κάνθαρος, a kind of beetle). A two-handled vase or drinking-cup, of Greek invention. It was particularly consecrated to Bacchus, and accordingly, in representations of the festivals of that god, it figures constantly in the hands of satyrs and other personages. (Fig. 132.) =Cantherius.= (See CANTERIUS.) =Canthus= (κανθὸς, the felloe of a wheel). A hoop of iron or bronze forming the _tire_ of a wheel. The Greeks called this tire ἐπίσωτρον (i. e. that which is fastened to the felloe). =Canticum.= An interlude of music in a Roman play. =Cantilevers= or =Cantalivers=, Arch. Blocks framed into a wall under the eaves, projecting so as to carry a moulding. (See MODILLION.) =Cant-moulding=, Arch. Any moulding with a bevelled face. =Canum.= A Greek basket, more generally called CANISTRUM (q.v.). =Canvas= prepared for painting is kept stretched upon frames of various sizes: e. g. _kit-cat_, 28 or 29 inches by 36; _three-quarters_, 25 by 30; _half-length_, 40 by 50; _bishop’s half-length_, 44 or 45 by 56; _bishop’s whole length_, 58 by 94. =Cap-a-pie= (Fr.). In full armour, from _head to foot_. =Caparison=. The complete trappings of a war-horse. =Capellina=, Med. Lat. The chapeline or small CHAPEL DE FER. =Capellum=, Med. Lat. A scabbard (_not_ the hilt of a sword). =Capellus ferreus.= (See CHAPEL DE FER.) =Capillamentum=, R. A wig of false hair, in which the hair was long and abundant. (See COMA.) =Capillus= (from _caput_, the head). Hair; the hair of the head in general. (See COMA.) =Capis=, R. A kind of earthenware jug, with a handle. Vessels of this kind were used in sacrifices, and the _capis_ is often found represented on medals. Other names for it were _capedo_, _capeduncula_, and _capula_. =Capisterium= (deriv. from σκάφη or σκάφος, i. e. that which is scooped out). A vessel resembling the _alveus_, or wooden trough, and which was employed for cleansing the ears of corn after they had been threshed and winnowed. =Capistrum= (from _capio_, i. e. that which takes or holds). (1) A halter or head-stall. (2) A rope employed for suspending the end of the beam in a wine-press. (3) A muzzle made to prevent young animals from sucking after they have been weaned. (4) A broad leather band or cheek-piece worn by flute-players. It had an opening for the mouth to blow through. =Capita aut Navia= (lit. _heads or ships_; of coins having the head of _Janus_ on one side and a ship on the reverse). A game of “heads or tails” played by the Romans and Greeks. =Capital= (_caput_, a head). A strip of cloth worn round the head, in primitive times, by Roman women, to keep in their hair. Later on it was worn only by women attached to the service of religion. (See CAPITULUM.) =Capitellum.= (See CAPITULUM.) =Capitium.= An article of female dress; a kind of corset or bodice. =Capitolium= (i. e. the place of the _caput_; because a human head was supposed to have been discovered in digging the foundations). The Capitol, or enclosure containing the temple raised in honour of Jupiter. The first Capitol of Rome was built on the _Mons Capitolinus_ or _Capitolium_. The chief cities of Italy possessed each its _Capitolium_. [Illustration: Fig. 133.] [Illustration: Fig. 134.] =Capital.= A term which denotes the member of architecture crowning the top of a column, pillar, or pilaster. Figs. 133 and 134 represent cushion capitals of the Romano-Byzantine epoch. Orders of Architecture are known by their Capitals. (See COMPOSITE, CORINTHIAN, DORIC, IONIC, and TUSCAN.) =Capo di Monte=, Naples. A manufactory of faience, established by Charles III. =Cappagh Browns, Light= and =Dark=. Rich brown pigments, made of a bituminous earth from Ireland. Called also _Mineral_ or _Manganese Brown_. =Capreolus=, R. (lit. a wild goat or roebuck). A fork for digging, with two prongs converging together like the horns of a roebuck. The term is also used for a strut or brace. The tie-beams and king-posts in the frame of a roof are often connected by _capreoli_. =Capriccio=, It. Caprice in art. [Illustration: Fig. 135. Capricornus. The device of Cosmo de’ Medici.] =Capricornus.= The zodiacal sign of September employed by Augustus Cæsar in commemoration of his victory at Actium on the day when the sun enters that sign. The same device was used by Cosmo de’ Medici, and by the Emperor Rodolph II. of Germany, with the motto, “Fulget Cæsaris Astrum.” (Fig. 135.) =Caprimulgus=, Lat. A goat-milker, a common device on antique gems and bas-reliefs, representing a man or a faun milking a goat. =Capronæ=, R. (from _caput_ and _pronus_, i. e. that which hangs down the forehead). The forelock of a horse, and by analogy, a lock of curling hair falling down over the centre of the forehead, in a man or woman. =Capsa= or =Scrinium=, R. A box or case of cylindrical form, used for several purposes, but more particularly for the transport of rolls or volumes (_volumina_). The _capsæ_ were generally provided with straps and locks, the former serving as a handle. =Capsella= and =Capsula=, R. (dimin. of CAPSA, q.v.). A case or casket for jewels, &c. [Illustration: Fig. 136. Capuchon and mantle. _From an Italian painting of the 13th century._] =Capuchon.= A hood with neck-piece and mantle. The engraving (Fig. 136) is a portrait of Cimabue. =Capula.= Dimin. of CAPIS (q.v.). =Capularis=, R. The straight handle or hilt of any kind of instrument or weapon, in contradistinction to _ansa_, which signifies a curved haft or handle. The term _capularis_ was applied indifferently to the handle of a sword, a sceptre, &c. =Car=, =Chariot=, or =Carriage=. (See CARRUS and CURRUS.) =Carabaga=, Med. Lat. Also CALABRA. A kind of catapult or balista. =Carabine.= (See CARBINE.) =Carabus= (κάραβος). A small boat made of wicker-work; a kind of shallop covered with raw hides. It was either propelled by itself or attached to the stern of a larger vessel. Similar to the coracle. =Caracalla= (a Celtic word). A military garment introduced from Gaul into Rome by the Emperor Antonine, who obtained thus his surname of _Caracalla_. =Caracole=, Arch. A spiral staircase. =Carbassus= or =Carbassum= (κάρπασος, fine Spanish flax). This term was used indifferently to denote all textures made of the fine Spanish flax. Thus any kind of linen garment, the sails of a ship, the awning of a theatre or amphitheatre, all came under the term of _carbassus_. =Carbatinæ= (καρβάτιναι). A rough kind of boot in common use, made of a single piece of leather, and worn by peasants. =Carbine=, or =Carabine=, or =Caraben=. A short gun with a wheel lock and a wide bore, introduced in the 16th century. =Carbonate of Lead=, or _white lead_, is the principal white pigment. It is prepared by exposing sheets of lead to the action of acetic and carbonic acids. It is called also _Ceruse_, _Flake-white_, _Krems_ (or _Vienna_) _white_, _Nottingham white_. It is also known, under different modifications of colour, as _Venice_, or as _Hamburg_, or as _Dutch white_. It is a pigment very liable to injury from exposure to certain gases. (See OXIDE OF ZINC.) =Carbonates of Copper= yield blue and green pigments, known from the earliest times, and under many names, as _Mountain_ blue and green, blue and green _Ash_, or _Saunders’_ (for _cendres’_) blue and green. These names are also applied to the manufactured imitations of the native carbonates of copper. Powdered _Malachite_ is a form of the native green carbonate. The colours called _Emerald Green_ and _Paul Veronese Green_ are artificial. =Carbuncle= (Lat. _carbunculus_). A gem of a deep red colour. A jewel shining in the dark. (_Milton._) =Carcaissum=, Med. Lat. (Fr. _carquois_; It. _carcasso_; Mod. Gr. γαρκάσιον). A quiver. =Carcamousse=, Med. A battering-ram. The name is onomatopoetic. =Carcanet=, O. E. A necklace set with stones, or strung with pearls. =Carcass=, Arch. The unfinished frame or skeleton of a building. [Illustration: Fig. 137. Carceres. Roman prisons.] =Carcer= (akin to _arceo_, i. e. an enclosure (Gr. ἕρκος). (1) A prison. (2) The circus. At Rome the prisons were divided into three stages: the first, which formed a story above ground (_carcer superior_), was for prisoners who had only committed slight offences; the _carcer interior_, or stage on a level with the ground, served as a place of confinement in which criminals were placed to await the execution of their sentence; lastly there was the _carcer inferior_, or subterranean dungeon called _robur_, for criminals condemned to death. Fig. 137 represents the _carcer_ built at Rome by Ancus Martius and Servius Tullius; Fig. 138 the _carceres_ of the circus. [Illustration: Fig. 138. Carceres. Stables in the circus at Rome.] =Carchesium= (καρχήσιον). (1) A drinking-cup of Greek invention, and having slender handles rising high over the edge, and reaching to the foot. It was an attribute of Bacchus, and was used in the religious ceremonies. (2) A scaffolding in the shape of the _carchesium_ at the masthead of a ship. (Anglicè, “crow’s-nest.”) =Cardinalis.= (See SCAPUS.) =Cardo.= A pivot and socket used for the hinge of a door. The term was also used in carpentry to denote a dove-tailed tenon; this was called _cardo securi-culatus_, i. e. a tenon in the shape of an axe, the dove-tail bearing some resemblance to the blade of that tool. =Care-cloth=, O. E. A cloth held over the bride and bridegroom’s heads at a wedding. =Carellus= (Fr. _carreau_). A quarrel or arrow for cross-bows, the head of which was either four-sided or had four projections. =Carillon=, Fr. A set of large bells, arranged to perform tunes by machinery, or by a set of keys touched by a musician. Antwerp, Bruges, and Ghent are celebrated for the carillons in their steeples. =Caristia= (from χάρις, favour or gratitude). A Roman feast, at which the members of a family came together. It lasted three days: on the first, sacrifices were offered to the gods; the second was consecrated to the worship of deceased relations; and on the third the surviving members of the family met at a banquet. Strangers were not allowed in these gatherings. =Carminated Lakes.= Also called _Lake of Florence_, _Paris_, or _Vienna_. Pigments made from the liquor in which cochineal and the other ingredients have been boiled to make _carmine_. (See MADDER.) =Carmine.= A beautiful pigment prepared from the insect, cochineal. Carmine is the richest and purest portion of the colouring matter of cochineal. The various kinds of carmine are distinguished by numbers, and possess a value corresponding thereto; the difference depending either on the proportion of the _alumina_ added, or on the presence of _vermilion_ added for the purpose of diluting and increasing the quantity of the colour: the alumina produces a paler tint, and the vermilion a tint different to that of genuine carmine. The amount of adulteration can always be detected by the use of liquor ammoniæ, which dissolves the whole of the carmine, but leaves the adulterating matter untouched. Carmine is chiefly used in miniature painting and in water-colours. It is made in large quantities in Paris. =Carmine-madder.= (See MADDER.) =Carnarium=, R. (_caro_, flesh). (1) A larder for fresh or salted provisions. (2) The iron hooks on which they were hung. =Carnificia= or =Carnificina=, R. (_carnifex_, executioner). Subterranean dungeons, in which criminals were put to the torture, and, in many cases, executed. =Carnix= or =Carnyx= (Celtic and Gaulish word). A trumpet in the form of a long horn, of which the mouth was curved so as to resemble the mouth of an animal. This instrument gave out a peculiarly loud strident sound, and was used more particularly by the Celtic nations, notably the Gauls. It is constantly found represented on the coins of these nations, and on bas-reliefs. Some archæologists have mistaken the _carnices_ on medals for _cornucopiæ_. =Carol=, Chr. An enclosed place; a circular gallery. In old French, _carole_ signified a round dance, or a circle of stone. In the last century the term was applied to the ambulatory, or circular gallery, behind the choir in churches. =Carpentum=, R. A two-wheeled carriage of Gaulish invention; it was often covered with an awning, resembling in form that of the CAMARA (q.v.). The _carpentum funebre_ or _pompaticum_ was a hearse. It was made to resemble a shrine or small temple. Lastly, the term _carpentum_ was used to denote a cart, with two wheels, employed for agricultural purposes. =Carrago= (i. e. formed of _carri_ or carts). A kind of intrenchment peculiar to certain barbarous nations. It was constructed by drawing up waggons and war-chariots in a curved line, approaching a circle as nearly as the nature of the ground permitted. It formed a first line of defence, behind which the combatants sheltered themselves in order to defend the camp proper, which lay in the centre of the _carrago_. =Carreaux=, Med. Fr. Quarrels for cross-bows, so called from their square form. =Carriolum.= (See CARROCIUM.) =Carroballista= or =Carrobalista= (_carrus_, a car). A _ballista_ mounted upon a carriage, to be transported from place to place. (See BALLISTA.) =Carrocium=, =Carrocerum=, Med. Lat. A standard fixed on a carriage. =Carrotus.= A quarrel. (See CARELLUS, &c.) =Carruca=, =Carrucha=, or =Carucha=. A carriage of costly description, richly ornamented with bronze and ivory carvings and chased gold. It differed widely from the ESSEDO and the RHEDA (q.v.). =Carrus= or =Carrum= (Celtic root). A cart or chariot of Gaulish invention, on two wheels, used in the army as a commissariat waggon. A _carrus_ occurs among the sculptures on the column of Trajan. =Cartamera= (Gaulish word). A Gaulish girdle made of metal, and used to support the _braccæ_, or trousers. It was made sometimes in the form of a serpent with its tail in its mouth, but more generally resembled a fringe of twisted hemp, like the _torques_, by which name accordingly it was known among the Romans. (See TORQUES.) =Cartibulum=, R. (corrupted from _gertibulum_, i. e. that which bears or carries). A side-board, consisting of a square slab of stone or marble, supported in the middle by a pedestal or stem. The _cartibulum_ always stood against a wall. [Illustration: Fig. 139. Egyptian Cartouche.] [Illustration: Fig. 140. Egyptian Column with Cartouche.] =Cartouche=, Egyp. An elliptical tablet of scroll-like form, containing the names of the Pharaohs. Fig. 139 represents the cartouche of King Artaxerxes. Cartouches were applied to decorate columns, an illustration of which may be seen on the abacus and capital of the column in Fig. 140. =Caryatides= (Καρυάτιδες, i. e. women of Caryæ). Female figures, in an upright posture, which were employed in lieu of columns to support entablatures or any other members of architecture. One of the finest instances of the application of caryatides to this purpose is to be found in the portico of the temple of Pandrosos, at Athens. =Caryatis.= A festival in honour of Artemis Caryatis, which was celebrated at Caryæ, in Laconia. =Case Bags=, Arch. The joists framed between a pair of girders, in naked flooring. =Cash.= A Chinese coin. [Illustration: Fig. 141. Casque.] [Illustration: Fig. 142. Casque.] =Casque=, Fr. Helmets of every description, from those of classical times to the present, have been called casques by the poets; but the head-piece specially so designated is first seen in English armour of the reign of Henry VIII. The casque was generally without a visor, and worn more for parade than warfare. The engraving Fig. 141 represents a Gaulish and Fig. 142 an Oriental casque. =Casquetel.= A small open helmet without beaver or visor, having a projecting umbril, and flexible plates to protect the neck behind. =Cassel Black.= (See BLACK.) =Cassel Earth.= A brown pigment. =Cassel Yellow.= (See TURNER’S YELLOW.) =Cassida.= (See CASSIS.) =Cassilden=, O. E. Chalcedony. =Cassis= or, rarely, =Cassida= (perhaps an Etruscan word). A casque or helmet made of metal, and so distinguished from GALEA (q.v.), a helmet made of leather. Figs. 141 and 142 represent respectively a Gaulish and an Eastern _cassis_ (the latter, however, is considered by some antiquaries to be Gaulish). The war-casque of the Egyptian kings, although of metal, was covered with a panther’s skin; it was ornamented with the URÆUS (q.v.). =Cassock= signifies a horseman’s loose coat, and is used in that sense by the writers of the age of Shakspeare. It likewise appears to have been part of the dress of rustics. (_Stevens._) It was called a “vest” in the time of Charles II. Later on it became the distinguishing dress of the clergy. =Cassolette=, Fr. A perfume box with a perforated lid; the perforations in a censer. =Cassone.= An Italian chest, richly carved and gilt, and often decorated with paintings, which frequently held the _trousseau_ of a bride. =Castanets.= Various peoples have employed flat pieces of wood to produce a certain kind of noise during religious ceremonies. The Egyptians seem to have had for this purpose “hands” of wood or ivory, which were struck one against the other to form an accompaniment to chants or rhythmic dances. (See CROTALA, &c.) [Illustration: Fig. 143. Cup of Castel Durante (1525), in the Museum of the Louvre.] =Castel Durante.= An ancient manufactory of Urbino ware, established in the 14th century. Fig. 143, from a cup in the Louvre, is a fine specimen of Castel Durante majolica of the 16th century. =Castellum= (dimin. of CASTRUM, q.v.; i. e. a small castle). A small fortified place or citadel; also a reservoir for water. The ruins of _castella_ still existing are very few in number; one of the most perfect, as far as the basin is concerned, is that of the _castellum divisorium_ or _deversorium_, at Nismes. =Casteria.= A storehouse in which the rudder, oars, and movable tackle of a vessel were kept. =Castor.= The beaver; hence applied to beaver hats. =Castoreæ=, R. Costly fabrics and dresses made of the fur of beavers. =Castra=, R. (plur. of _castrum_, which, like _casa_, = the covering thing). This term was applied solely to an encampment, a fortified or intrenched camp, while the singular _castrum_, an augmentative of CASA (q.v.), denotes a hut, or strongly-constructed post, and consequently a fort, or fortress; but for this last the Romans preferred to use the diminutive _castellum_. =Castula= or =Caltula=, R. A short petticoat worn by Roman women, held up by braces. =Casula=, R. (dimin. of _casa_). (1) A small hut or cabin. (2) A hooded cloak, or capote. =Cat.= The Egyptian name for the cat (_maaou_) is evidently onomatopoetic. As a symbol, this animal played a part which has hitherto not been clearly determined. Certain papyri show us the cat severing the serpent’s head from its body, a symbol which would seem to point out the cat as the destroyer of the enemies of the daylight and the sun. Again, the goddess _Bast_ is represented with a cat’s head, the animal being sacred to her. =Cat= (Med. Lat. _cattus_ or _gattus_). A covering under which soldiers lay for shelter, while sapping the walls of a fortress, &c. =Cataclista=, R. A close-fitting garment worn by Roman ladies, bearing a great resemblance to those which are to be seen on Egyptian statues. =Catacombs=, Chr. This term, the etymology of which is uncertain, serves to denote disused stone quarries, made use of by the early Christians for their meetings, and as subterranean cemeteries. We meet with catacombs in several cities, but the most celebrated are unquestionably those of Rome. Catacombs also exist at Syracuse, Catana, Palermo, Naples, and Paris. =Catadromus=, R. (from κατὰ and δρόμος, i. e. a running down). A tight-rope for acrobats in a circus or amphitheatre. The _catadromus_ was stretched in a slanting direction from a point in the arena to the top of the building. =Catafaltus=, Med. Lat. (See CAGASUPTUS.) =Catagrapha=, Gr. and R. (κατα-γραφὴ, i. e. a drawing or marking down). A painting in perspective (rarely met with in the works of the ancient painters). =Cataphracta=, Gr. and R. (κατα-φράκτης, i. e. that which covers up). A general term to denote any kind of breastplate worn by the Roman infantry. [Cataphracti were heavy-armed cavalry, with the horses in armour.] =Cataphracti.= Decked vessels, in opposition to _aphracti_, open boats. =Catapirates=, Gr. and R. (κατα-πειρατὴς, i. e. that which makes trial downwards). A sounding lead, of an ovoid form, with tallow or a kind of glue at the end, by means of which sailors were able to ascertain the nature of the bottom. =Catapulta=, Gr. and R. (κατα-πέλτης, i. e. that which hurls). A military engine for discharging heavy missiles. The _ballista_ projected stones; the _catapult_, darts; the _scorpio_ (uncertain). They were all called _tormenta_, from the _twisting_ of the ropes of hairs or fibres which supplied the propelling force. =Catascopium=, Gr. and R. (dimin. of CATASCOPUS, q.v.). A post of observation or sentry tower. =Catascopus=, Gr. and R. (κατάσκοπος, i. e. that which explores or spies). (1) A post of observation. (2) A vessel employed as a spy-ship; and by analogy (3) a scout, i. e. a soldier whose duty is to act as a spy on the enemy. =Catasta= (from κατάστασις, i. e. a place of presentation). A platform upon which slaves were placed to be publicly sold. Some scaffolds of this kind were made to revolve, so that the purchaser might thoroughly inspect every part of the slave at his leisure. _Catasta arcana_ was the name given to a gridiron, or iron bed, upon which criminals were laid to undergo torture. (See GRIDIRON.) =Cateja= (Celtic word). A missile made of wood hardened in the fire. It was employed by the Gauls, Germans, and other barbarians in the way of a harpoon, a rope being fastened to one end of the weapon, by means of which it could be recovered after it had been launched. =Catella= (dimin. of CATENA, q.v.). A term specially used to denote the finer sorts of chains made of bronze, silver, and gold. Chains made of the precious metals were worn as trinkets. [The use of the diminutive indicates elegance and delicacy.] =Catellus=, R. (dimin. of CATENA, q.v.). A chain used to shackle slaves, or perhaps merely attached to them in the way of a clog. =Catena=, R. (1) A chain, especially (2) a chain of gold or silver worn as an ornament round the body, like a _balteus_ (shoulder-belt), by certain goddesses, dancing girls, bacchantes, or courtezans. =Catenarius.= The chained dog kept at the entrance of their houses by the Romans. =Catharmata= (καθάρματα, from καθαίρω, i. e. that which is thrown away in cleansing). Sacrifices in which human victims were offered up, in order to avert the plague or similar visitations. [They were thrown into the sea.] =Cathedra= (καθέδρα, from κατὰ and ἕδρα, i. e. a place for sitting down). A chair having a back, but without arms. There were various kinds of _cathedræ_: the _cathedra strata_ was a chair furnished with cushions; _cathedra supina_, a chair with long sloping back; _cathedra longa_, a chair with long deep seat. The _cathedra philosophorum_ was the equivalent of our modern term, a professor’s chair. =Catherine Wheel.= In Gothic architecture, a large circular window, filled with radiating divisions; called also rose-window. =Cathetus=, Arch. (1) The axle of a cylinder. (2) The centre of the Ionic volute. [Illustration: Fig. 144. Catillus for grinding corn.] =Catillus= and =Catillum= (dimin. of CATINUS, q.v.; i. e. a small bowl). (1) The upper part of a mill for grinding corn, which served both as grindstone and hopper or bowl. Fig. 144 represents an ancient mill, a fourth part of the _catillus_ being suppressed in order to show the reader the mechanism. (2) A small dish having much resemblance to the _catinus_, and so by analogy (3) a flat circular ornament employed to decorate the scabbard of a sword. =Catinus= and =Catinum=, R. (akin to Sicilian κάτινον). Dishes used for cooking, and for the table. _Catina_ might be of earthenware or metal, of glass or other precious material, and were employed as sacrificial vessels to hold incense, &c. =Catty.= A Chinese weight = 1⅓ lb. =Catulus=, R. When a slave ran away from his master, and was retaken, he was led back in chains, the _catulus_ being the chain which was attached to an iron collar passing round his neck. A slave was thus said to be led back _cum manicis, catulo, collarique_, i. e. with manacles, leading chain, and neck-collar. =Caudex.= (See CODEX.) =Caudicarius=, =Codicarius=, R. (from _caudex_, a tree-trunk). A wide flat barge employed in river transport. It was of rough construction, and was broken up on arriving at its destination. =Caudicius=, R. A vessel of the same kind as the _caudicarius_, employed on the Moselle. =Caughley-ware= (Shropshire). A soft porcelain; 18th century. =Caul=, O. E. A cap or network enclosing the hair. =Cauliculi= or =Caulicoli=, R. (dimin. of _caulis_, a stalk). Acanthus leaves springing from the capital of a Corinthian column. =Caupolus.= (See CAUPULUS.) =Caupona=, R. (_caupo_, an innkeeper). An inn or hostel for the accommodation of travellers. The _cauponæ_ bore a general resemblance to our roadside inns. [Also, a cooked-meat shop.] =Cauponula=, R. (dimin. of _caupona_). A small tavern, or low wine-shop of mean appearance. =Caupulus=, R. A kind of boat, classed by authors among the _lembi_ and _cymbæ_. =Caurus=, R. An impersonation of the North-West wind; represented under the form of an old man with a beard, pouring down rain from an urn. =Causia=, Gr. and R. (καυσία, from καῦσις, i. e. that which keeps off heat). A broad-brimmed felt hat, of Macedonian invention, and adopted by the Romans. It was especially worn by fishermen and sailors. =Cauter= (καυτὴρ, i. e. that which burns). A cautery or branding-iron. The _cauter_ was (1) an instrument used by surgeons; it was also used for branding cattle and slaves. (2) An instrument employed to burn in the colours in an encaustic painting. =Cauterium= = CAUTER (q.v.). =Cavædium=, R. (from _cavum_ and _ædes_, i. e. the hollow part of a house). An open courtyard. In early times the Romans had an external courtyard to their houses. In course of time, however, the increase of luxury and comfort brought about a change in the _cavædium_, which was partially covered in with a roof supported by columns, a partial opening being left in the centre, which was called the _compluvium_. When thus altered, the _cavædium_ went under the name of ATRIUM (q.v.). =Cavalherium.= (See CABALLARIA.) =Cavallerius= or =Cavallero=, Med. Lat. A knight or cavalier. =Cavea=, R. (from _cavus_, i. e. a hollow place or cavity), (1) A wooden cage with open bars, of wood or, more generally, of iron, used for the transport and exhibition of the wild beasts of a menagerie. (2) A bird-cage. (3) A frame of wicker-work employed by fullers and dyers. (4) A palisade to protect young trees when growing up, and (5) the vast reversed cone formed by the successive stages of a theatre or amphitheatre. This might be divided, according to the size of the building, into one, two, or three distinct tiers, called respectively upper, lower, and middle (_summa_, _ima_, _media cavea_). (6) A warlike machine used in attacking cities. =Cavetto=, Arch. (deriv. from Ital. _cavo_). A concave moulding formed of a segment of a circle. =Cavo-relievo.= Intaglio-sculpture cut into the stone, as in Egyptian art. =Ceadas= or =Cæadas= (κεάδας or καιάδας). A deep cave into which the Spartans thrust condemned prisoners. =Ceinture= or =Ceint=. A girdle. (See CINCTUS.) =Celadon.= A peculiar tinted porcelain, described by Jacquemart as the earliest tint of Chinese pottery. =Celebê= (Κελέβη). A vase of ovoid form and with two handles. The lower part is shaped elegantly, like an amphora, but the upper part resembles a pitcher with a sort of projecting lip. Its peculiarity is in the _handles_, which are “pillared” and “reeded.” =Celes=, R. A racing or saddle horse, as opposed to a draught horse. The same term was also applied to a vessel or boat of a peculiar form, propelled by oars, in which each rower handled only a single oar. It was also called _celox_. [Illustration: Fig. 145. Plan of temple showing the Cella.] =Cella=, R. (from _celo_, to hide). The interior of a temple, i. e. the part comprised within the four walls. In Fig. 145 _a_ represents the portico, _b_ the _cella_. The term is also used to denote a niche, store-room, or, in general, any kind of cellar; e. g. _cella vinaria_, _cella olearia_, and even a tavern situated in a cellar. The term was also applied to slaves’ dormitories, the parts of the public baths, &c. =Cellatio.= A suite of apartments in a Roman house set apart for various purposes, but especially as quarters for slaves. =Cellula= (dimin. of CELLA, q.v.). A small sanctuary, i. e. the interior of a small temple, and by analogy any kind of small chamber. =Celox.= (See CELES.) =Celt.= A variety of chisels and adzes of the flint and bronze periods. =Celtic= (Monuments) were usually constructed of huge stones, and are known, for that reason, as _megalithic monuments_. Such are STANDING STONES, DOLMENS, MENHIRS or PEULVANS, CROMLECHS, COVERED ALLEYS, TUMULI, &c. (See these words.) =Cembel.= A kind of joust or HASTILUDE. =Cendal=, =Sandal=, &c., O. E. The name, variously spelt, of a silken stuff used for vestments, and for banners, &c.; 13th century. We now call this stuff _sarcenet_. =Cenotaph= (κενο-τάφιον, i. e. an empty tomb). A monument raised to a Roman citizen who had been drowned at sea, or who, from any other cause, failed to receive burial. =Censer.= A sacred vessel used for burning perfumes. [Illustration: Fig. 146. Centaur.] =Centaur= (κένταυρος, according to some, from κεντέω and ταῦρος, i. e. herdsman; but prob. simply from κεντέω, i. e. Piercer or Spearman). The Centaurs are represented with the body of a horse, and bust, head, and arms of a man. (Fig. 146.) In Christian archæology, the Centaur is a symbol of the swift passage of life, the force of the instincts, and in a special sense, of adultery. The war of the Centaurs and the Lapithæ is the subject of the frieze at the British Museum, from a temple of Apollo in Arcadia. _Hippo-centaurs_ were half horse; _Onocentaurs_, half ass; and _Bucentaurs_ or _Tauro-centaurs_, half ox. [Illustration: Fig. 147. Centaur and young.] =Cento= (κέντρων, patchwork). A covering made of different scraps of cloth, and used as clothing for slaves. The same term denotes a coarse cloth which was placed beneath the saddle of a beast of burden, to keep the back of the animal from being galled by the saddle. In Christian archæology the term was used to denote a coarse patchwork garment, and, by analogy, a poem composed of verses taken from various authors, like the _Cento nuptialis_ of Ausonius. =Centunculus= (dimin. of CENTO, q.v.). A motley garment of various colours, like that of our harlequin. It was worn, according to Apuleius, by the actors who played in burlesques, and there are certain vases on which Bacchus is represented, arrayed in a similar costume. =Cepotaphium= (κηπο-τάφιον). A tomb situated in a garden. =Cera= (akin to κηρός). Wax, and, by analogy, any objects made of wax, such as images of the family ancestors (_imagines majorum_); or the wax tablets for writing on with the _stylus_. These were called respectively _ceræ duplices_, _triplices_, _quintuplices_, according as they had two, three, or five leaves. The first, second, third, and last tablet were called respectively _prima_, _secunda_, _tertia_, _ultima_ or _extrema cera_. =Ceramic.= Appertaining to POTTERY (q.v.). =Cerberus.= The three-headed dog who guarded the gates of hell. =Cercurus= (κέρκουρος, perhaps from Κέρκυρα, the island Corcyra). A Cyprian vessel propelled by oars. Its form is unknown. =Cerebrerium.= An iron skull-cap, _temp._ Edward I. =Cere-cloth= (_cera_, wax). Cloth saturated with wax, used for enveloping a consecrated altarstone, or a dead body. =Cereus= (_cera_, wax). A wax candle, made either with the fibres of cyperus or papyrus twisted together and dipped in wax, or with the pith of elder, or rush, covered with the same material. =Ceriolare= (_cera_, wax). A stand, holder, or candelabrum for wax candles. There were a great variety of this kind of vessel. (See CANDELABRUM.) =Cernuus= (from _cer_ = κάρα, and _nuo_, i. e. with head inclined to the ground). A tumbler who walks upon his hands with his feet in the air. Women even used to turn series of summersaults, resting alternately on the feet and hands, among a number of swords or knives stuck in the ground. This exhibition was called by the Greeks εἰς μαχαίρας κυβιστᾶν, i. e. lit. to tumble head over heels between knives). =Cerōma= (κήρωμα, a wax-salve). A room in which wrestlers rubbed themselves over with oil and fine sand. The room was so named from the unguent employed, which consisted of wax mixed with oil [which was also called _cerōma_]. =Cero—plastic.= The art of modelling in wax. =Cero-strotum= or =Cestrotum=, Lat. A kind of encaustic painting upon ivory or horn, in which the lines were burnt in with the cestrum, and the furrows filled with wax. =Certosina Work.= Florence, 15th century. Ivory inlaid into solid cypress-wood and walnut. The style is Indian in character, and consists in geometric arrangements of stars made of diamond-shaped pieces, varied with conventional flowers in pots, &c. =Certyl.= Old English for kirtle. =Ceruse.= A name for white lead. (See CARBONATE OF LEAD.) =Cervelliere.= (See CEREBRERIUM.) =Cervi= (lit. stags). Large branches of trees with the forks still left upon them, but cut down close to the stock, so that the whole presented the appearance of a stag’s antlers. _Cervi_ were employed to strengthen a palisade, so as to impede the advance of infantry, or resist attacks of cavalry. =Cervical= (from _cervix_, a neck). A cushion or pillow for supporting the back of the head on a bed or dining-couch. (See PULVINAR.) =Cervus.= (See STAG.) =Ceryceum= (κηρύκειον, a herald’s staff). It is a synonym of CADUCEUS (q.v.). =Cesticillus= (dimin. of CESTUS, q.v.). A circular pad used as a rest by persons who had to carry burdens on their heads. =Cestra.= (See CESTROSPHENDONÈ.) =Cestrosphendonè=, Gr. (a dart-sling.) A dart fixed to a wooden stock with three short wooden wings, discharged from a sling. =Cestrotum.= (See CERO-STROTUM.) =Cestrum= or =Viriculum= (κέστρον, i. e. that which pricks or pierces). A graver used in the process of encaustic painting on ivory. It was made of ivory, pointed at one end and flat at the other. (See CERO-STROTUM, RHABDION.) =Cestus= (κεστὸς, embroidered), (1) In general any kind of band or tie; but specially the embroidered girdle of Venus. (2) A boxing gauntlet. (See CÆSTUS.) =Cetra= (prob. a Spanish word). A small round shield in use among several barbarous nations, but never by the Romans. =Chaable=, Old Fr. A large ballista. (See CABULUS.) Trees blown down by the wind are still called “caables” in France. (_Meyrick._) =Chabasite= (χαβὸς, narrow, compressed). A crystal of a white colour. =Chaconne=, Fr. (Sp. _chacona_; It. _ciacona_). A modification of the dance _chica_ (q.v.). =Chadfarthing=, O. E. A farthing formerly paid among the Easter dues, for the purpose of hallowing the font for christenings. (_Halliwell._) =Chafer=, O. E. (1) A beetle or May-bug. (2) A saucepan. =Chafer-house=, O. E. An ale-house. =Chafery=, O. E. A furnace. [Illustration: Fig. 148. Chaffagiolo ware. Sweetmeat plate, with arabesques, about 1509.] =Chaffagiolo=, or =Caffagiolo=, is the place where Cosmo the Great established the first Tuscan manufactory of majolica, and where Luca della Robbia acquired his knowledge of the stanniferous enamel. Fig. 148 is a specimen of Chaffagiolo ware of the 15th century. =Chain-moulding=, Arch. An ornament of the Norman period, sculptured in imitation of a chain. =Chain-timbers=, Arch. Bond timbers, the thickness of a brick, introduced to tie and strengthen a wall. =Chair.= (See SELLA.) =Chair de Poule= (chicken’s flesh). An ornamentation of the surface of pottery with little hemispheric points; a Chinese method. =Chaisel=, Old Fr. (1) An upper garment. (2) A kind of fine linen, of which smocks were often made. =Chalameau=, Fr. Stem or straw-pipe. The lower notes of the clarionet are called the _chalameau_ tone, from the ancient _shawm_. =Chalcanthum= (χάλκ-ανθον, i. e. that which is thrown off by copper). Shoemaker’s black or copperas, used for imparting a dark colour to boot-leather. (See ATRAMENTUM.) =Chalcedony.= (See CALCEDONY.) =Chalcidicum= (Χαλκιδικὸν, i. e. pertaining to the city of Chalcis). The exact meaning of this term is unknown. According to some, it was a portico; according to others, a kind of long hall or transept. =Chalciœcia= (χαλκι-οίκια, brazen house). A Spartan festival in honour of Athena under that designation. =Chalcography= (χαλκὸς, copper). Engraving on copper. _Chalcography_ was discovered in Florence, in the 15th century, and early introduced into England. Caxton’s “Golden Legend,” containing copper-plate prints, was published in 1483. The process is as follows:—A perfectly smooth plate of copper, having been highly polished, is heated in an oven, and then white wax rubbed over it until the whole surface is covered with a thin layer. A tracing is laid over the wax, with the black-lead lines downwards, which transfers the design to the wax. Then the tracing-paper is removed, and the engraver goes over the lines lightly with a fine steel point, so as just to penetrate the wax, and scratch a delicate outline upon the copper. The wax is then melted off, and the engraving finished with the _graver_, or _burin_, a steel instrument with a peculiar pyramidal point. Should the lines be cut too deeply, a smooth tool, about three inches long, called a _burnisher_, is used to soften them down, and to burnish out scratches in the copper. The _ridges_ or _burrs_ that rise on each side of the engraved lines are scraped off by a tool about six inches long, called a _scraper_, made of steel, with three sharp edges. This method has for printing purposes been generally superseded by other processes, principally _etching_. =Chalcus= (χαλκοῦς). A Greek copper coin, somewhat less than a farthing. [Illustration: Fig. 149. Chalice, silver-gilt—14th century.] =Chalice=, Chr. (deriv. from _calix_, a cup). A sacred vessel used in the celebration of the mass. There were many different kinds, called _ministeriales_, _offertorii_, _majores_, and _minores_. The _ministeriales_ served to distribute the wine; the _offertorii_ were employed by the deacons to hold the wine offered by the faithful. Lastly, they were distinguished according to their size, as large or small (_majores_ and _minores_). Vessels called _calices_ were also frequently suspended from the arches of the ciborium, and other parts of the church, as ornaments. In Christian symbolism the chalice and serpent issuing from it are an attribute of St. John the Evangelist. =Chalon=, O. E. A coverlet. (_Chaucer._) =Chamade=, Fr. A beat of drum or trumpet inviting the enemy to a parley. =Chamber Music=, as opposed to concert music. Madrigals were probably the earliest specimens of chamber music. =Chambers=, O. E. Small cannon for firing on festive occasions. =Chamberyngs=, O. E. Bedroom furniture. [Illustration: Fig. 150. Chameleon and Dolphin.] =Chameleon= (χαμαὶ, on the ground, and λέων, a lion). In Christian symbolism, the emblem of inconstancy; in Chemistry, manganate of potass is called _chameleon_ from the changes of colour which its solution undergoes. The chameleon with a dolphin on its back (Fig. 150) was the device of Pope Paul III. =Chamfer=, Arch. (1) The angle of obliquity (of the sides of a steeple, &c.). (2) A hollow channel or gutter, such as the fluting of a column. [Illustration: Fig. 151. Chamfron.] =Chamfron=, O. E. (Med. Lat. _chamfrenum_; Fr. _champ-frein_). A frontal of leather or steel to a horse’s bridle. (Fig. 151.) =Chamlet=, O. E. (See CAMLET.) =Chammer=, O. E. (Fr. _chamarre_). A gown worn by persons of rank, _temp._ Henry VIII. =Champ=, Arch. A flat surface. =Champ-levé.= A form of enamelling in which the pattern is cut out of the metal to be ornamented. =Chamulcus=, R. and Gr. A heavy dray for the transport of building materials, such as blocks of marble, columns, obelisks, &c. =Chance=, O. E. The game of hazard. =Chancel=, Chr. (from _cancelli_, a lattice). A term anciently used to denote the _choir_. It derived its name from the _cancelli_ or stone screen by which it was enclosed. =Chandaras= (Sanscrit, _chanda-rasa_, lit. moonjuice). An ancient name for _copal_. =Chandeleuse=, Fr. Candlemas Day. =Chandi= (from _chand_, the moon). Indian name for silver. =Chand-tara= (lit. moon and stars) is the name of an Indian brocade, figured all over with representations of the heavenly bodies. =Changeable Silk=, O. E., was woven of two colours, so that one of them showed itself unmixed and quite distinct on one side, and the second appeared equally clear on the other; mentioned A. D. 1327, 1543, &c. =Changes.= The altered melodies produced by varying the sounds of a peal of bells. [Illustration: Fig. 152. Chante-pleure.] =Chante-pleure=, Fr. A water pot, made of earthenware, about a foot high, the orifice at the top the size of a pea, and the bottom full of small holes. Immersed in water, it quickly fills. If the opening at the top be then closed with the thumb, the vessel may be carried, and the water distributed as required. The widow of Louis I., Duke of Orleans, adopted this as her device, after the murder of her husband, in 1407. =Chantlate=, Arch. A piece of wood under the eaves of a roof, by which two or three rows of overhanging slates or tiles are supported. =Chantry=, Chr. (Fr. _chanter_, to sing). A chapel to which is attached a revenue as provision for a priest, whose duty it is to sing masses for the repose of the founder’s soul. =Chape=, O. E. (Spanish _chapa_, a thin plate of metal). (1) The transverse guard of a sword. (2) A metal plate at the end of a scabbard. (3) A catch by which a thing is held in its place. [Illustration: Fig. 153. Chapeau.] =Chapeau=, Her. Also called a _cap of dignity, of maintenance, or of estate_. An early symbol of high dignity. =Chapeau Chinois=, Fr. A set of small bells arranged in the form of a Chinese hat. =Chapel= or =Chapelle de Fer=. Iron helmet of knights of the 12th century. The diminutive is _chapeline_. =Chaperon=, Fr. A hood or small cap for the head. =Chapiter=, Arch. The upper part of a capital. [Illustration: Fig. 154. Chaplet Moulding.] =Chaplet=, Arch. (Fr. _chapelet_). (1) A small cylindrical moulding, carved into beads and the like. (See Fig. 154.) (2) _Chaplets of flowers_, which were worn in England, by both sexes, on festive occasions, during the Middle Ages, and chaplets of jewels in earlier times. (3) Chr. It was anciently the custom to crown the newly baptized with a chaplet or garland of flowers. (4) Chr. A succession of prayers recited in a certain order, regulated by beads, &c. (5) In Heraldry. A garland or wreath. (See CRANCELIN.) =Chapter=, Chr. (Lat. _capitulum_). The body of the clergy of a cathedral, united under the bishop. =Chapter-house=, Chr. A place of assemblage for a CHAPTER of the clergy. That of Westminster contains some fine wall paintings of the middle of the 14th century. =Chaptrel=, Arch. The capital of a column supporting an arch; an impost. =Character=, Gr. and R. Generally, any sign or mark impressed, painted, or engraved on any object. In a more restricted sense, it denotes the instrument of iron or bronze with which such marks were made. In Art, the expression means a faithful adherence to the peculiarities of objects represented. =Charbokull=, O. E. A carbuncle. =Charcoal Blacks= are made of ivory, bones, vine-twigs, smoke of resin, &c., burned in a crucible excluded from the air. The best charcoal _crayons_ are made of box and willow; the former produces a dense hard crayon, the latter a soft friable one. (_Fairholt._) (See BLUE BLACK.) =Chare Thursday=, O. E. Maundy Thursday. =Charge=, Her. Any heraldic figure or device. =Charisia=, Gr. (Χάριτες, the Graces). Nocturnal festivals held in honour of the Graces, at which cakes and honey were distributed to those present. =Charisteria=, Gr. (χάρις, gratitude). Festivals celebrated yearly at Athens, in remembrance of the Athenian general Thrasybulus, the saviour of his country. =Charistia.= (See CARISTIA.) =Charistion.= An instrument of Archimedes for weighing. Whether it bore most resemblance to the balance (_libra_), or the steelyard (_statera_), is uncertain, as its form is entirely unknown. =Charles’s Wain= (Anglo-Saxon, _carles-waen_, the churl’s waggon). The seven stars forming the constellation generally called the Great Bear. =Charnel=, O. E. Apex of the basinet. =Charnel-house.= A small building attached to a cemetery, for a receptacle for the human bones disinterred when fresh graves were dug. =Charta=, Gr. and R. Writing-paper in use among the ancients. There were eight different kinds, which were classed as follows in the order of their quality: (1) _Charta Augustana_ or _Claudiana_; (2) _Liviana_; (3) _hieratica_; (4) _amphitheatrica_; (5) _Saitica_; (6) _leneotica_; (7) _fanniana_; (8) _dentata_. The last was so called from being polished by means of the tooth (_dens_) of some animal, or a piece of ivory. There was also a _charta emporetica_ or packing-paper, and lastly a _charta bibula_. It is uncertain whether this last was blotting-paper, or a kind of transparent paper which had been steeped in oil or some other fatty substance. =Charter-room= or =Charter-house=. A place in which the charters of a particular family or house were preserved. =Chartophylax=, Chr. A man who had charge of the charters of a church. =Chasing=. (See CÆLATURA.) =Chasse=, Chr., Fr. A reliquary in the form of a box with a ridged top. =Chastelain=, O. E. The lord of a castle. =Chastons=, O. E. Breeches of mail; 13th to 16th century. [Illustration: Fig. 155. Chasuble.] =Chasuble= (Lat. _casula_, a cottage). Part of ancient ecclesiastical costume common to all the Roman Catholic clergy, from the priest to the Archbishop. It was originally made of wool, and in one piece throughout, without sleeves, and without slit or opening in front, and perfectly circular; but the shape varied with the material; and from the 6th century downwards we hear of chasubles of brilliant colour and costly materials, such as silk or thickly-embroidered cloth of gold, and oval in form, hanging no longer in graceful folds as in the 11th century. The engraving (Fig. 155) shows a chasuble of the year 1387. (Compare PÆNULA, PLANETA.) =Chatai=, Hindoo. Mats, a common manufacture all over India. Those of Midnapore, near Calcutta, are remarkable for their fineness and classical design of the mosaic, like patterns of stained glass. =Chat-faux=, Med. A wooden shed—modern scaffold. (See CAGASUPTUS.) =Chatrang= (Sanscrit _chatur-anga_, the four _angas_ or soldiers; or _chaturaji_, the four kings). The Persian name for a very ancient game of the “Four Kings,” supposed to be the origin of the four suits of playing-cards. (_Rev. E. S. Taylor_, “_History of Playing-cards_.”) =Chatzozerah=, Heb. A Jewish trumpet mentioned by Moses, used chiefly for religious and warlike occasions. =Chauffault=, Old Fr. A tower of wood. =Chausses=, O. E. (1) Pantaloons of mail used by the Danes. (2) Tight pantaloons worn by the Normans and mediæval English. =Chaussetrap.= (See CALTRAPS.) =Chaussons=, O. E. Breeches of mail (or of cloth). =Chavarina=, Med. Lat. A carbine. =Checkere=, O. E. A chess-board. =Checkstone=, O. E. A game played by children with small round pebbles. =Checky=, Her. (See CHEQUÉE.) =Cheese=, Chr. St. Augustine says that a sect called the Artotyrites offered bread and _cheese_ in the Eucharist, saying “that the first oblations which were offered by men, in the infancy of the world, were of the fruits of the earth and of sheep.” (_Aug. de Hæres._ c. xlviii.) =Chef-d’œuvre=, Fr. A work of the highest excellence. =Chekelatoun.= (See CICLATOUN.) =Chekere=, O. E. Chess (q.v.). =Chele= (χηλὴ, prob, from a root χα- meaning cloven). This term is applied to a great variety of objects; it signifies a cloven foot, a hooked claw, or anything presenting a notched or serrated appearance. Thus a breakwater, the irregular projections of which bore some resemblance to the teeth of an immense saw, was also called _chêlê_. There were, besides, various engines and machines which went under this name. =Chelidoniacus=, sc. _gladius_ (from the Greek χελιδὼν, a swallow). A broad-bladed sword with a double point like a swallow’s tail. =Chelidonize=, Gr. (lit. to twitter like a swallow). Singing the “Swallow Song” (χελιδόνισμα), a popular song sung by the Rhodian boys in the month Boedromion, on the return of the swallows, and made into an opportunity for begging. A similar song is still popular in Greece. (_Fauriel_, “_Chants de la Grèce_.”) (See CORONIZE.) =Cheliform= (χηλὴ, a claw). In the form of a claw. =Chelonium= (a tortoise-shell, from χελώνη, a tortoise), (1) A kind of cramp or collar placed at the extremities of the uprights of certain machines. (2) A part of a catapult, also called _pulvinus_. (See CATAPULTA.) =Chelys= (χέλυς, a tortoise). (1) The lyre of Mercury, formed of strings stretched across a tortoise-shell. (2) In the 16th and 17th centuries, a bass-viol and division-viol were each called _chelys_. (See also TESTUDO.) =Chemise de Chartres=, Fr. A kind of armour mentioned among the habiliments proper for knights who should engage in single combat. (_Meyrick._) =Chenbele.= (See CEMBEL [hastilude].) =Cheng=, Chinese. A musical instrument, consisting of a box or bowl, into which a series of tubes of different length and pitch are inserted; the tubes have holes in them to be played upon with the fingers. =Chêniscus= (χὴν, a goose). An ornament placed at the bow, and sometimes the stern of ships. In shape it resembled the neck of a swan or goose. =Chequée=, =Checky=, Her. Having the field divided into contiguous rows of small squares; alternately of a metal (or fur) and a colour. =Chequers=, O. E. (See CHECKSTONE.) =Cherub=, pl. =Cherubim=, Heb. According to the classification of Dionysius, the first _hierarchy_ of Angels consists of three _choirs_ called SERAPHIM, CHERUBIM, and THRONES, and, receiving their glory immediately from Deity, transmit it to the second hierarchy. The first hierarchy are as councillors; the second as governors; the third as ministers. The SERAPHIM are absorbed in perpetual love and worship round the throne; the CHERUBIM know and worship; the THRONES sustain the throne. The SERAPHIM and CHERUBIM are in general represented as _heads_ merely with two or four or six wings, and of a bright red or blue colour, &c. (Cf. _Mrs. Jameson’s Legendary Art_.) (See ANGELS, SERAPHIM. DOMINIONS, &c.) =Cherubic Hymn=, Chr. A hymn sung in the Greek Church before the great entrance (see ENTRANCE); so called from its first words, οἱ τὰ χερουβὶμ μυστικῶς εἰκονίζοντες, κ.τ.λ. =Chesible=, for CHASUBLE (q.v.). =Chesnut Brown.= A brown lake pigment prepared from the horse chesnut; very durable for oils and water-colour painting. =Chess.= Writers immediately after the Conquest speak of the Saxons as playing at chess, which, they say, they learned from the Danes. The game of chess is very prominent in the romances of the Middle Ages. The Scandinavian navigators introduced some remarkable elaborately carved chessmen, of walrus ivory, from Iceland, in the 12th century. The castles are replaced by warriors on foot, called _hrokr_, from the Saracen _roc_, Persian _rokh_, our _rook_. In the Saracen game the _vizier_ represented our queen, and the _elephant_ our bishop, the _roc_, or hero, as aforesaid, our rook. Beautifully carved chessmen in the costumes of the 13th and 14th century exist in England. They were all very large, a king being four inches in height and seven in circumference. The _chess-boards_ were of corresponding size, and made of all materials, including the precious metals, crystal, sapphires, and topazes. The pieces varied in form: the mediæval rook had a head like a _fleur-de-lis_, the knight was represented by a small upright column with the upper part bent on one side. The _aufin_ or bishop was of the same shape, but the bent end was cleft to indicate a mitre. The figures of the 16th century much more nearly resemble those now in vogue. =Chesse=, O. E. (Fr. _chasse_). A border, a circlet. =Chest of Viols=, O. E. A set of instruments complete for a “consort” of viols, i. e. two trebles, two tenors, and two basses. =Chester=, O. E. A person who places corpses in their coffins. =Chests= and =Coffers=, in Norman times, were adorned with elaborate carving and richly inlaid. They were still the general depositories for clothes and treasures. _Cupboards_ (armoires) were introduced by the Normans, and filled with household utensils. =Chevalet=, Fr. The _bridge_ of a violin or other stringed instrument. =Cheval-traps.= (See CALTRAPS.) =Chevaucheurs.= Anglo-Norman horsemen, or running messengers. =Chevaux-de-frize.= An arrangement of iron spikes for the defence of a battlement against assault. =Cheveril=, O. E. Kid leather, proverbially _elastic_; hence, a _cheveril conscience_ (that will stretch). =Chevesaile=, Old Fr. A necklace. =Chevetaine=, Old Fr. A captain; hence the mediæval _cheuptanus_. =Chevron.= (1) Arch. One of the mouldings frequently used in Norman architecture, usually called _zigzag_ (q.v.). (2) A badge on the coatsleeve of a non-commissioned officer. (3) Her. One of the ordinaries; the lower half of a SALTIRE (q.v.). =Chevronel=, Her. A diminutive of the CHEVRON, of half the size. =Chevroter=, Fr. A musical term: “to skip, quiver, to sing with uncertain tone, after the manner of goats,” _alla vibrato_. =Chiaroscuro=, It. (_chiaro_, light, and _oscuro_, dark). Light and shade. =Chiave= of Pavia. One of the Italian literary academies, composed entirely of noble and illustrious persons, who wore a golden key suspended round the neck, and had for a motto, _Clauditur et aperitur liberis_, and the text from Rev. iii. 7. =Chica.= A dance popular in Spanish South America, of a _jig_-like character; the origin of the _Fandango_. (See CHACONNE.) =Chief=, Her. One of the ordinaries; the _chief_ bounded by a horizontal line contains the uppermost third of the field of a shield. _In chief_, arranged horizontally across the upper part of the field. =Childermas=, O. E. Innocents’ Day. =Chilled= (Fr. _chancissure_). Said of a moisture on the varnish of a picture by which the defect of cloudiness called _Blooming_ is caused. =Chimæra=, Gr. A monster described by Homer, with a lion’s head, a goat’s body, and a dragon’s tail. In Christian art it is a symbol of cunning. (See also DOG OF FO.) =Chime.= (1) To play bells by swinging the _hammers_, opposed to _ringing_ by swinging the _bells_. (2) A chime of bells is a CARILLON. =Chimere=, Chr. The outer dress of a Protestant bishop. It is made of black satin, without sleeves. =Chimneys= (Gr. χιμήνη, winter), carried up in the massive walls of the castles, were first introduced into England by the Normans. The fire was still piled up in the middle of the hall, but fireplaces were built against the side walls in the more private apartments—the original of the well-known mediæval fireplace and “chymené.” Leland, in his account of Bolton Castle, which was “finiched or Kynge Richard the 2 dyed,” notices the _chimneys_: “One thynge I muche notyd in the hawle of Bolton, how chimeneys were conveyed by tunnells made on the syds of the walls, betwyxt the lights in the hawle, and by this means, and by no covers, is the smoke of the harthe in the hawle wonder strangely conveyed.” =Chin-band=, =Chin-cloth=. A muffler of lace worn by ladies, _temp._ Charles I. =China.= (See POTTERY.) =China= (or =Chinese=) =Ink=. (See INDIAN INK.) =Chinese Paper.= A fine absorbent paper of a yellowish tint, used for proofs of engravings, &c. Japanese paper is now frequently preferred. =Chinese White.= OXIDE OF ZINC (q.v.). It is more _constant_ than white lead. =Chinny-mumps.= A Yorkshire music made by rapping the chin with the knuckles. =Chints= or =Chintz= (Hindoo, _chhint_, spotted cotton cloth). Cotton cloth printed in more than two colours. =Chiramaxium=, Gr. and R. (χειρ-αμάξιον, i. e. hand-cart). An invalid’s chair mounted upon two wheels, and drawn or pushed by slaves. =Chiridota=, Gr. and R. (from adj. χειριδωτὸς, i. e. lit. having sleeves). Tunics with long sleeves, worn in especial by the Asiatic races and by the CELTS. The early Britons, before the Roman invasion, wore close coats checkered with various colours in divisions, open before and with _long close sleeves to the wrist_. =Chirimia=, Sp. (from _chirimoya_, a pear). An oboe. =Chirography=. The art of writing with hands. =Chirology=. The art of talking with the hands. =Chiromancy= (μάντις, a soothsayer). Divination from the lines of the palms of the hands. =Chironomia=, Gr. and R. (χειρο-νομία, i. e. measured motion of the hands). The mimetic art. By this term is expressed not only the art of speaking with gestures and by means of the hands, but also the action of speaking combined with gesticulation. This art dates from a high antiquity. It was originally part of the art of dancing,—clapping the hands in rhythm; also a gymnastic exercise, for pugilists and others. =Chiroplast.= An instrument for teaching fingering of musical instruments, invented by Logier in 1810. =Chirothecæ= (Gr. χειροθήκη; Lat. _gantus_). Gloves were unknown to the early Greeks and Romans, but in use among the ancient Persians. In Christian archæology they are first met with in the 12th century. (See GLOVES.) =Chisleu=, Heb. The ninth month of the Jewish year. It begins with the new moon of our December. [Illustration: Fig. 157. Diana wearing the Greek chiton.] =Chiton= (χιτών). The Greek tunic. (Fig. 157.) =Chitte=, O. E. A sheet. =Chivachirs= (Chevaucheurs). Old Fr. Running messengers. =Chlaina= (Lat. _læna_). A kind of cloak, of ample size, worn by the Greeks in campaigning. In time of peace it served as a bed coverlet. The diminutive χλανίδιον appears to have been a woman’s mantle. =Chlamyda.= (See CHLAMYS.) [Illustration: Fig. 158. Apollo wearing the chlamys folded round his arm.] [Illustration: Fig. 159.] =Chlamys=, Gr. A short light mantle, which was worn by Greek youths (not by Romans) until they arrived at manhood. It was the regular equestrian costume, and was of an oblong square shape. (Fig. 159.) The chlamys is seen in representations of men hunting or fighting with beasts, as a shield wrapped round the left arm, the right poising the spear. (Fig. 158.) In Botany, the floral envelope. =Chœnix= (χοῖνιξ). A Greek measure of capacity, variously valued from a pint and half to two quarts. =Choir=, =Quire=, or =Quere=, Arch. The part of the church for the singers and _clerks_, i. e. the space between the NAVE (for the people), and the BEMA, or presbytery, for the celebrating clergy. But in mediæval writings the term includes the BEMA. (See CHANCEL.) =Choir Wall= or =Choir Screen= (Fr. _clôture_). The wall or screen between the side aisles and the choir. =Choosing-stick= (a Somersetshire provincialism). A divining-rod. =Chopines=, It. Clogs or high shoes, of Asiatic origin, introduced from Venice in the 16th century. =Choragic Monuments.= Small pedestals or shrines erected by the winner of a choral contest to display the _tripod_ which was his prize. At Athens there was a street lined with such monuments, called the “Street of the Tripods.” The Choragic Monument of Lysicrates, still existing in Athens, is one of the most valuable remains of Greek architecture. =Choragium=, Gr. and R. (χορηγὸς, or chorus-leader). A large space in a theatre, situated behind the stage. It was here that the “properties” were kept and the rehearsals of the chorus took place. The term is also used to denote the furniture, costumes, decorations, and, in a word, all the accessories required in the production of a piece. =Chordaulodion.= A self-acting musical instrument invented by Kauffmann of Dresden in 1812. =Chorea=, Gr. and R. (χορὸς, q.v.). A choral dance, in which the dancers took each other by the hand and danced to the sound of their own voices. =Chorus=, Gr. and R. (χορὸς, i. e. prop. a circle). (1) A choir of singers in a dramatic entertainment. (2) A band of dancers who went through their movements to the sound of their own singing. (3) A round choral dance; in this last signification _chorea_ may equally well be used. =Chorus= or =Choron=, O. E. An instrument somewhat resembling a bagpipe; the name was also applied to certain stringed instruments. The word _choron_ originally designated a horn. (Hebrew, _Keren_.) =Chous=, Gr. and R. (χόος, contr. χοῦς, i. e. that from which one pours). An amphora, forming a measure of exact capacity. Another name for it was CONGIUS (q.v.). It held twelve COTYLÆ (q.v.). =Choutara=, Hindoo. A kind of guitar with four wire strings. =Chrism=, Chr. (from χρίω, to smear). A composition of balsam and oil of olives used by Christians of various denominations at the administration of the sacraments. =Chrismal=, =Chrismatory=, Chr. (1) The vessel made to contain the consecrated oil. (See LABARUM.) (2) A vessel for the reservation of the consecrated Host. (3) A cloth used to cover relics. (4) Old English _chrisom_, a white linen cloth put upon the child’s head in baptism. (See FONT-CLOTH.) =Chrismarium=, Chr. (See CHRISMAL, 1.) =Chrisom.= O. E. (1) See CHRISMAL, 4. (2) A child that dies within a month after birth. =Christ-cross=, O. E. (1) The Alphabet; so named from a school lesson beginning “Christe Crosse me spede in alle my worke.” (2) The mark made for his signature by a person who cannot write. =Christemporeia=, Chr. Literally, the selling of Christ, simony. =Christian Horses=, O. E. Bearers of sedan chairs. =Christmas-boxes.= So called from the old practice of collecting them in boxes. =Chromatic Scale= (χρῶμα, colour). In Music, the scale that proceeds by semi-tones; so called from the practice of printing the intermediate notes in various colours. =Chromatics.= The science of colours. =Chromatrope.= An optical instrument for assisting the invention of combinations of colours. =Chrome, Chromium.= An important mineral, the green oxide of which furnishes the _Chrome Green_. =Chrome Green.= A dark green pigment prepared from oxide of chromium; mixed with Prussian blue and chrome yellow it is called _Green Cinnabar_. =Chrome Ochre.= Oxide of chromium of a fine yellowish green. =Chrome Red.= A chromate of lead; a durable pigment used in oil painting. (See RED LEAD.) =Chrome Yellow.= A chromate of lead, which makes a bad pigment for oil painting. It is very poisonous and not durable; when mixed with white lead it turns to a dirty grey. As a water-colour pigment it is less objectionable. =Chromite.= Chromate of iron; a mineral consisting of protoxide of iron and oxide of chromium, used in the preparation of various pigments. =Chronogram= (χρόνος, time). An inscription which includes in it the date of an event. =Chryselephantine Statues= of ivory and gold. The most celebrated were that of _Minerva_, by Pheidias, which stood in the Acropolis at Athens, and was 40 English feet in height; and that of Zeus, 45 feet high, likewise by Pheidias, in the temple of Olympia. A reproduction of this statue was shown in the Paris Exhibition of 1855. =Chrysendeta=, R. (χρυσένδετα, i. e. set or inlaid with gold). A very costly description of plate-service employed by wealthy Romans. Of its precise character nothing unfortunately is known, but to judge from the epigrams of certain authors, it must have been chased and embossed. =Chrysoberyl= (βήρυλλος, a beryl). A gem of a yellowish green colour; a species of _corundum_ (q.v.). =Chryso-clavus= (Lat. _golden nail-head_). All rich purple silks, woven or embroidered with the _clavus_ in gold, were so named. They were used for altar frontals, and the _clavi_ were sometimes made so large that a subject was embroidered upon them; they were then called _sigillata_ or _sealed_. (See CLAVUS.) =Chrysocolla= or =Gold Green= (χρυσόκολλος, inlaid or soldered with gold). (1) Native verdigris. Its principal use was for the preparation of a solder for gold. (See SANTERNA.) (2) The Greek term for _Green Verditer_ and _Armenian Green_ (Latin, _Armenium_); a pigment obtained from _malachite_ and green carbonate of copper. It was also called _pea green_ or _grass-green_. =Chthonia=, Gr. and R. (χθὼν, the earth). Festivals held every spring at Argos in honour of Ceres, at which four aged women sacrificed heifers. =Church=, in Christian art, is the attribute of a founder thereof, who is frequently represented holding it in his hand. The most ancient symbol of the Church is the _ark of Noah_, subsequently a _ship_, often covered with the waves, &c., very frequent in the catacombs. On tombs it is held to imply that the dead expired in full communion with the Church. =Churcheard=, =Church-haw=, =Church-litten=. Old English provincialisms for a churchyard or burial-ground. =Church-stile=, O. E. A pulpit. =Chymbe=, O. E. A cymbal:— “As a _chymbe_ or a brazen belle, That nouther can undirstonde my telle.” =Chymol=, =Gemell=, O. E. A hinge, still called the eastern counties a “gimmer.” =Chytra=, Gr. and R. (from χέω, to pour). A common kind of pot, of Greek origin, made with red clay. It was used for cooking. =Chytria=, Gr. An Athenian festival, which derived its name from the χύτρα, or common pot in which were cooked the vegetables or other provisions offered to Bacchus and Mercury in memory of the dead. =Chytropus=, =Chytropous=, Gr. (χυτρό-πους, lit. a pot-foot). A _chytra_ with three or four feet. =Cibilla=. (See CILLIBA.) =Ciborium=, Gr., R., and Chr. (κιβώριον, the pod of the καλοκασία, or Egyptian bean). (1) A drinking-vessel so called because it resembled the Egyptian bean in shape. (2) In Christian archæology a kind of baldachino or canopy, supported by a varying number of columns, which forms the covering of the high altar in a church. Called also the _Tabernacle_, _Sacrament house_, _God’s house_, or _holyroof_. (See SEVEREY.) (3) Ciborium also signifies a vessel in which the consecrated wafer is “reserved.” =Ciclatoun= or =Siklatoun=. The Persian name, adopted in England, for a textile of real gold thread; 12th century. =Ciconia=, R. (lit. a stork). (1) A sign made in dumb show by bending the forefinger into the form of a stork’s neck. (2) An instrument, in shape like an inverted T, employed by farmers to make sure that trenches dug by the spade were of uniform depth. (3) _Ciconia composita_ was the name given to a more elaborate instrument of the same kind invented by Columella. =Cicuta=, R. (i. e. lit. the hemlock). A term used by analogy to denote anything made out of the hemlock plant, especially the _Pan’s pipes_. =Cidaris=, Gen. (κίδαρις or κίταρις, a Persian tiara). A sort of diadem or royal bonnet worn by Eastern princes. It was tall, straight and stiff in shape, and was ornamented with pearls or precious stones. The same name was also applied to the bonnet worn at ceremonies by the high priest of the Jews. (See TIARA.) =Cilery=, Arch. Drapery or foliage carved on the heads of columns. =Cilibantum=, R. (See CILLIBA.) A stand or table with three legs. =Cilicium=, R. (1) A coarse cloth made of goat’s hair, and manufactured in Cilicia. It was much used in the army and navy: in the former for making the soldiers’ tents; in the latter for clothes for the sailors or for sails. (2) During the time of mourning, or when suffering under any calamity, the Jews put on a kind of _cilicium_ made of coarse canvas. (3) A cloth mattress stuffed with sea-weed or cow-hair, which was placed outside the walls of besieged cities to deaden the blows of the battering-ram or of projectiles. (4) In Christian archæology the _cilicium_ or hair-shirt is a sleeveless jacket made with a material of horsehair and coarse hemp. The Dominicans, Franciscans, and certain Carthusians wear the _cilicium_ to mortify the flesh. =Cilliba=, Gr. and R. (κίλλος, an ass) A trestle, and by analogy a dining-table supported by trestles. This form of table, which was commonly used by the early Romans, was replaced later on by the circular table. =Cimbal.= An old name for the DULCIMER (q.v.). =Cimeter=, =Cymetar=, =Scimeter=, &c. A short curved sword used by the Persians or Turks, mentioned by Meyrick as adopted by the Hussars, _temp._ Elizabeth. =Cincinnus=, R. A long ringlet or corkscrew curl of hair produced with the curling-irons. (See HAIR.) =Cincticulus=, R. (dimin. of CINCTUS, q.v.). A kind of short petticoat worn by youths. =Cinctorium=, R. (from _cinctus_, a girdle). (1) A sword-belt worn round the waist, and thus distinguished from the BALTEUS or baldric, which passed over the shoulder. The _balteus_ was worn by private soldiers, while the _cinctorium_ was the distinctive badge of an officer. (2) The dagger, so called because it was suspended from or put into the girdle. =Cincture=, Arch. The fillet, at each end of the shaft of a classical column (q.v.). =Cinctus=, R. (from _cingo_, i. e. a girding). A short petticoat (or kilt) worn by men; also in the same sense as _cingula_ and cingulum, a _girdle_. _Cinctus gabinus_ was a particular manner of arranging the toga, by throwing one end over the head, and fastening the other round the waist like a girdle. As an adjective, _cinctus_ was applied to any individual of either sex who wore any kind of belt or girdle. (See DISCINCTUS.) [Illustration: Fig. 160. Cineraria.] =Cinerarium=, R. (i. e. a place of ashes). A niche in a tomb, sufficiently roomy to hold an urn of large size, or a sarcophagus. The following was the disposition of one, or in many cases, three sides in a Roman tomb: in the centre of the wall was a large niche (_cinerarium medianum_) for a sarcophagus, and on each side of this two small niches (_columbaria_), and above each of the latter was a much larger recess for large urns. (See also COLUMBARIUM, CUBICULUM, CUPELLA.) =Cinerarius.= A hair-dresser (who heated his tongs in the _cinders_). =Cingulum=, R. A girdle or other fastening round the waist. In modern archæology, _cingulo militari decorare_ signifies to create a knight, from the practice of investing him with the military girdle; and _cingulum militare auferre_ is to degrade a knight. (See DISCINCTUS.) =Ciniflo=, R. A synonym for CINERARIUS (q.v.). =Cinnabar.= Sulphide of mercury; an ancient red pigment used for sacred and imperial purposes. (See CHROME GREEN, DRAGON’S BLOOD, VERMILION.) =Cinnamon-stone.= A variety of lime-garnet of a clear cinnamon-brown tint. =Cinque-cento= (literally, 500). The Italian art of the 16th century. [Illustration: Fig. 161. Heraldic Cinque-foil.] =Cinque-foil=, Arch. (Fr. _cinque_ and _feuille_, a leaf). An ornamental foliation or feathering of the lanceolated style, consisting of five projecting points or cusps. (Fig. 161.) =Cinta=, Med. Lat. (Fr. _enceinte_). The outside wall of a fortress. =Cinyra.= An old term for a harp. [Illustration: Fig. 162. Cippus (Tomb-stone).] =Cippus=, R. (1) A short stone pillar of cylindrical form, employed to mark the boundaries between adjoining estates or nations. (2) A pillar of cylindrical or rectangular form, and sometimes perfectly plain, sometimes richly ornamented, erected for a tomb-stone. (Fig. 162.) In some instances the cippus enclosed a cavity in which the urn containing the ashes of the dead person might be placed. A _cippus_ was placed at the corner of a cemetery, and the measurements of the burying-ground were recorded upon it. In Med. Lat. the word is used for the keep of the castle. =Circenses Ludi=, R. Games in the circus. (See CONSUALIA.) =Circinate.= Curled in the manner of the Ionic volute, or like the fronds of young ferns rolled inwards from the summit to the base. =Circinus=, R. A compass; an instrument employed, as now, by architects, sculptors, masons, and various other trades. The Romans were also acquainted with reduction compasses. =Circle.= The emblem of Heaven and eternity. =Circumlitio.= An ancient Greek varnish, with which the statues of the Greeks were tinted. (_Eastlake._) =Circumpotatio=, R. (from _circum_ and _poto_, i. e. a drinking-around). A funeral feast in which the guests passed round the wine from hand to hand. It took place at the tomb of the person in whose memory it was held, and on the anniversary of his death. =Circumvallation.= A fortification made round a blockaded place by a besieging army. [Illustration: Fig. 163. Model of a Roman Circus.] =Circus=, Gr. and R. (i. e. a circle). A flat open space near a city, round which were raised scaffoldings for the accommodation of the spectators. This was the form of the earliest circuses; but as civilization advanced, they were regularly constructed of stone. The arena was in the form of a vast rectangle terminating at one extremity in a semicircle, and surrounded by tiers of seats for the spectators. At the end fronting the semicircular part was a rectangular pile of buildings, underneath which were the _carceres_ or stalls for the horses, and down the centre of the circus ran a long low wall called the _spina_, adorned with statues, obelisks, &c. This _spina_ formed a barrier by which the circus was divided into two distinct parts, and at each end of it was a _meta_ or goal, round which the chariots turned. (See META and OVUM.) The Romans constructed circuses in England, wherever they had a large encampment. The ruins exist at Dorchester, Silchester, Richborough, and other places. =Cirrus=, R. (1) A lock of hair; a ringlet curling naturally, and so distinguished from the _cincinnus_, a curl produced by means of the curling-iron. (2) A tuft; the forelock of a horse when tied up above its ears. (3) A tuft of flowers forming a bunch or head, such as _phlox_, _calceolaria_, &c. (4) Light _curled_ clouds in the sky, portending wind, are hence called _cirri_. =Ciselure=, Fr. Chasing. (See CÆLATURA.) =Cissibium= or =Cissybium=, Gr. and R. (κισσύβιον, i. e. made or wreathed with ivy). A drinking-vessel, so called because the handle was made of ivy-wood, or more probably because it had an ivy-wreath carved upon it. =Cissoid= (lit. ivy-shaped). A celebrated curve, applied in the trisection of an angle, invented by Diocles the geometer. =Cissotomiæ=, Gr. (κισσο-τόμοι, sc. ἡμέραι, i. e. the days of ivy-cutting). A festival held in Greece, in honour of Hebe, goddess of youth, and a youth called Cissos, who, when dancing with Bacchus, had fallen down and been changed into ivy. Accordingly at this festival youths and girls danced with their heads wreathed with ivy. =Cista=, =Cistella=, =Sitella=, R. (κίστη, a chest). (1) A large wicker-work basket in which the voters deposited their voting-tablets at the comitia. It was of a cylindrical shape, and about four or five feet high. (2) A smaller basket into which the judges cast the tablets recording their sentence. (3) A wicker-work basket in which children carried about their playthings. (4) The cist which was carried in procession at the Eleusinian festival, and which might be either a wicker basket or a box of metal. It was filled with corn, rice, sesame, salt, and pomegranates. Richly ornamented chests or boxes, with bronze mirrors in them, found among Etruscan ruins, are called _cistæ mysticæ_. The _sitella_, or _situla_, was a different vessel; viz. a _bucket_ of water, into which the lots (_sortes_) were thrown. The situla had a narrow neck, so that only one lot could come to the surface when it was shaken. It was also called _Urna_ or _Orca_. =Cistella=, R. A dulcimer; _lit._ a little box. (See CISTA.) =Cistellula=, R. (dimin. of CISTA, q.v.). A very small _cista_. =Cistophorus=, Egyp., Gr., and R. (κιστοφόρος, i. e. bearing a _cista_ or _cistus_). A silver coin, current in Asia, and worth about four drachmæ. It was so called from bearing the impression of a _cista_ (chest), or, more probably, of the shrub _cistus_. [Value four francs of French money.] =Cistula=, R. Dimin. of CISTA (q.v.). =Citadel= (It. _cittadella_, a little town). A fortress within a city. =Cithara=, =Cither=, Gr. and R. (κιθάρα). A stringed instrument of great antiquity, resembling our modern guitar. It was played with a _plectrum_. The name was afterwards applied to many stringed instruments of varied form, power of sound, and compass. The mediæval _Rotta_ was called _C. teutonica_; the harp was called _C. Anglica_. =Cithara Bijuga.= A guitar with a double neck. =Citole=, O. E. A kind of guitar. “A _citole_ in hir right hand had sche.” (_Chaucer._) =Cittern.= A stringed instrument, like a guitar, strung with wire instead of gut. The _cittern_ was at one time a part of the furniture of every barber’s shop, and customers played on it while waiting for their turns. (Niche 1 of Exeter Gallery. See CLARION.) =Civery=, Arch. (See SEVEREY.) A bay or compartment of a vaulted ceiling. =Civic Crown=, Her. A wreath of oak leaves and acorns. (See CORONA.) =Ckuicui=, Peruvian. One of the divisions of the temple of the Sun (_Inti_), so named as being dedicated to the rainbow (_Ckuichi_). (See INTI.) =Clabulare.= (See CLAVULARE.) =Clack= or =Clap-dish=, O. E. A box with a movable lid used and rattled by beggars to attract attention:— “His tongue moves like a beggar’s _clapdish_.” =Cladeuteria.= A Greek festival held in honour of Bacchus, at the time when the pruning of the vines took place. [Illustration: Fig. 164. Clerestory and Triforium in Worcester Cathedral.] =Claire-voie= (Anglicè, =Clerestory=), Arch. (i. e. clear-storey). A row of large windows, forming the upper storey of the nave of a church, rising clear above the adjoining parts of the building. =Clan= (Gaelic, _klann_, children). A tribe of persons of one common family, united under a chieftain. =Clap-bene=, O. E. _Bene_ signifies a prayer, and children were invited by this phrase to _clap_ their hands together, as their only means of expressing their prayers. =Clap-dish.= (See CLACKDISH.) =Clappe= or =Clapper=, O. E. A wooden rattle used to summon people to church on the last three days of Passion Week, when the bells were not rung. =Clarenceux=, Her. The title of one of the three kings of arms at Heralds’ College. The others are called GARTER and NORROY. =Clarichord=, O. E. A stringed instrument, in the form of a spinet, of mediæval times. At the marriage of James of Scotland with the Princess Margaret, A. D. 1503, “the king began before hyr to play of the _clarychordes_, and after of the lute. And upon the said clarychorde Sir Edward Stanley played a ballad, and sange therewith.” (_Wharton_, “_History of English Poetry_.”) It is identical with the _clavichord_, the origin of the spinet, harpsichord, and pianoforte. [Illustration: Fig. 165, 166. Clarions (heraldic).] =Clarion=, O. E. A small trumpet, with a shrill sound. (Represented in the third niche of the “Minstrels’ Gallery” of Exeter Cathedral, of which there is a cast in the South Kensington Museum.) =Classic Orders of Architecture.= The _Grecian_: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian;—and the _Roman_: Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite orders (q.v.) are generally thus distinguished. =Clathrate.= Latticed like a grating (_clathri_). [Illustration: Fig. 167. Clathri over bronze doors.] =Clathri=, R. A grating or trellis formed of wooden or metal bars; _clathri_ were employed to form the imposts over hypæthral doors, and to light the stables (_carceres_) under the circus, &c. Fig. 167 represents one of the bronze doors of the Pantheon at Rome with the grating above. =Claude Glass.= A dark convex glass for studying the effect of a landscape in reverse. Its name is supposed to be derived from the similarity of the effects it gives, to those of a picture by Claude Lorrain. =Clausula=, R. The handle of any instrument whatsoever, when made in such a way that the hand can be inserted into it, as for instance with a ring or sword-hilt. The STRIGILIS (q.v.) had a handle of this description. _Clausula_ is thus to be distinguished from _capulus_ (a straight handle), and _ansa_ (a handle affixed to another object). =Clava=, R. (1) A stout knotty stick, growing much thicker towards one end. (2) A very heavy club with which young recruits went through their exercises. (3) A club like that of Hercules, or a mace or war-club with an iron head, and studded with nails or (more commonly) sharp spikes. =Clavate.= Club-shaped; tapering down from the top. =Clavesignati=, Med. Lat. The Papal troops were so called, who had the keys of St. Peter on their standards and uniforms. =Claviary.= In Music, an index of keys. [Illustration: Fig. 168. Clavichord—18th century.] =Clavichord.= A stringed instrument in the form of a spinet. (Fig. 168.) (See CLARICHORD.) =Clavicula.= Dimin. of CLAVIS (q.v.). =Clavier.= Of a musical instrument, the key-board. =Clavis=, R. A key. The _clavis clausa_ was a small key without a neck or lever; _clavis laconica_, a key of Egyptian invention, having three teeth; _clavis adultera_, a false key; _clavis trochi_, a curved stick made of iron and having a hook at the end, which was used by Greek and Roman boys for trundling their hoops. =Clavius.= A walled plain in the moon, more than a hundred miles in diameter. =Clavulare= or =Clabulare=, R. A large open cart used for carrying provisions, especially _dolia_ (casks) filled with wine. The body of the carriage was formed by a wooden trellis-work (_clavulæ_)—whence its name—and was of a semi-cylindrical shape, adapted to accommodate wine barrels. =Clavus=, R. A nail. In Christian archæology, a purple hem or band applied as an ornament to a dress, which was then called _vestis clavata_. (See CHRYSO-CLAVUS.) =Claymore= (Gaelic, _claidheamb_, a sword, and _mor_, great). The highland broadsword. =Clechée=, Her. (See UNDÉE.) A variety of the heraldic cross. =Clef= or =Cliff=, Music. A figure indicating the pitch to be adopted for the key-note of a piece of music; an invention of the 13th century. =Clepsydra=, Gen. (κλεψ-ύδρα, i. e. a stealing-away of water). A water-clock, and by analogy an hour-glass or _sand_-clock. The _clepsydra_ was used as an hour-glass in the courts of justice at Athens, to measure out the time allowed to each orator. =Clerestory.= (See CLAIRE-VOIE.) =Cleystaffe=, O. E. A pastoral staff. =Clibanus=, R. (1) A basket used for baking bread; the bread itself, when thus baked, being called _clibanicius_. (2) Med. Lat. A short hauberk, which the later Greeks called κλίβανον, because it covered the breast. (_Meyrick._) (3) Med. Lat. A tower. =Clicket=, O. E. A key. “With his _clicket_ Damian hath opened this wicket.” (_Chaucer._) =Cliff.= (See CLEF.) =Clipeolum.= Dimin. of CLIPEUS (q.v.). [Illustration: Fig. 169. Clipeus.] =Clipeus= and =Clipeum=, R. (akin to καλύπτω, to cover or conceal). A large broad shield of circular shape and concave on the inside. It was of great weight, and formed part of the special equipment of the cavalry. The original _clipeus Argolicus_ was circular, and often likened to the sun: in Roman sculpture it is often oval. The outer rim was termed _antyx_; the _boss_ in the centre, _omphalos_, or _umbo_; a leather strap for the arm, _telamon_. It was replaced, subsequently, by the SCUTUM (q.v.). Fig. 169 is an ornamented bronze _clipeus_, thought to be Gaulish. This term also serves to denote (1) a shield of metal or marble which was employed as an ornament (Fig. 170 represents an ornamental shield, such as was placed on the frieze of a building, and especially in the metopes of the Doric entablature); and (2) an apparatus employed in the _laconicum_ (q.v.) to regulate the temperature. In the illustration to _Caldarium_ a slave may be seen pulling the chains of the _clipeus_. [Illustration: Fig. 170. Ornamental Clipeus.] [Illustration: Fig. 171. Cloaca Maxima at Rome.] =Cloaca=, R. (from _cluo_, i. e. the cleanser). A subterranean sewer or canal constructed of masonry. The _Cloaca Maxima_, or Main Sewer of Rome, was constructed by the elder Tarquin to drain a marsh lying at the foot of the Palatine and Capitoline Hills. Fig. 171 represents one of its mouths. It was formed of three tiers of arches, the innermost being fourteen feet in diameter. =Clocks=, O. E., “are the gores of a ruff, the laying in of the cloth to make it round, the plaites;” also ornaments on stockings and on hoods. =Clog-almanacks.= The Anglo-Saxons calculated by the phases of the moon, set down on square pieces of wood, a foot or two long. These _clogs_ are still common in Staffordshire. (Cf. _Plott’s History of Staffordshire_; _Gough’s Camden’s Britannia_, ii. 379.) =Cloish=, or =Closh=, O. E. A kind of ninepins played with a ball. (_Strutt_, p. 202.) Cf. CLUB-KAYLES. =Cloisonné.= A form of enamelling by incrustation, in which the pattern is raised by strips of metal or wire welded on. [Illustration: Fig. 173. Cloisters in the Church of Mont St. Michel.] =Cloister=, Chr. (from Lat. _claustrum_, q.v.). A kind of court or quadrangle surrounded by a covered way, and having much analogy to the _atrium_ of a Roman house. The cloister was an essential appendage to an abbey. One of its sides was usually bounded by the church, with which it easily communicated. The walls of the cloisters were often adorned with frescoes, and the court was occasionally planted with trees, the centre being occupied by a fountain. A monastery was often called a _cloister_. The sides of the cloister were anciently termed the PANES of it, and the walks its alleys or deambulatories. (Fig. 173.) =Cloister Garth.= The quadrangular space enclosed by the cloisters. The _cloister garth_ at Chichester is still called the _Paradise_, and that at Chester the _Sprise_ garden. (See PARADISE, SPRISE.) =Close=, Her. With closed wings. =Close-gauntlets.= Gauntlets with immovable fingers. =Closet=, Her. A diminution of the BAR, one half its width. =Cloths of Estate.= Costly embroidered hangings for the canopy of a throne. =Clouée=, Her. Fastened with nails, and showing the nail-heads. =Clouts.= Old name for kerchiefs. =Clown=, in pantomime. _Harlequin_ is Mercury, the _Clown_ Momus, and the painted face and wide mouth taken from the ancient masks; _Pantaloon_ is Charon, and _Columbine_ Psyche. (_Clarke’s Travels_, viii. 104–7.) =Club=, Gr. and R. (Gr. φάλαγξ). This weapon being used in close fight gave its name to the compact body of troops so called. The Scythians united it with the mace, both being spiked. _Ducange_ mentions the _vulgastus_, a crooked club; the _plumbata_, loaded with lead, the _spontonus_ with iron. In the army of Charles I. rustics untrained were called clubmen. (See CLAVA.) =Club-kayles=, O. E. Skittles played with a club, instead of a ball. (See CLOISH.) =Clubs=, at cards, are the ancient _trèfles_, the trefoil or clover-plant. (See TREFLE.) =Cluden=, Gr. and R. A sword, the blade of which was contrived to recede into the handle. It was used for theatrical representations. [Illustration: Fig. 174. Clunaculum.] =Clunaculum=, R. (1) A dagger so called because it was worn at the back; “_quia ad clunes pendet_,” as Festus says. (2) The sacrificial knife with which the victim was ripped up. The dagger represented in Fig. 174, taken from the arch of Carpentras, was probably a Gaulish _clunaculum_. [Illustration: Fig. 172. Clustered column in Nave of Wells Cathedral.] =Clustered Column=, Arch. A pier formed of a congeries of columns or shafts clustered together, either attached or detached. It is also called a COMPOUND PIER. Fig. 172 is a specimen from Wells Cathedral. =Clypeate.= Shaped like a shield. =Cnopstara.= A weapon used by the Caledonians; a ball filled with pieces of metal swung at the heads of their lances, to frighten cavalry. =Coa Vestis=, or simply =Coa= (i. e. the Coan robe). A very fine robe [made of silk, spun in _Cos_], of such light texture as to be almost transparent. It was worn by _hetairai_ and singing and dancing girls, &c. =Coactilis=, sc. _lana_ (from _cogo_, i. e. that which is forced together). A kind of felted cloth made of wool closely pressed together. It formed a texture analogous to our felt. Another name for it was _coactus_. =Coal= as an ancient pigment was used both in water-colours and in oil; it furnishes a brownish tint. “The shadows of flesh are well rendered by pit-coal, which should not be burnt.” (_De Mayerne._) =Coassatio= (from _coasso_, to join planks together). A general term for planks joined together, such as the flooring of a room, the top of a table, the deck of a ship, the roadway of a wooden bridge, &c. (See CONSTRATUM.) [Illustration: Fig. 175. Coat Armour.] [Illustration: Fig. 176. Coat Armour. Devices on shield.] =Coat Armour=, Med. Embroidery of heraldic devices upon costume; hence a term for heraldry in general. (Figs. 175 and 176.) =Coat Cards=, O. E. Court cards and tens, so named from the _coat armour_ worn by the figures. =Cob.= Irish name of a Spanish coin formerly current in Ireland; value about 4_s._ 8_d._ =Cobalt.= A metal found in various combinations, from which various colouring matters are obtained of great use in the arts. _Cobalt blue_, a beautiful blue pigment, is obtained by mixing a salt of pure cobalt with a solution of pure alum, precipitating the liquid by an alkaline carbonate, washing the precipitate with care, drying and igniting it strongly. A fine green, known as _Rinmann’s green_, is similarly prepared. The chloride, the nitrate, and the sulphate of cobalt form _sympathetic inks_, which only become visible when the moisture is absorbed by the application of heat. From phosphate of cobalt a beautiful blue pigment is produced, called _Thenard’s blue_. It is said to have all the characters of ultramarine. Oxide of cobalt has the property of colouring glass blue; hence a glass formed of this oxide under the name of _smalt_ is the blue colouring matter used for ornamenting porcelain and earthenware, for staining glass, for painting on enamel, &c. =Cobalt-bloom.= (See ERYTHRINE.) =Cobbards=, O. E. The irons supporting a spit. =Cob-wall=, Arch. A wall formed of unburned clay mixed with straw. =Cochineal.= (See CARMINE.) =Cochineal Lakes.= (See CARMINATED LAKES.) =Cochlea= (κοχλίας, i. e. a snail with spiral shell). Any object of spiral shape, like a screw; and so a worm and screw as a mechanical power in oil-, wine-, &c. presses; the “Archimedean Screw,” or “water-snail” for raising water; the revolving door through which the wild beasts were let out into the amphitheatre; and other contrivances similar to the Italian _ruota_, by which persons can be introduced through a wall without opening a door; also a spiral staircase, &c. =Cochlear=, =Cochleare= (from κόχλος, a shell-fish). (1) A spoon having at one extremity a sharp point, and at the other a sort of small bowl. (2) A measure of capacity of very small size. =Cochlearium=, R. A pond or nursery for fattening snails for the table. (English “cockles.”) =Cochlis=, sc. _columna_ (κοχλὶς, i. e. lit. a snail). A hollow monumental column, the interior of which was fitted with a cockle or spiral staircase, like the “Monument” of London. =Cock.= In Christian art, the emblem of St. Peter, and of watchfulness. =Cockatrice.= In Christian art, the emblem of sin; attribute of St. Vitus. (Her.: see the illustration to BASILISK.) =Cock-bead=, Arch. A bead which projects from the surface of the timber on both sides. =Cockers=, O. E. Ploughmen’s laced boots. =Cocket=, O. E. A seal formerly attached to goods which had paid customs dues. Ancient _cockets_ bear such inscriptions on them as “_God willing_,” “_If God please_,” &c. =Cockle-stairs=, O. E. Winding stairs. (Cf. COCHLEA.) =Coctilis=, =Cocta=, =Coctus=, R. (prepared by fire). _Later coctilis_ was a brick hardened artificially by fire, in contradistinction to one dried in the sun; _murus coctilis_, a wall built of hardened bricks. (See ACAPNA.) =Cocurra=, Med. Lat. A quiver. =Cocytia= (from Κωκυτὸς, the river of weeping). A festival held in honour of Proserpine, who had been carried off by Pluto. The latter, as king of the infernal regions, included in his sway the river Cocytus. The Cocytus and Acheron, two rivers of Epirus, remarkable for unwholesome and muddy water, and subterranean currents, were hence called the rivers of Hell. “Cocytia virgo” was Alecto, one of the Furies. =Cod=, Scotch. A pillow (also _pod_). =Codex= (_caudex_, the trunk of a tree). (1) A blank book for writing in, consisting of thin tablets of wood covered with wax; the term thus came to mean _code_, that is, a book containing laws, since these were inscribed in a book, the leaves of which were composed of thin leaves of wood. When parchment or paper was introduced, the term was still applied; and hence, later, became appropriate to any code of laws, e. g. the Gregorian, Theodosian, Justinian, &c. (2) An early manuscript book, such as the Codex of the Greek New Testament and of “Virgil” in the Vatican. (3) The term was also applied to the heavy logs attached to the feet of slaves; these were of various shapes, sometimes even serving the purpose of a seat. =Codicillus= (dimin. of CODEX, q.v.). A small book, or small leaves of wood covered with wax. The plural _codicilli_ denoted a number of such sheets put together so as to form a sort of memorandum-book for taking rough notes. Any supplemental note made on the margin of the leaves composing a will, or added to them, was also called _codicillus_ (codicil). =Codon= (Gr. κώδων). A bell; the bell of a trumpet; a trumpet with a bell-mouth. =Cod-piece= (from O. E. “cod,” a pillow or stuffed cushion; Fr. _braguette_); introduced _temp._ Henry VIII. An appendage to the taces over the os pubis, copied in the armour of the period. It continued in use to the end of Elizabeth’s reign. =Cœlum.= In Architecture, that part of a building which was placed over any other part, and so a ceiling, or soffit. =Cœmeterium=, =Cemetery=, Chr. (κοιμητήριον, from κοιμάω, i. e. a sleeping-place; Lat _dormitorium_). This term is an exclusively Christian one; it signifies a field of rest or refuge; the last resting-place of man. (See HYPOGÆUM.) =Cœna= (from Sanscr. _khad-_, to eat). The principal meal among the Romans, consisting of several courses termed respectively _prima_, _altera_ or _secunda_, _tertia_, _quarta cœna_. The hour at which the _cœna_ took place varied with the habits of the master of the house, but it was usually about four or five o’clock. It was the third meal of the day, being preceded by the _jentaculum_ (breakfast), and the _merenda_ or _prandium_ (luncheon or early dinner). The corresponding Greek meal was called _deipnon_, which closed with a libation to Zeus; after which the drinking party that remained was called _Symposium_. (See LAST SUPPER.) =Cœnaculum.= In early times this term was used for the TRICLINIUM (q.v.); later on it came to mean the upper stories of houses inhabited by the poor, our attic or garret. In the plural, _cœnacula_ denotes the whole suite of rooms on the upper story of a house, and _cœnacula meritoria_ such apartments let out on hire. =Cœnatio=, like _cœnaculum_, a dining-room situated upstairs. It thus differed from the TRICLINIUM (q.v.), which was a dining-room on the ground floor; the former was used in winter, the latter in summer. The _cœnatio_, or _diæta_, was a very magnificent apartment. Nero had one in his golden palace, constructed like a theatre, with a change of scenery for every course. =Cœnatoria=, =Cœnatoriæ Vestes=. The garments worn by the Romans at the dinner-table. =Cœnobium= (κοινό-βιον, i. e. a life in common). A monastery; a convent of monks who lived in common. =Cœur=, =Carreau=, =Pique=, and =Trèfle=. The four French suits of cards, corresponding with our Hearts, Diamonds, Spades, and Clubs, probably introduced in the reign of Charles VII. of France (15th century). (_Taylor._) Cœur is sometimes derived from _Chœur_. (See COPPE and CHATRANG.) “The hearts are the ecclesiastics, whose place is in the _choir_; the pike the military, &c.” (_Menestrier._) =Coffer.= (See ARCA.) (1) In Architecture, a sunken panel in a ceiling or soffit. (2) A chest. =Cognizance=, Her. Synonym for _Badge_. =Cogware=, O. E. A coarse narrow cloth like frieze; 16th century. =Cohors=, =Cohort=, R. A body of infantry forming the tenth part of a legion. The number of men composing a cohort varied at different periods between 300 and 600 men, according to the numerical strength of the legion. The first cohort of a legion was called a military cohort; the prætorian cohort formed the general’s body-guard, while to the city cohort was entrusted the protection of the city. The term was sometimes, though very rarely, applied to a squadron of cavalry. =Coif= or =Quoif=. A close hood. =Coif de Fer=, =Coiffette=. A skull-cap of iron of the 12th and 13th centuries. =Coif de Mailles.= A hood of mail worn by knights in the 12th century. =Coiffe=, Arch. A term employed during the 16th and 17th centuries to denote the vaulted ceiling of an apse. =Coillon.= (See COIN.) =Coin= or =Coigne=, Arch. The corner of a building. (See QUOIN.) =Coin-stones=, Arch. Corner-stones. [Illustration: Fig. 177. Helmet with Cointise behind.] =Cointise= or =Quintise=. (1) A scarf wrapped round the body, and sometimes attached to the helmet. (2) Quaintly-cut coverings for the helmet. Fig. 177 represents a helmet decorated with PANACHE, CORO. E., and _cointise_. This is the origin of _mantling_ in heraldry. (3) A garment worn over armour, _temp._ Edward II., was so termed. (4) Horses’ caparisons. =Colatorium.= A colander. (See COLLUM VINARIUM.) =Colayn Riban=, O. E. An ecclesiastical textile, or _orphrey web_, for the manufacture of which Cologne was famous in the 15th century. =Colcothar of Vitriol.= A red pigment formerly called _caput mortuum_. =Cold-harbour.= This common topical name is the Anglo-Saxon _ceald-herberga_, cold “_herberge_” or shelter, and probably indicates a place where the ruins of a Roman villa or station were the only available shelter for travellers, in the ancient scarcity of inns. =Collar= (of a shaft), Arch. The ANNULET (q.v.). (See also COLLAR-BEAM.) [Illustration: Fig. 178. Collar of Lancaster.] =Collar=, Med. (1) A defence of mail or plate for the neck. (2) Generally. An ornament for the neck. The Egyptians, Persians, Greeks, Romans, and Gauls wore collars, which were named variously _streptos_ (στρεπτὸς), _torquis_, _torques_, &c. Collars were ornamented with heraldic _badges_ in the Middle Ages. (3) Heraldic. One of the insignia of the orders of knighthood. (See Fig. 178.) [Illustration: Fig. 179. Collar of S.S.] =Collar of S.S.= Originally adopted by Henry IV., on the canopy of whose tomb it is employed as decoration over the arms of himself and his queen. Its significance is doubtful. Camden says the letters are the initials of Sanctus Simo Simplicius, an eminent Roman lawyer, and that it was particularly worn by persons of the legal profession. =Collar-beam=, Arch. A horizontal tie, connecting a pair of rafters together, across the vault of a roof. =Collare=, R. (_collum_, neck). A collar made of iron or leather, and studded with spikes. It was used both to confine slaves, and as a dog-collar. When a slave ran away from his master, an iron collar, with a leading-chain attached to it, was put round his neck. =Collarium=, Med. Armour for the neck. =Collegium=, R. A religious or industrial corporation in ancient Rome. The corresponding Greek institutions were the _Hetairiai_. The _collegia_ included trade companies or guilds. =Collet.= The setting which surrounds the stone of a ring. (See CRAMPON.) =Colliciæ=, =Colliquiæ=. (1) Broad open drains through fields. (2) Gutters of hollow tiles (_umbrices_) placed beneath the roof of a house to receive the rain-water, and convey it into the IMPLUVIUM. =Colliciaris= (sc. _tegula_). A hollow tile employed in the construction of _colliciæ_. =Collodion.= A solution of gun cotton in ether, used in photography. =Collum Vinarium= (from _collum_, a neck). A colander or wine-strainer. The custom of straining wine dates back beyond our era, and Christ made an allusion to it when he told the Pharisees that their _colla_ allowed a camel to pass, while they kept back a gnat. Snow was put into a strainer or a bag, called respectively _collum nivarium_, _saccus nivarius_, through which the wine was allowed to filter, not only to cool it, but because the intense cold cleared the wine, and rendered it sparkling and transparent; it was then called _vinum saccatum_. The Christian Church from the first adopted this instrument in its liturgy; another name for it was _colatorium_. (See NASSA.) The colander for wine was made of silver, or bronze, or other metal. The linen cloth called _saccus_ was not used for wine of any delicacy, as it spoiled its flavour. =Colluviarium=, R. An opening made at regular intervals in the channel of an aqueduct, for ventilation. As this opening formed a kind of well, it was also called PUTEUS (q.v.). =Collyra=, Gr. and R. A kind of bread made in a special manner, which was eaten with soup or sauce; there was also a cake so called. =Collyris= (κολλυρὶς, synonym of κολλύρα, q.v.). A head-dress worn by Roman ladies, resembling in shape the bread called κολλύρα; the latter was called κολλυρὶς as well. [Illustration: Fig. 180. Collyrium or unguent Vase; Egyptian. Museum of the Louvre.] =Collyrium= (κολλύριον, dimin. of κολλύρα, q.v.). (1) A term denoting anything we should now call an unguent, but especially the salve _collyrium_, which was a liquid medicament. (2) _Collyria_ was a term applied to Egyptian vases of terra-cotta, with or without enamel; to small quadrangular boxes of wood or pottery; and, lastly, to small cylindrical cases of wood or bronze divided into compartments. There were three prevailing forms of the vases. The Egyptians used antimony to make their eyes look larger, and had some medicament for the relief of toothache; and inscriptions indicating these uses may be read upon vessels of this kind. (Fig. 180). =Colne=, O. E. A basket or coop. [Illustration: Fig. 181. Roman Plebeian wearing the Colobium.] =Colobium= (from κολοβὸς, docked or curtailed). A tunic with short sleeves, which scarcely covered the upper part of the arm. At Rome it was worn by men of free birth. The _colobium_ appears to have been the first dress adopted by Christian deacons, and in the liturgical writings it is often met with under the name of _levitonarium_; when it was of fine linen, it was also called _lebiton_ and _lebitonarium_. (Fig. 181.) Later on the sleeves were lengthened, and it became known as the DALMATIC (q.v.). =Cologne Black.= (See BLACK.) =Cologne Earth.= A bituminous earth of a violet-brown hue, transparent and durable in water-colour painting. =Colonica.= Synonym of _villa rustica_. A farmhouse. =Color=, Lat. (1) The term is used in several senses in mediæval treatises upon music, with a general idea of a quality of tone obtained by striking variations. (2) The coloured lines used in transcribing music. (See NEUMES.) =Colores Austeri.= Ancient pigments, not _floridi_. =Colores Floridi.= Ancient expensive and brilliant pigments. They were chrysocollum, indicum (or indigo), cæruleum (smalt), and cinnabar. =Colossus= (κολοσσός). The word was used for all statues larger than life; that at Rhodes was ninety feet high. The Minerva and Jupiter Olympus of Pheidias, the Farnese Hercules, and the Flora of the Belvidere, were all colossal. =Colours=, in Heraldry, are five: Blue or Azure, Red or Gules, Black or Sable, Green or Vert, Purple or Purpure. In French heraldry Green is Sinope. The uses and general symbolism of each colour are described under its own heading. The best work on _symbolic colours_ is the “Essay” of M. Portal. One of the best on the _theory of colours_ is that of Chevreuil. =Colubrina=, Med. Lat. (from _coluber_, a snake). A culverin. =Columbar=, R. A kind of pillory used for punishing slaves. The instrument derived its name from the holes in it, which bore some resemblance to pigeon-holes. [Illustration: Fig. 182. Columbarium.] =Columbarium.= A dove-cote or pigeon-house, often constructed to hold as many as 4000 or 5000 birds. In the plural the term has many meanings. (1) It denotes the pigeon-holes or cells for the nests in a pigeon-house. (2) In a sepulchral chamber, the niches for holding the cinerary urns (_ollæ_). Fig. 182 represents the numerous _columbaria_ in the tomb of the freedmen of Octavia. In the sepulchral architecture of the Jews, the rock-hewn walls forming the vestibules of certain tombs were honey-combed with minute _columbaria_, in which only lamps were placed. Fig. 183 represents cells of this character taken from the tomb of _Quoublet-el-Endeh_. (3) The openings in the side of a ship through which the oars passed. (4) The holes made in a wall to receive the head of a tie-beam. (5) The openings of the scoops in a particular kind of hydraulic wheel called TYMPANUM (q.v.). [Illustration: Fig. 183. Columbaria in rock-hewn walls.] =Columella.= Dimin. of _columna_. (See COLUMN, CIPPUS.) =Columen=, Gr. and R. The highest timber in the framework of a roof, forming what is now called the ridgepiece. [Illustration: Fig. 184. Ionic column.] =Column=, Arch. A column consists of three principal parts: the base (_a_), the shaft (_b_), and the capital (_c_). In the _Doric_, or most ancient style, the columns in a row rest upon a common base (_podium_). In the Ionic and Corinthian, each column has its own base (_spira_). The shaft of all columns _tapers_ gradually from the base to the capital. Any swelling introduced to modify the straightness of the line was called _entasis_. On the summit of a row of columns rests the _architrave_, or chief beam (_d_); above this the _frieze_ (_e_), and the _cornice_ (_f_) projects above the frieze. These three together are called the _entablature_. The triangular gable-end of the roof, above the entablature, is called the _pediment_. A circuit of columns, enclosing an open space in the interior of a building, was called a _peristyle_. A temple of two stories, with one peristyle upon another (Ionic or Corinthian columns over the heavier Doric), was called _hypæthral_. In Christian archæology the column is a symbol of the Church, which was called, so early as St. Paul, _columna et firmitatum veritatis_ (the column and support of truth). =Colures.= In Astronomy, the two circles which pass through the four cardinal points of the ecliptic—the equinoctial and solstitial points. =Coluria=, Arch. Circular segments of stone, in the construction of a column, such as are now called tambours or disks. =Colus.= A distaff. With the Romans it consisted of a thick cane (_arundo_, _donax_), split at the end in such a way that the opening formed a basket. _Compta_, _plena_, or _lana amicta_ were the epithets applied to a _colus_ when filled with wool. The thread obtained from it was called _stamen_. The ball of loose wool at one end, prepared for spinning, was called _glomus_. The lower end of the distaff rested under the left arm; the right hand spun and wound the thread on to the spindles (called _fusus_). (See DISTAFF.) =Colymbion=, Chr., Med. A vessel for holy water at the entrance of a church. =Colymbus=, Gr. and R. A basin or reservoir used either as a swimming-bath or for washing linen in. =Coma= (κόμη). (1) The hair; hair of the head. (2) The mane of animals. (See CÆSARIES, CINCINNUS, HAIR, &c.) =Comatorius= or =Comatoria= (sc. _acus_). A long pin or bodkin of gold, silver, bronze, or ivory, used by the Roman ladies to keep up their hair when plaited. It was also called Acus CRINALIS (q.v.). (Compare DISCERNICULUM.) =Combattant=, Her. Said of lions, or other animals of prey, rampant and face to face. [Illustration: Fig. 185. Ancient Carved Ivory Comb.] =Combs= (Lat. _pecten_, Gr. κτεὶς), as used for combing the hair, but not for wearing upon the head, are found in Pompeian and Egyptian tombs, and in the early British, Roman, and Saxon barrows. In the Middle Ages ivory combs were richly carved, and the ceremonial combs for use in ecclesiastical ceremonies are especially splendid. Greek and Roman combs were of box-wood; Egyptian combs were of ivory. Uncombed hair was a general sign of mourning. (See DISCERNICULUM.) =Commentaculum= (from _commento_, to strike on the face). A staff or wand carried in sacred processions by the Roman priests to assist them in clearing a way and preventing the people from pressing in on them too closely. _Commotaculum_ was also used. =Commissatio= (from _commissor_, to revel). A revelling or feasting which began after the CŒNA (q.v.), and lasted far on into the night. (See SYMPOSIUM.) =Commistio= or =Commixtio=, Chr. The placing of a portion of the bread into the chalice of wine, during the ceremony of consecration. =Common-house.= The part of a monastery in which a fire was kept for the monks during winter. =Communicales=, Chr. Communion vessels, made especially to be carried in procession in Rome. =Compass.= In Music, the whole range of sounds capable of being produced by a voice or instrument. =Compass-headed=, Arch. A semicircular arch. =Compass Roof=, Arch. An open timber roof. =Compass Window=, Arch. A bay-window on a circular plan. =Compes.= (1) A ring of gold or silver worn by the Romans round the leg, just above the ankle. (2) The chains or shackles worn round the ankle by slaves or prisoners. =Compitalia=, =Compitales=. A festival held by the Romans in honour of the _Lares compitales_, celebrated in the cross-roads, _compitia_, where the images of those deities were often placed in niches. =Complement=, Her. Applied to the moon, when full. =Complement.= In Music, the interval to be added to another interval to make an octave; e.g. a third to a sixth; a fourth to a fifth, &c. =Complementary Colours.= If the whole of the light which is absorbed by a coloured body were reunited with the whole of the light which it reflects, white light would result; in this case the absorbed colours are complementary to those which are reflected. The colour given by a mixture of the colours of any portion of a spectrum is the _complement_ of the remaining portion. _Red_ is complementary to _Green_, _Orange_ to _Blue_, _Greenish-Yellow_ to _Violet_, _Indigo_ to _Orange Yellow_, and, in each case, _vice versâ_. =Completorium=, Chr. The last of the _Hours of Prayer_. =Compline=, Chr. Short evening prayers completing the daily round of devotion prescribed by the _Hours of Prayer_. =Compluvium=, R. An opening in the roof of the _atrium_, furnished with gutters all round, which collected the rain-water from the roof, and conveyed it into the basin (_impluvium_) in the middle of the atrium. =Compon-covert=, O. E. A kind of lace. [Illustration: Fig. 186. Capital of the Composite Order.] =Composite Order of Architecture.= The last of the five Roman orders, composed of the Ionic grafted upon the Corinthian order. The examples at Rome are in the arch of Septimus Severus, the arch of the Goldsmiths, the arch of Titus, the temple of Bacchus, and the baths of Diocletian. =Compound Arch=, Arch. A usual form of mediæval arch, which “may be resolved into a number of concentric archways, successively placed within and behind each other.” (_Prof. Willis._) =Compound Pier=, Arch. A clustered COLUMN (q.v.). =Compounded Arms=, Her. Bearings of two or more distinct coats combined, to produce a single compound coat. =Comus= (Gr. κῶμος). (1) A revel, or carousal which usually ended in the guests parading the streets crowned with garlands, &c. (2) Festal processions instituted in honour of Bacchus and other gods, and of the victors at the games. (3) Odes written to be sung at such processions, e. g. those of Pindar. =Comus= (Gr. κομμὸς, from κόπτω, to strike). (1) A beating of the head and breast in lamentation; a dirge. (2) A mournful song sung in alternate verses by an actor and a chorus in the Attic drama. =Concædes.= A barricade constructed of trees which have been cut down and placed across the road (to impede the enemy’s march). =Concamerate=, Arch. To arch over; to vault. =Concave.= Hollowed in; opposed to _convex_, bulging out. =Concha= (lit. a muscle or cockle). (1) A shell or shell-fish. (2) A Triton’s conch. In works of art, the Triton, or sea-god, has for a trumpet the _buccina_, remarkable for a spiral twist, long and straight; or the _murex_, equally twisted, but short and wide-mouthed. (3) The term was applied, by analogy, to various objects having the shape of a shell, such as cups or vases used for holding perfumes or for other purposes. (4) In Architecture, an apse, or a plain concave of a dome, is so called. =Conchoid.= A mathematical curve in the form of the outline of a shell. =Conclave= (with a key), Chr. (1) A meeting of cardinals assembled to elect a pope; and (2) the hall or apartment in which such meeting is held. The institution of the conclave dates from Gregory X. =Concrete=, Arch. A mixture of gravel, pebbles, or broken stone with cement. =Condalium= (κονδύλιον, dimin. of κόνδυλος, a knob or joint). A ring generally worn upon the first joint of the forefinger on the right hand. =Conditivium=, =Conditorium=. (1) An underground vault in which were chests or coffins for holding bodies which had not been reduced to ashes. (2) A sarcophagus in which the body was placed. (3) A kind of arsenal or magazine in which military engines were kept. =Condrak=, O. E. A kind of lace. =Condyle.= A knuckle; the rounded end of a bone; hence— =Condyloid.= Shaped like a _condyle_; and =Condylus.= Synonym of CONDALIUM (q.v.). =Cone.= A figure broad and round at the base, tapering upwards regularly towards a point. =Coney=, =Cony=, O. E. (1) A variety of the rabbit. (2) A beehive. =Confessio=, Chr. Originally the place where a saint or martyr was buried; thence the altar raised over his grave; and subsequently the chapel or basilica built there. =Congé=, Arch. The cavetto (hollow moulding) which unites the _base_ and _capital_ of a column to its shaft. =Congius= (deriv. doubtful). A Roman measure containing six _sextarii_ or twelve _heminæ_. It was used especially for measuring liquids. _Angl._ a pint and a half. =Conic Sections.= Curves formed by the intersection of a _cone_ and a _plane_; the circle, the ellipse, the hyperbola, and the parabola. =Conisterium=, Gr. and R. A room in which wrestlers, after having had oil applied to their bodies, were rubbed over with fine sand (κόνις). The _conisterium_ was an appendage to a palæstrum, gymnasium, &c. =Conopeum=, =Canopium=, Gr. and R. (from κώνωψ, a gnat). A musquito-net, of very light material, introduced into Rome from Egypt. [This is the origin of the English word _canopy_.] [Illustration: Fig. 187. Consecrated pyre on Roman medal.] =Consecratio=, R. A kind of apotheosis or deification by which a mortal was enrolled in the number of the gods. It was unknown under the republic, and was only instituted in the time and on behalf of the emperors. The ceremony was solemnized in the Field of Mars, and with the greatest splendour. A magnificent pyre was raised, from the top of which, when kindled, an eagle was let fly, which was supposed to carry up to the skies the soul of the deified emperor. Fig. 187, taken from a medal, represents one of these pyres. =Consentiæ=, Gr. and R. Festivals held in honour of the twelve principal divinities of Rome or Greece. =Consignatorium Ablutorum=, Chr. In early times there were baptisteries near churches, with a place closely adjoining in which to administer the rite of confirmation; it was the place specially set apart for the administration of this rite that was called _consignatorium ablutorum_. =Console.= A projecting ornament, in wood or stone, used as a bracket. =Constant White.= SULPHATE OF BARYTES (q.v.). =Constellations.= Groups of stars, mostly with classical names. _Ancient C._, forty-eight formed by Ptolemy in A. D. 150, with two others added by Tycho Brahe; _Modern C._, fifty-nine others since formed, many by Helvetius at the end of the 17th century. (_Rossiter._) =Constratum=, R. A flooring constructed of planks. (See COASSATIO.) =Consualia=, R. A festival of ancient Rome held in honour of the god _Consus_. It was from this festival that the games of the circus took their rise. Livy calls the god Neptunus Equestris. The feast was held with horse and chariot races. Horses and mules did no work, and were crowned with garlands during its celebration. The Rape of the Sabines took place at the first Consualia. =Contabulatio=, R. The long parallel folds formed in any garment of ample size, such as the _toga_, _palla_, and _pallium_. =Contignatio=, R. (a joining together of beams). The wood-work of beams and joists supporting the flooring in a building of several stories. The term is also used to denote the flooring and sometimes the story itself. =Continuous Impost=, Arch. In Gothic architecture, the mouldings of an arch, when carried down to the ground without interruption, or anything to mark the impost-joint. (_Newlands._) =Contoise=, Fr. A flowing scarf worn attached to the helmet before 1350. (See COINTISE.) =Contomonobolum=, R. A game which consisted in leaping over a wide space by aid of a pole (_contus_) which was used as a fulcrum. =Contorniate.= A class of antique medals having the _contour_, or edge, marked with a deep cut. They generally have monograms on the obverse, and scenes of mythology on the reverse. =Contour=, Fr. Outline. =Contournée=, Her. Facing to the sinister. =Contra=, in compound words in music, signifies _an octave below_: _contra-basso_, a double bass, &c. =Contra Votum=, Chr. (i. e. against one’s desires). A formula of grief, placed by the ancients on tombs, columns, and other sepulchral monuments, and adopted by Christians in the 5th century. (See ACCLAMATIONS.) =Contractura=, R. The tapering of the column, which begins from the upper part of the shaft, and gradually widens as it reaches the base. (See ENTASIS.) =Contralto=, It. In Music, the voice of deepest tone in females, allied to the tenor in men. =Contrapuntal=, Mus. Relating to COUNTERPOINT (q.v.). =Contre-imbrications.= An ornament cut in the form of fishes’ scales overlapping one another, the scales being indented. In the _imbrications_ they stand out. =Contrepoint=, O. E. (See POURPOINT.) =Contubernium=, R. (1) A tent capable of accommodating ten soldiers and their corporal (_decanus_). (2) A dwelling-place, especially for slaves. Hence _contubernales_ came to mean comrades, and generally persons living in intimacy under one roof together. =Contus= (κοντὸς), Gr. and R. (1) A punting-pole, used also for taking soundings; each trireme was furnished with three poles of different lengths. (2) A cavalry pike or lance. =Conus=, Gen. (κῶνος, a cone). (1) In general, any object of a conical form. (2) A kind of sun-dial described upon a hollow cone. (3) The metal ridge at the top of a helmet, to which the plume was attached. (See Fig. 252.) =Convivium=, R. A banquet which generally took place at about the same hour as the _cœna_, but which was never followed by a _commissatio_. (See CŒNA, COMMISSATIO.) =Coopertorium=, R. (that which covers). A rug of coarse cloth; a kind of blanket. =Cop=, O. E. Generally the top of anything; a mound or heap. (See BATTLEMENT.) =Copal.= A hard resin, which, dissolved in boiling linseed oil, forms an excellent varnish for pictures. It is also used as a vehicle for painting. The South African copal is the finest in quality. (See VARNISH.) =Copatain=, O. E. A sugar-loaf hat; “a copped-crown hat.” =Cope=, Chr. A sacerdotal garment, also called a _pluvial_, because it was originally worn by priests in processions as a protection against the rain. It was open in the front, and fastened on the breast by a “morse” or clasp. In the primitive Church the cope was furnished with a hood, and hence mentioned as CUCULLA. =Cope=, Arch. To top a wall with thin bricks or stone. =Coperone=, O. E., Arch. A pinnacle. =Cop-halfpenny=, O. E. The game of “heads and tails.” =Cop-head=, O. E. A crest of feathers or hair on an animal’s head. =Coping=, Arch. The capping or covering of a wall, generally sloping to throw off rain. In Fig. 77 two of the merlons are coped. =Cophinus.= Gr. and R. A large shallow wicker basket used for agricultural purposes. _Cophinus et fænum_, “a basket of hay,” is Juvenal’s word for the poor man’s bed. Compare English _coffin_. =Coppa Puerpera=, It. Caudle-cup. =Coppe= (It.), =Cups= (Sp. _copa_). The early Italian suit of playing cards corresponding to hearts. The _Rev. E. S. Taylor_ suggests, “The notion of hearts, as the seat of the affections, &c., is in connexion with the office of the _clergy_;” hence the _chalices_. (See CŒUR.) =Copped=, O. E. Crested. (For COP-HEAD, q.v.) =Copperas= (white) is considered the safest metallic _drier_ for pigments and varnish. [Illustration: Fig. 188. Ewer and basin of enamelled copper (Turkish).] =Copper-enamelling.= (Fig. 188.) (See ENAMELS.) =Copper-plate Engraving.= (See CHALCOGRAPHY.) =Coppet=, O. E. Saucy. =Coppid=, O. E. Peaked; referring to the fashion of the long peaked toe. =Copple-crowned=, O. E. With a head high and rising up, said of a boy “with his hair on end.” =Coppull=, O. E. A hen’s name (in the Turnament of Tottenham). =Cops= or =Merlons=, Arch. The raised parts of a battlement. (See Fig. 77.) =Coracle=, O. E. A boat of wicker-work covered with hides. =Coracoid= (κόραξ, a crow). In the form of a crow’s beak, e. g. a bone in the shoulder-blade. =Coral= (see AMULETS) is mentioned in the Lapidarium of Marbodus as a very favourite and potent amulet. “Wondrous its power, so Zoroaster sings, And to the wearer sure protection brings. And, lest they harm ship, land, or house, it binds The scorching lightning and the furious winds. Sprinkled ‘mid climbing vines or olives’ rows, Or with the seed the patient rustic sows, ’Twill from thy crops avert the arrowy hail, And with abundance bless the smiling vale.” (KING, _Antique Gems_.) =Coranach=, =Coronach=, Gaelic (_corah-rainach_, a crying together). A dirge. =Coranto=, It. An Italian form of the country dance or jig. =Corazza=, O. E. A cuirass. =Corbel=, Arch. A projecting bracket supporting a pier, cornice, or column. =Corbel Steps=, Arch. Steps into which the outlines of a gable are sometimes broken; also called CORBIE STEPS. =Corbel Table.= A term in mediæval architecture, applied to a projecting course and the row of corbels which support it. =Corbie=, Scotch. A raven; hence a “corbie messenger,” one that is long upon his errand, like the raven sent from the ark, who returned not again. =Corbie Steps.= (See CORBEL STEPS.) =Corbis=, R. A wicker basket of conical shape, used especially for agricultural purposes. A similar basket in every-day use in parts of Italy is still called “la corbella.” Cf. the German “Korb.” =Corbita=, R. A merchantman of the larger class, so called because it hung out a basket at the masthead. These vessels were also called _onerariæ_. =Corbona Ecclesiæ=, Chr. The treasure of a church, accumulated from the offerings of communicants at the Sacrament. The Greek synonym for this term is _gazophylacium_. =Corbula.= Dimin. of CORBIS (q.v.). =Corce=, O. E. The body, stomach. “He start to hym with gret force, And hyt hym egurly on the _corce_!” (_Old MS._) =Cordate=, =Cordiform=. Heart-shaped. =Cordax=, Gr. and R. A dance of the ancient Greek comedy of a ridiculous and indecent character. Fauns and satyrs are constantly represented dancing the _cordax_. =Cordeliers=, Fr. The Franciscan friars are so called from the _rope_ girdles they wear. =Cordevan=, O. E. A leather of goat-skin, originally from Cordova in Spain. Spelt also _Cordewayne_; hence _cordwainer_ or _cordiner_, a shoemaker. =Cordigard=, Med. (from the French _corps de garde_). A detachment of troops appointed for a particular service. [Illustration: Fig. 189. Corean tea-pot. (About A. D. 1562.)] =Corean Porcelain=, from a country intermediate between China and Japan, combines the qualities of the most ancient art of each. The tea-pot represented in Fig. 189 is covered with gravings in the paste imitating the waves of the ocean, and shows four times repeated an imperial Japanese device, by which it appears that the piece was destined for the Mikado. [Illustration: Fig. 190. Capital of the Corinthian Order.] =Corinthian Order of Architecture.= This order originated in Greece, and the capital is said to have been suggested by observing a tile placed on a basket left in a garden, and an acanthus growing round it. The principal distinction of this order is its capital, richly ornamented with leaves and flowers. Among the principal Corinthian examples are the temple of Vesta, the basilica of Antoninus, and the temples of Jupiter Tonans and Jupiter Stator; all at Rome. =Corium=, R. Leathern body-armour cut into scale form. =Cork= burned forms the pigment called _Spanish Black_. =Corn.= In pagan art, the attribute of Ceres and Justitia and Juno Martialis. =Cornal.= The head of a tilting-lance. (See CORONEL.) =Cornelian=, =Carnelian=, Gen. A variety of chalcedony of a horny transparency and a more or less deep red. Engraved cornelians have perpetuated much information about the manners and customs of the ancient Greeks and Romans. (See SARDS.) =Cornemuse.= A French form of the bagpipe. =Cornet.= (1) A kind of heraldic banner. (2) The bearer of the colours of a regiment. (3) Square caps worn in the Universities. (4) Any object having _corners_, or angular extremities. (5) An obsolete musical instrument, once in common use in Germany and in England, something like a HAUTBOY, but larger and of a coarser tone. (See WAITS.) =Cornice.= (See CORONIS.) =Cornichon=, Fr. A kind of game at “quoits.” [Illustration: Fig. 191. Coin showing the Corniculum.] =Corniculum=, R. (dimin. of _cornu_, and so a small horn). It was a mark of distinction conferred on a soldier who had distinguished himself by his conduct or courage, and was worn on his helmet. On Thracian and other coins we find representations of this horn as part of the royal head-dress. =Cornish=, O. E. The ring placed at the mouth of a cannon. =Cornlaiters=, O. E. Newly-married peasants begging corn to sow their first crop with. =Cornu=, =Cornus=, and =Cornum=, R. (1) The horn of an animal. (2) Any object made of horn or of a horn-like shape. The musical _cornu_ was curved; the straight horn was called _tuba_. =Cornu Altaris= (horn of the altar), in Christian archæology, means merely the _corner_ or _angle_ thereof. _Cornu Evangelii_ is the angle to the left, _c. Epistolæ_ that to the right, of the celebrating priest. =Cornu-copiæ=, R. Horn of abundance, a symbol of concord, prosperity, and good fortune. It was represented as a wreathed horn, filled to overflowing with corn and fruit. =Corolla=, R. (dimin. of CORONA, q.v.). The _corolla_ denoted in a general sense a small crown or even a garland; in a more restricted acceptation it was a garland of artificial flowers made of horn shavings and painted various colours. Women used to wear this kind of wreath during winter. =Corollarium=, R. (dimin. of CORONA, q.v.). It denoted especially a wreath made out of thin metal leaves, which the audience in a theatre presented to their favourite actors. [Illustration: Fig. 192. Mural crown.] [Illustration: Fig. 193. Naval crown.] [Illustration: Fig. 194. Celestial crown.] =Corona= (κορώνη), R. A crown or garland made with natural or artificial leaves and flowers (of horn, parchment, &c., or metal). There were many different kinds of _coronæ_, of which the principal were the following: _corona civica_; _corona classica_, _navalis_, or _rostrata_; _corona castrensis_ or _vallaris_; _corona longa_; _corona muralis_; _corona obsidionalis_; _corona natalitia_; _corona oleagina_; _corona ovalis_; _corona pactilis_, _plectilis_, or _plexilis_; _corona triumphalis_; _corona sutilis_, &c. The most honourable was the _c. obsidionalis_, presented by a beleaguered army, after its liberation, to the general who raised the siege. It was made of grass, or wild flowers plucked on the site. The _c. civica_ was presented to a Roman soldier who had saved the life of a citizen in battle. It was made of oak leaves. The _c. navalis_ was made of gold. The _c. muralis_, presented to the first man over the wall of a besieged city, was also made of gold, and it was ornamented with turrets. The _c. castrensis_, presented to the first soldier who forced an entrance into an enemy’s camp, was of gold ornamented with palisades. Of the _c. triumphalis_ there were three kinds: one of laurel or bay leaves, worn by the commanding officer during his triumph; one of massive gold held over his head; and a third of still greater value, also of gold. The _c. ovalis_, to commemorate an ovation to an officer, was made of myrtle leaves. The _c. oleagina_, of olive leaves, was given to common soldiers. Besides these, there were the various sacerdotal _coronæ_, emblematical of their functions: the funereal chaplets of leaves and flowers for the dead, called _c. funebres_ or _sepulchrales_; the wreaths of roses, violets, myrtles, ivy, &c., worn at convivial meetings, _c. convivialis_; and the bridal wreath, of Greek origin, made of flowers not bought, but plucked by the bride herself, the verbena being the chosen flower among the Romans, _c. nuptialis_; and finally the _c. natalitia_ suspended over the door of a house where a child was born. At Athens this was of olive for a boy, and of wool for a girl. At Rome the wreath was made of laurel, ivy, or parsley. The various crowns used in heraldry are described under their respective headings. (See CROWN.) =Corona= or =Drip-stone=, Gen. A moulding forming part of a cornice, the lower part or drip of which is grooved, so as to throw off the rain-water from the structure. Drip-stones are sometimes plain, sometimes decorated with rich sculptures. =Corona Lucis=, Chr. A lamp or chandelier suspended above the altar of a church, from which usually depended a jewelled cross. =Coronach=, Scotch. A dirge. =Coronarium= (aureum), R. The gold for a triumphal crown (_corona triumphalis_): it was sent by the provinces to a victorious chief or general. =Coronarium= (opus), R. Stucco-work applied to the decoration of a cornice or projecting moulding. =Coronel=, Med. The head of a jousting-lance, so called from its resemblance to a little crown. Twelve were allowed to a tilter in the time of Henry VI. (_Meyrick._) =Coronell=, O. E. A colonel. [Illustration: Fig. 195. Prince of Wales’s coronet.] =Coronets.= Ensigns of nobility worn upon the head, introduced into England about the middle of the 14th century. (See BARON, DUKE, EARL, &c.) Ladies also wore them surmounting the horned head-dress of the reign of Henry V. The engraving (Fig. 196) represents Beatrice, Countess of Arundel, with coronet. [Illustration: Fig. 196. Coronet of Countess of Arundel, _temp._ Henry V.] =Coronis= (κορωνίς). Anything curved; the _cornice_ of an entablature. =Coronize= (Gr. κορωνίζω, from κορώνη, a crow). To beg for the crow; said of strollers who went about begging with a crow, singing begging songs. (See CHELIDONIZE.) =Corporal=, O. E. The fine linen cloth or veil for the pyx, sometimes embroidered with golden thread and coloured silks. With such a “corporal” Mary, Queen of Scots, bandaged her eyes for her execution. =Corpse-candle=, O. E. A thick candle used formerly at _lake-wakes_. [Illustration: Fig. 197. Corpse or Lich-gate.] =Corpse-gate= or =Lich-gate=. A shed over the gate of a churchyard to rest the corpse under. (Fig. 197.) =Corrugis=, R. (_corrugo_, to wrinkle). Literally, wrinkled; a loose garment which was wrapped round the body, and fell into numerous folds, so as to present the appearance of a wrinkled surface. =Cors=, Arch. The shaft of a pinnacle. =Corsæ=, R. The mouldings decorating the surface of a marble door-post. =Corse=, O. E. (See CORCE.) =Corse of Silk=, O. E. Probably a silk ribbon. =Corselet=, Fr. A light breastplate; 16th and 17th centuries. =Corspresant=, Med. A mortuary. [Illustration: Fig. 198. Cortina.] =Cortina=, R. (1) A deep circular vessel in the shape of a saucepan, used for various purposes. (2) The snake’s skin spread over the tripod of the Pythoness at Delphi. (3) An altar of marble, bronze, or the precious metals, in the form of a tripod. (4) The vault over the stage in a theatre was called _cortina_, from its resemblance to the lid of a tripod. (5) Tables of marble or bronze, made to imitate the slab upon which the Delphic priestess sat, were also called _cortinæ_ Delphicæ. (See Fig. 199.) [Illustration: Fig. 199. Cortina (Etruscan).] =Cortinale=, R. A cellar in which wine was boiled in caldrons (_cortinæ_) to preserve it. =Corundum.= The Indian name for a very hard mineral called adamantine spar. The ruby and sapphire are varieties of _corundum_. =Corven.= O. E. for carven, cut. “_Corvene_ wyndows of glase, With joly bandis of brase.” (_Lincoln MS._) =Corvus=, R. (lit. crow). A crane or _grappling-iron_, used in naval warfare. It was a strong piece of iron with a spike at the end, which, being violently let down upon a ship from the yard-arm, or a special mast made for the purpose, went through the bottom and sank it, or at any rate grappled it fast. A variety of _corvus_ was also made use of in the assault of fortified places. =Corybantica=, Gr. and R. Festivals celebrated at Cnossus, in Crete, by the Corybantes, in honour of Atys and his mother Cybele. The priests ran through town and country carrying torches and uttering savage cries to the accompaniment of drums and cymbals. They performed frenzied dances known under the name of _Corybantic dances_. =Corycæum=, Gr. and R. A large apartment in a gymnasium or a large bathing establishment, for the _Corycobolia_ or sack-throwing, a game which consisted in suspending from the ceiling of the _corycæum_, at the height of about a yard from the ground, a sack filled with sand, bran, or seeds, to be thrust away with blows of the fist, and when it was in full swing to be stopped with the hands, back, or breast. The exercise was also called _Corycomachia_. =Corymbus=, R. (κόρυμβος, a cluster). (1) A bunch of any fruit that grows in clusters, such as ivy-berries. (2) A head-dress or wig arranged in the form of _corymbi_, in a knot at the top of the head, as that of Venus is represented in the Medici statue. (3) The term is also sometimes used as a synonym of APLUSTRE (q.v.). =Corynalle=, Arch. (See CORNAL.) “The schafte was strong over alle, And a well-shaped _corynalle_.” =Coryphæus=, Gr. (lit. at the head). (1) Any leader. (2) Esp. the leader of the chorus of the Attic drama. (3) An epithet of Jupiter Capitolinus. =Corytus=, Gr. and R. A bow-case. The quiver for arrows was called _pharetra_. [Illustration: Fig. 200. Cos—a Roman Grindstone.] =Cos=, R. A hone, whetstone, or grindstone. Fig. 200 is taken from an engraved gem. =Cosmi= (κόσμοι). The supreme magistrates in Crete. =Costanti=. One of the Italian literary academies. They had for their device the sun shining on a column, with the motto _Tantum volvitur umbra_ (the shadow only revolves). =Cote=, O. E. A woman’s gown; 15th century. =Cote Armour.= (See COAT ARMOUR, TABARD.) =Cote-hardie.= A tight-fitting gown; 14th century. =Cothurnus=, Gr. and R. The Buskin; a high boot of Greek invention, met with on representations of certain divinities and of some of the emperors covered with rich ornamentation. It is an attribute of the huntress Diana. The sole was thickened with cork for tragic actors, to make them taller. Horsemen wore it as high as the knee. =Cotillion= (Fr. _cotte_, an under-petticoat). A dance introduced from France, where it usually terminated a ball. =Cotise=, Her. A diminutive of the Bend, being one-fourth of its width. =Cotta.= A short surplice. =Cottabus=, =Cottabê=, =Cotabos=, Gr. and R. A game of Greek origin, played in various manners, by throwing wine into empty cups swimming on a basin of water, or into scales suspended above a bronze ornament. The man who drowned most cups won a prize, or he who made the best sound had a good omen. There were other methods. =Cotyla=, Gr. and R. A measure of capacity equal to half a pint English. =Cotyttia= (κοττύτια). Nocturnal festivals celebrated by the Edonians of Thrace in honour of a goddess called Cotytto (Cybele). [Illustration: Fig. 201. Hart _couchant_.] =Couchant= or =Dormant=, Her. In repose. The illustration gives the device of King Richard II., a white hart _couchant_ on a mount, &c. (Fig. 201.) =Coucher=, O. E. A book kept _couched_ or lying on a desk, e. g. books of the church services left in the places where they were used. =Coudières=. (See COUTERE.) =Coufic=. (See CUFIC.) =Coulisse=, Tech. A piece of timber with a channel or groove in it, such as that in which the side-scenes of a theatre move. =Counter=, Her. Reversed or opposite. =Counterfort=, Arch. A buttress. =Counterpoint=, Music. The art of combining melodies, or rather of adding to a melody harmonious parts. _Double Counterpoint_ is “a kind of artificial composition, where the parts are inverted in such a manner that the uppermost becomes the lowermost, and _vice versâ_.” (See _Stainer and Barrett_, _Dic. of Musical Terms_.) =Counter-proof.= An impression of an engraving printed from a wet proof. =Counter-seal= or =Secretum=. A seal on the reverse or back of another seal. Early seals were generally impressed on both sides. =Countess=, Arch. A roofing slate, 20 inches by 10 inches. =Couped=, Her. Cut off smoothly. The reverse of _erased_. =Coupled= (columns), Gen. Two columns are said to be _coupled_ when they are placed quite close to each other without touching. _Coupled heads_ is the term applied to two heads placed back to back upon the same pedestal or the same trunk. Many pedestals ornamented with HERMÆ (q.v.) are surmounted by coupled heads. =Courant=, Her. Running. =Course=, Arch. One range, or stratum, of bricks, stones, or other material in the construction of a wall. =Court Cards.= The king, queen, and knave of a suit. They were originally _named_ in France; e. g. the four _kings_ were Charlemagne, Cæsar, Alexander, and David; the four _queens_, Judith, Rachel, Argine, and Pallas; and the _valets_, Lahire, Hector, Lancelot, and Hogier. Of these the _kings_ were said to represent the four ancient monarchies of the Jews, Greeks, Romans, and Franks; and the _queens_, wisdom, birth, beauty, and fortitude. (_Taylor._) (See CHATRANG.) =Court Cupboards=, O. E. Richly carved and large cupboards for plate and other valuables, _temp._ Charles I. =Court Dish=, O. E. A kind of drinking-cup. =Courtepy= (Teutonic). Short cloak or gown. =Coussinet=, Arch. The crowning stone of a pier, lying immediately under the arch. =Coutel=, Fr. A short knife or dagger in use in the Middle Ages. =Coutere= or =Coutes=. The elbow-piece in armour. [Illustration: Fig. 202. Couvre-feu (Curfew).] =Couvre-feu=, Angl. =Curfew=. A screen used, as its name implies, for covering the fire; introduced with the famous Curfew-bell, _temp._ William Rufus. (Fig. 202.) =Cove=, Arch. A name for concave mouldings or other concavities. =Coved Ceiling=, Arch. A ceiling springing from the walls with a cove. =Coventry Blue.= A celebrated “blew threde” made at Coventry, _temp._ Elizabeth. =Covert=, Her. Partly covered. =Covinus=, R. (Celtic, _kowain_). A war-chariot. The spokes of its wheels were armed with scythes. [It was used by the ancient Britons. The Romans gave the name to a close travelling carriage covered in all round.] (Compare CURRUS, CARPENTUM.) =Coward= or =Cowed=, Her. An animal with its tail between its legs. =Cow-lady=, O. E. The lady-bird. “A paire of buskins they did bring Of the _cow-ladye’s_ corall wyng.” (_Musarum Deliciæ._) =Cowl=, Mod. (from _cuculla_, CUCULLUS, q.v.). A priest’s hood. =Cox= or =Cokes=, O. E. A fool; hence _Coxcomb_, for the top of a fool’s cap. =Crackle Porcelain= or =Cracklin=. A kind of china, the glaze of which has been purposely cracked all over in the kiln. The Chinese have many kinds of this manufacture, some of which are extremely rare and valuable. White and grey are the common colours amongst modern crackle. The yellow and cream-coloured specimens are much prized: these are seldom seen in Europe. The greens, light and dark, turquoise, and reds are generally finely glazed, and have the crackle lines small and minute. In colouring, these examples are exquisite, and in this respect they throw our finest specimens of European porcelain quite into the shade. The green and turquoise crackle made in China at the present day are very inferior to the old kinds. Perhaps the rarest and most expensive of all ancient crackles is a yellowish stone-colour. (_Fortune._) =Crackled Glass.= (See GLASS.) =Cracowes.= Long-toed boots and shoes, introduced in 1384. =Cradle Vault=, Arch. A cylindrical vault. =Cradling.= A builder’s term for a timber frame for a ceiling, &c. =Craig=, Scotch. (1) A rock. (2) The neck; throat. =Crampet.= The decorated end of a scabbard. =Crampon.= The border of gold which keeps a stone in a ring. (See COLLET.) =Cramp-ring=, O. E. A ring consecrated on Good Friday, an amulet against cramp. =Crancelin=, Her. (from the German _Kranzlein_, a small wreath). The chaplet that crosses the shield of Saxony. It is said to be an augmentation conferred by the Emperor Barbarossa, who took from his head his own chaplet of rue, and threw it across the shield of the Duke of Saxony. (_Boutell._) =Crane’s-bills.= Geraniums, so called from the shape of their seed-vessels. =Crannogs=, Irish. Lake fortresses constructed on artificial islands. =Crapaudine Doors.= A technical name for doors that turn on pivots at top and bottom, or are hung with so called _centre-pin_ hinges. =Crash.= The grey linen used for the kind of embroidery called _crewelwork_. [Illustration: Fig. 203. Silver Crater (Roman). Found at Hildesheim.] =Crater=, Gr. and R. (κρατὴρ, from κεράννυμι, to mix). (1) A large and beautiful vase with a wide open mouth, in which the wine and water was mixed which was handed round at banquets and sacrifices. It was into vases of this description that slaves dipped a ladle (_cyathus_), with which they filled the cups. The beautiful silver _crater_ shown in the illustration (Fig. 203), of a date not later than the 1st century, was found with other treasures of a similar kind at Hildesheim, near Hanover, in 1869. It is now in the Berlin Museum. (2) The mouth of a volcano is named from its resemblance to the Greek crater. (3) A small constellation of the southern hemisphere called the Cup. =Crates=, R. A frame or basket made of hurdles, and so a hurdle itself. (English, “_crate_.”) =Craticula=, R. (dimin. of _crates_). A small hurdle, and by analogy, a gridiron, which looks like a small hurdle. =Creag=, O. E. The game of ninepins. =Creagra.= Gr. (κράγρα, from κρέας and ἀγρέω, i. e. a flesh-hook). A synonym of the Latin term HARPAGO (q.v.). =Creasing.= A builder’s word for a row of tiles under the coping of a wall. =Credence Table.= The small table beside an altar, on which the communion was placed before consecration. =Creme-box=, O. E. A chrismatory (q.v.). =Cremesyn=, O. E. Crimson velvet. =Cremium=, R. (_cremo_, to burn). Small wood, made up into bundles, used by bakers, and for lighting the hypocausts under the baths. =Crenel.= The peak at the top of a helmet. =Crenellated=, Her. Embattled. (See BATTLEMENT.) [Illustration: Fig. 204 Crenellated walls at Pompeii.] =Crenelle=, Fr. A cutting or indentation of the walls of a fortress or tower, &c. The spaces between the solid masonry are called _embrasures_, and the solid portions themselves _merlons_; usually the tops of the merlons are coped to throw off rain. (See COPING.) Fig. 204 shows a portion of the crenellated walls of Pompeii restored. (See Fig. 77.) =Crepida=, Gr. and R. (κρηπίς). A slipper made of a strong leather sole, to the edges of which was fixed a piece of leather with eyelet-holes (_ansæ_) for the laces (_corrigiæ_) or a strap (_amentum_). This shoe was of Greek origin. _Crepida carbatina_ was the name given to a shoe of the simplest and plainest description. (See CARBATINA.) [This shoe is only found represented on figures clothed with the _pallium_, not the _toga_.] [Illustration: Fig. 205. Crepido in a street in Pompeii.] =Crepido=, Gr. and R. (κρηπίς). In a general sense, any kind of base or stand upon which another object rests, and by analogy the embankment of a quay, a dike, or jetty. The term is also applied to the raised causeway for foot passengers at the side of a road or street. Fig. 204 represents a _crepido_ on a high road near Pompeii, and Fig. 205 a _crepido_ in the streets of the same town. =Crepitaculum=, R. (_crepo_, to creak). A child’s rattle, made in the form of a circle to which bells were attached. These rattles have been found in the excavations of Pompeii. Some authors apply the term to the SISTRUM of the Egyptians. =Crepitus= (sc. _digitorum_), R. A snapping of the fingers made by pressing the tip of the thumb firmly against the tip of the middle finger. =Crepundia=, R. A general term for playthings for children, as well as for necklaces of various ornaments, or amulets. These were in some instances of great length, and were worn by the children like shoulder-belts. =Créquier=, Her. The wild plum-tree: the device of the Créquy family. [Illustration: Fig. 206. Crescent.] =Crescent=, Her. The _difference_ of the second son. The moon is a crescent when she appears as in Fig. 206. (Compare DECRESCENT, INCRESCENT.) =Cresolite=, O. E. Crystal. =Crespine=, Fr. A network to confine the hair of ladies; the _calantica_ of the ancients. It is found in mediæval monuments in a variety of forms. =Cressets.= A small pan or portable fireplace, filled with combustibles, used for illuminating purposes; 16th century. Her., a beacon. (See Fig. 54.) =Crest=, Arch, (_crista_). A running ornament, more or less incised and perforated, which is placed on the ridge of roofs. Many monuments of antiquity have been adorned with terra-cotta crests; in the Romano-Byzantine architecture examples occur which are made of stone, while in Pointed or Renaissance art they were made of lead. [Illustration: Fig. 207. Royal crest of England.] =Crest=, Her. (Lat. _crista_). This word, familiar to us as the name of an ornament surmounting the helmet and the insignia of a gentleman of coat armour, signified in classic times a comb terminating in a peak in front of the casque decorated with horsehair or plumes. (See CRISTA, Fig. 252.) The earliest appearance of a crest in England is on the second seal of Richard I. Fig. 207 illustrates the manner in which the crest is worn upon the royal crown of England. Crests are not worn by ladies, excepting by the Sovereign. (See PANACHE.) [Illustration: Fig. 208. Crest-coronet.] [Illustration: Fig. 209. Crest-wreaths.] =Crest-coronet=, =Crest-wreath=, or =Orle=, Her. A coronet or wreath to support a crest. (Fig. 208 and 209.) =Crest-tiles.= Tiles used for covering the ridge of a roof. =Creta Lævis.= A crayon of permanent colour for chalk drawing. =Crewel-work.= (See CRASH.) =Crewels.= A worsted of two plies adapted for embroidery. =Crewetts.= Small vessels used at the altar, to hold the wine and water for consecration. =Crimson= (Arab, _cremisi_, the cochineal insect). A deep tone of red, tinged with blue. =Crinale=, R. (_crinis_, the hair). A large convex comb worn by women and children at the back of the head. =Crined=, Her. Having a mane or hair. =Crinetts=, O. E. The long small black feathers on a hawk’s head. (_H._) =Crinze=, O. E. A drinking-cup. (_H._) =Criobolè=, Gr. (κριοβόλη). A sacrifice to Cybele, so called because the victim was a ram (κριός). =Crista=, R. The crest of the helmet, which was attached to an elevated ridge (generally of horsehair). A fine example is given in the head of “Rome,” on the Tazza of Diruta. (Fig. 252.) (See CREST.) =Cristatus=, R. (_crista_). Having a ridge and a crest. (Fig. 252.) =Cristendom=, O. E. Baptism. “And that bastard that to the ys dere, _Crystyndome_ schalle he none have here.” (_H._) =Cristygrey.= A kind of fur much used in the 15th century. “Of no devyse embroudid hath hire wede, Ne furrid with ermyn ne with _cristygrey_.” =Crites= (κριτής). A judge in _equity_, as opposed to DIKASTES, a judge in _law_. =Croakumshire.= An ancient name for the county of Northumberland. (_H._) =Crobbe=, O. E. Knops of buds hung as ornaments from a roof. =Crobylus=, Gr. and R. (κρωβύλος). A method of arranging the hair peculiar to the inhabitants of Athens. The hair, rolled up in a knot on the top of the head, was fastened with golden clasps in the shape of grasshoppers. The name applies only to men’s hair; the same fashion for women was called _Corymbus_. =Croc= or =Crook=. A curved mace. =Crocea.= A cardinal’s cloak. =Crochet.= Knitting done with linen thread, and used under the name of _nun’s lace_ from the 16th century for bordering altar-cloths, albs, &c. [Illustration: Fig. 210. Crocket.] =Crocket.= (1) An architectural enrichment, generally of leaves or flowers; an ornamentation peculiar to the pointed style of architecture. (Fig. 210.) (2) A large roll of hair, much worn in the time of Edward I. “His _crocket_ kembt, and thereon set A nouche with a chapelet.” =Crocota=, Gr. and R. (from κρόκος, crocus). A very rich robe of saffron colour, whence its name. It was worn by Greek and Roman women as a gala dress, especially at the Dionysia. [Illustration: Fig. 211. Cromlech.] =Cromlec’h=, Celtic (from _cromm_, curved, and _lec’h_, place). An enclosure formed by _menhirs_, or huge stones planted in the ground in a circle or semicircle. These enclosures (Fig. 211) were consecrated places used as burying-grounds. (See STANDING STONES, DOLMENS, MENHIRS, &c.) [Illustration: Fig. 212. Cross _Recercelée_.] [Illustration: Fig. 213. St. Andrew’s Cross (_Saltire_).] [Illustration: Fig. 214. St. George’s Cross _fimbriated_.] [Illustration: Fig. 215. Victoria Cross.] =Cross=, Chr. (_Crux_). The symbol of the Christian religion. The ordinary or primitive type of cross has no summit. It is called _commissa_ or _patibulata_, and sometimes the _Tau_ cross, from its resemblance to the Greek letter so named (T). Fig. 121 represents a stone cross of the Romano-Byzantine period, at Carew, in England. The St. Andrew’s cross has the form of an X. The Greek cross is of four equal parts. The Latin cross has the foot longer than the summit or arms. The Maltese cross and the cross of Jerusalem are varieties of the Greek cross. The Patriarchal cross (heraldic) has two cross pieces, the triple cross has three, &c. PER CROSS, in heraldry, is the division of a shield _quarterly_ (a combination of pale and fesse). (Figs. 212 to 215.) =Cross and Pile=, O. E. The game of “heads and tails.” =Cross-aisled=, Arch. Having TRANSEPTS. =Cross-bows= were brought to England by the Crusaders. They were frequently richly carved and inlaid. =Cross-days=, O. E. The three days before Ascension Day. =Cross-gartered.= Having the garters crossed on the leg. (_H._) =Cross-hatching.= A term in engraving applied to lines which intersect at regular angles, to increase depth of shadow. =Crossos=, Gr. (κρωσσός). A wide-bodied vessel narrowing towards the mouth; it is furnished with a stand and two handles or ears (δίωτοι). =Cross-row=, O. E. The alphabet. (See CHRIST-CROSS.) =Cross-springer=, Arch. In vaulting, the diagonal rib of a GROIN. =Cross-vaulting=, Arch. That which is formed by the intersection of two or more simple vaults. When the vaults spring at the same level, and rise to the same height, the cross vault is termed a GROIN. The illustration (Fig. 173), the cloisters of the church of Mont St. Michel in France, shows the cross-vaulting. [Illustration: Fig. 216. Crotalia. Greek necklace.] =Crotalium=, Gr. and R. (from κροτέω, to rattle). A small rattle. The Greek and Roman ladies gave this name to their pendants formed of two or four pear-shaped pearls (_elenchi_), which rattled softly as the wearer moved about. (Fig. 216.) =Crotalum= Gr. and R. (κρόταλον). Castanets made of slit cane, used by dancers in the worship of Cybele. The Middle Ages also had their _crotala_, which consisted of a metal rod, in which were inserted rings, which sounded when the instrument was shaken. =Crow= or =Raven=. The attribute of St. Vincent. =Crowde= or =Croud=, O. E. (1) The crypt of a church. (2) A fiddle. =Crown.= (See CORONA. See also MURAL CROWN, NAVAL CROWN, CREST, &c.) [Illustration: Fig. 217. Crown of Her Majesty the Queen.] =Crown= (of a bell). The top of the inside of a bell, in which the ring is fixed from which the clapper is suspended. In architecture the spire of a steeple is said to _crown_ the tower, or a fleuron to crown a gable, &c. [Illustration: Fig. 218. Crown of the Rose.] =Crown.= An old English coin, the value of which has varied at different periods. The illustration represents the gold crown of Henry VIII., dated 1462, called a crown of the Rose, value 4_s._ 6_d._ Other crown pieces were called, from the mint-mark, crowns of the Sun. =Croyle=, O. E. Crewel; tightly-twisted worsted. =Crozier=, Chr. The name is often _improperly_ applied to the bishop’s crooked pastoral staff; it belongs to the staff surmounted by a cross which is borne before an archbishop. The Byzantine crozier was that of the T-shaped cross; it had sometimes curved serpents on both sides. =Crucifix.= The representation of the Saviour on the Cross was first introduced in the time of Constantine. It has undergone considerable variation at different periods. [Illustration: Fig. 219. Porcelain Cruciform Box (Egyptian).] =Cruciform.= Shaped to form a cross. The illustration represents a specimen of ancient Egyptian porcelain, of this shape, ornamented with the lotus. (See EGYPTIAN POTTERY.) =Crumata.= (See CRUSMATA.) =Crumena=, R. A leather pouch for carrying money. The _balantion_ of the Greeks was worn suspended from the neck by a strap. =Crumenal=, O. E. A purse. =Crupezia=, Gr. (κρούω, to strike). A kind of sandal with a double sole, in the middle of which were castanets with springs. (See CROTALUM.) Greek flute-players used them in the theatre to beat time to the singing and declamation of the chorus. [Illustration: Fig. 220. Device of the Della Cruscan Academy.] =Crusca, Accademia della.= A literary academy established in Florence in the 15th century by Cosmo de’ Medici; their device, a bolting-mill, represented in Fig. 220, was symbolical of their object to cultivate the Italian language by winnowing the flour from the bran; and in allusion to it, the members called themselves by appropriate names, as Infarinato, Rimenato, Gramolato, Insaccato, &c. On the top of the shield is the Marzocco, or Lion of Florence, the emblem of the city. =Crusilée=, =Crusily=, Her. Having the field semée of small crosses. =Cruske=, O. E. An earthen vessel; cf. the Irish _cruishkeen_. =Crusmata=, =Crumata=, Gr. and R. (κρούω, to strike). Castanets. =Crustæ=, R. In the finest works of the chaser, the ornamental pattern was frequently distinct from the vessel, to which it was either fastened permanently, or so that it could be removed at pleasure, the vessel being of silver, and the ornaments of gold, which were called _crustæ_ or _emblemata_ (Dr. Smith). Of these the former were the figures embossed in low relief, and the _emblemata_ were those in high relief. (See DAMASCENING, EMBLEMATA.) =Crustulum=, R. (dimin. of _crustum_). Anything baked; plaster mouldings; a cheap kind of decoration in bas-relief. =Crutch.= An attribute of St. Anthony, to denote his age and feebleness. =Crux.= The Latin equivalent for CROSS (q.v.). =Crwth= (A.S. _crudh_, Eng. _crowd_). A Welsh instrument, a sort of violin, similar to the _rébek_ of the Bretons. [Illustration: Fig. 221. Crypt at Lanmeur (France).] =Crypta=, =Crypt=, Chr. (κρύπτω, to bury). In ancient times the crypt was really a cloister; it formed, in fact, a long and narrow gallery surrounded by buildings, and itself surrounding a building, garden, or court. The courtyards of _villæ_ were surrounded by crypts; the ruins of Diomed’s _villa_, at Pompeii, afford a curious instance of the kind. In modern archæology the term crypt is applied to a subterranean chapel underneath a church. (Figs. 221 and 222.) Among the Romans the word meant (1) a covered portico, or arcade, called _crypto-porticus_. (2) A grotto, or more accurately a tunnel. (3) A subterranean vault used for secret worship. (4) In the catacombs, a tomb in which a number of bodies were interred together. [Illustration: Fig. 222. Crypt of St. Mary’s Church, Warwick.] =Crypteia= (κρυπτεία). A systematic massacre of Helots at night, by young Spartans, who hid themselves during the day. =Crystal.= Rock crystals are frequently found large enough to make vessels of. The Romans had crystal drinking-cups of extraordinary size and beauty. Crystal ornaments were especially chosen for ecclesiastical purposes, and for mediæval bookbinding, &c., and are frequently found in early British graves. =Crystalotype.= A sun-picture taken and fixed on glass by the collodion process. =Cubiculum=, R. and Chr. (_cubo_, to recline). (1) A bedroom. (2) The emperor’s pavilion or tent at the amphitheatre or circus. (3) In Christian archæology, the sepulchral chambers of the catacombs. (See CINERARIUM.) =Cubile=, R. (_cubo_). A bed, or chamber containing a bed. =Cubit= (Gr. πῆχυς, Lat. _cubitus_, an elbow). A measure of length among the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. In Egypt there were two cubits; the _natural cubit_, or small cubit, was equal to 18 inches (6 palms or 24 fingers); the _royal cubit_ to 21 inches (7 palms or 28 fingers). Each of the subdivisions of the cubit was consecrated to a divinity. The Greek cubit was equal to about 18¼ inches; the Roman cubit to very nearly 17½ inches. =Cubital=, R. A bolster or cushion used by the Romans to rest the elbow on when reclining. =Cubit-arm=, Her. A human arm couped at the elbow. =Cubitoria=, =-æ= (sc. _vestimenta_, _vestes_). (See CŒNATORIA.) =Cucullus=, R. Literally, a piece of paper rolled into the shape of a funnel, used at Rome by apothecaries and other tradespeople for wrapping up certain kinds of goods; and hence, by analogy, the hood affixed to certain garments, such as the _lacerna_, _pænula_, _sagum_, &c. (See COWL.) =Cucuma=, R. A term applied to various earthenware or metal vessels, when they were used to heat water or any other liquid. =Cucurbita=, R. A pumpkin or gourd, and thence a cupping-glass. =Cudo=, =Cudon=, R. A skull-cap made of soft leather or furs. =Cuerpo= (Span.). Body clothing, i. e. a jacket. =Cufic= (characters), Arab. The Cufic is the most ancient form of Arabian writing, and bears a great resemblance to the Syriac writing called _estranghelo_; it appears to have originated in the city of Cufa or Coufa, whence the name. =Cuirass.= (See CINGULUM, LORICA, PECTORALE, THORAX.) =Cuir-boulli=, Fr. Boiled leather, frequently mentioned by mediæval writers. It has lately been revived under the name of _impressed leather_, and brought to a high state of perfection. (_Fairholt._) Hence:— =Cuirbouly=, O. E. Tanned leather. [Illustration: Fig. 223. Cuisse.] =Cuisses=, Fr. Armour for the thighs, introduced about the middle of the 14th century. In early examples they consisted of one, two, or three pieces of plate overlapping; later on they were formed of one piece only, and finally were finished with a back piece, enclosing the whole of the thigh in armour. =Cuitikins=, =Cutikins=, Scotch. Guêtres, gaiters. =Cuker=, O. E. Part of a woman’s horned head-dress, “furred with a cat’s skin.” =Culcita=, R. A mattress of horsehair, wool, wadding, or feathers. =Culettes=, Fr. Plates of armour protecting the back, from the waist to the saddle. =Culeus= or =Culleus=, R. The largest liquid measure of capacity used by the Romans, containing 20 amphoræ, or about 119 gallons. The same name was also applied to a very large sack, of skin or leather, used for oil or wine. It was in the _culei_ that parricides were sewed up. =Culigna=, R. A vessel for holding wine. It was a kind of amphora of a broader form, its width exceeding its height. =Culina=, R. A kitchen. =Cullis=, Arch. Same as COULISSE (q.v.). =Culme=, O. E. The summit. =Cultellus=, R. (dimin. of CULTER, q.v.). A knife. _Cultellus ligneus_, a wedge of wood. =Culter= or =Culta=, R. A knife. _Culter coquinaris_ was a kitchen-knife; _culter venatorius_, a hunting-knife; _culter tonsorius_, a razor; _culter vinitorius_, or _falx vinitoria_, a vine-dresser’s pruning knife. The term denoted as well (1) the knife with which the officiating priest cut the victim’s throat; (2) a knife for carving, also called _cultellus_; (3) the _coulter_ of a plough fixed in front of the plough-share. =Culullus=, R. (_culeus_, q.v.). Generally, any drinking-vessel, and more particularly any earthenware vessel used by priests and vestals at sacrifices. =Culver=, A.S. A dove. =Culver-house.= A pigeon-house. =Cumera=, R. A kind of large box or basket employed by country people for keeping their seed-wheat in. =Cumerum=, R. A bridal basket containing the presents of the bride and bridegroom; it was carried by a _camillus_ in the bridal procession. =Cumpi-coptra=, Peruv. One of the divisions in the royal arsenals of the ancient Peruvians. It contained llama-wool, and textures of alpaca, embroidered in the college of the Virgins of the Sun (PASUA-HUASI), (q.v.). =Cunabula=, R. Literally, a child’s cradle, and thence a bird’s nest, a beehive, a native city; any place, in short, in which a living thing is born. A synonym for this term is CUNÆ. Bibliologists call early specimens of printing by this name, or INCUNABULA (q.v.). [Illustration: Fig. 224. Cuneiform characters.] =Cuneiform= (characters). Oriental characters formed by a single symbol, which is in the shape of a wedge (_cuneus_). This kind of writing has been in use among many nations; more particularly the ancient Persians, Persepolitans, Babylonians, and Ninevites. Fig. 224 represents the first cuneiform characters which found their way to Europe. =Cuneus=, R. (1) A wedge of wood, iron, or any other metal. (2) In a theatre or amphitheatre, a set of tiers comprised within two staircases (_scalæ_), so called from its wedge-like form. (3) A body of soldiers drawn up in the form of a wedge to break through the enemy’s line. The common soldiers called the formation _caput porcinum_, a pig’s head. =Cuniculus=, R. (_cuneus_). An underground passage to a fortified place. =Cupa=, R. A barrel or hogshead. _Vinum de cupâ_ was wine which had not been drawn off in amphoræ; it was wine from the cask, new wine. The cupa was sometimes made of earthenware like the dolium. It was used for many purposes besides that of a wine-vat. (See CUPELLA.) =Cupel.= A melting-pot for gold. =Cupella=, R. and Chr. (dimin. of CUPA, q.v.). In Christian archæology, a tomb. The word occurs on a catacomb marble, inscribed with grotesque Latin: “I, Secunda, erected this _cupella_ to my two children,” &c. [The cupa was sometimes used by the Romans as a sarcophagus.] (See CINERARIUM.) =Cupola=, It. A concave roof, circular or polygonal. =Cups.= (See COPPA.) =Curb Roof=, Arch. A Mansard roof; a roof with a double set of rafters on each side, of peculiar construction. =Curch=, Gael. A kerchief. =Curfew.= (See COUVRE-FEU, Fig. 202.) =Curia=, =Curiæ=, R. (1) A building in which the people met together to offer sacrifices and take part in the festivities on certain days of festival. (2) The _senatorial curiæ_ were buildings in which the senate usually assembled. (3) The _Salian curia_ was a place situated on the Palatine Hill, which formed the place of assembly for the _Salian_ priests who guarded the _anciles_ or sacred shields. (4) _Curia calabra_ was a small temple founded, almost simultaneously with the building of Rome, on the Palatine; it formed the observatory for the petty pontiffs whose duty it was to watch the appearance of the new moon. In Christian archæology the _Roman curia_ denotes the pontifical tribunals collectively. =Curliewurlies=, Scotch. Fantastical circular ornaments. =Currach=, Scotch. A coracle or small skiff; a boat of wicker-work covered with hides. [Illustration: Fig. 225. Currus. The Chariot of the Sun. The device of Philip II. of Spain.] =Currus=, =Chariot= (Gr. ἅρμα). A two-wheeled car or carriage in use among nearly all the nations of antiquity. There were racing-chariots, riding-chariots, and triumphal chariots. Some of these were profusely decorated with ivory (_currus eburnei_). War-chariots armed with scythes or sharp blades were called _falcati_. (See COVINUS.) The illustration (Fig. 225), a device of Philip II. of Spain, represents Apollo driving the chariot of the Sun. =Cursores.= “Runners” before their masters’ carriages; messengers generally. =Curtail Dog=, O. E. A dog belonging to a person not qualified to hunt game, which, by the forest laws, must have its tail cropped. =Curtail Step=, Arch. The first step of a stair, when its outer end is finished in the form of a scroll; when it has a circular end, it is called a round-ended step. =Cushat=, Scotch. A wood-pigeon. =Cushion-capital=, Arch. (1) A capital resembling a cushion pressed by a weight. (2) A cube rounded off at its lower angles; the capital most prevalent in the Norman style. =Cusp.= In Astrology, the “entrance” of a “house.” [Illustration: Fig. 226. Cuspis.] [Illustration: Fig. 227. Cuspis—Flint lance.] [Illustration: Figs. 228, 229, 230. Cuspides—Roman lances.] =Cuspis=, R. A point, more particularly the point of a lance, or javelin, since these were not barbed. Fig. 226 represents a javelin-head which gives a complete idea of the character of the point called _cuspis_; Fig. 227 shows a flint lance; and Figs. 228 to 230 the lance-headed _cuspides_ affixed to the top of the Roman ensigns. (See SPICULUM.) =Cusps.= The foliations of architectural tracery, such as are formed by the points of a trefoil. =Custodia.= The shrine or receptacle for the host in Spanish churches. =Cutlass=, =Coutel-hache=, or =Coutel-axe=, O. E. This weapon was introduced at the end of the 15th century. =Cut-work.= Also called “opus consutum;” _Ital._ “di commesso.” Open-work embroidery came into universal use in England in the 16th century. In the reign of Richard II., however, we are told,— “Cut werke was greate both in court and townes, Bothe in mene’s hoddies, and also in their gownes.” (See APPLIQUÉ.) =Cyanogen.= A gaseous compound of carbon and nitrogen, necessary to the formation of _Prussian blue_. =Cyathus=, Gr. and R. A vase or ladle with one handle, used for taking wine from the crater (κρατὴρ), in order to fill the cups (_pocula_, _calices_) of the guests, at feasts and banquets. The term was also used to denote a small measure containing the twelfth part of the _sextarius_, or ·0825 of a pint. The cyathus was used in medicine to measure drugs with accuracy. [It is often represented, on vases, in the hands of Bacchus, in place of his proper goblet the Cantharus.] =Cybistic= (dance), R. (κυβιστάω, to tumble). A part of the military exercises in which the performer threw himself at intervals on his hands, so as to rebound on his feet. =Cyclas=, R. (κυκλὰς, circular). A long and loose piece of drapery, of a very fine texture; it was hemmed with purple or gold embroidery. The _cyclas_ formed part of a woman’s costume, but it was also worn by men of an effeminate or dissolute character; hence— =Cyclas=, O. E. The name of a long sleeveless gown worn by knights over their armour (from _ciclatoun_, q.v., of which it was made). [Illustration: Fig. 231. Cyclopean Masonry.] =Cyclopean= (masonry, monuments), Gr. and R. (κυκλώπειον). Ancient structures, also known as _Pelasgian_, as being the work of Pelasgians who had learned in the school of Phœnician workmen called Cyclopes. These ancient structures are formed of enormous irregularly-shaped stones (Fig. 231), placed one above the other without cement or mortar. Remains of them are found in Asia Minor, Greece, and Italy; they consist chiefly of the walls of acropoles. [Illustration: Fig. 232. Cylix. A Gallic drinking-cup.] =Cylix=, Gr. and R. A vase also known as a _calix_ or _cup_. It was a wide flat drinking-cup, very shallow, of a circular form, with two handles, and mounted on a tolerably tall foot. Fig. 232 shows a silver cylix or Gaulish cup, found in the ruins of Alisia. [Illustration: Fig. 233. Decorated Cyma.] =Cyma=, =Cymatium= (Eng. =Ogee=, Gr. κυμάτιον). An architectural moulding, named from the Greek κῦμα (wave or billow), the moulding consisting of an undulation. A cyma, the outline of which is convex at the top and concave below, is called _cyma reversa_; when it is hollow in the upper part, it is called a _cyma recta_. (Fig. 233.) =Cymatile=, R. (κῦμα). A Roman female dress, of a changing sea-green colour, like the waves. =Cymba=, R. (κύμβος, a hollow). (1) A small boat. (2) A vase of metal or clay in the form of a small boat. (See CYMBIUM.) =Cymbals=, O. E. A contrivance of a number of metal plates, or bells, suspended on cords. =Cymbalum=, R. (from κύμβος). The cymbals; a musical instrument made of two disks of bronze or brass. (See CROTALUM, FLAGELLUM.) =Cymbe=, Gr. An ointment-pot, similar in shape to the _Ampulla_ (q.v.). =Cymbium=, R. (κυμβίον). A boat-shaped drinking-cup with two handles. (See CYMBA.) =Cynocephalus=, Egyp. An ape with a dog’s head; a sacred animal, representing Anubis in the Egyptian mythology. =Cynophontis= (sc. ἑορτὴ), Gr. (derived from the Greek κύων, dog, and φόνος, slaughter). Festivals held at Argos during the dog-days, when dogs found straying in the city were killed. =Cynopolites=, Egyp. (κυνοπολίτης). A nome of Upper Egypt. [Illustration: Fig. 234. Branch of Cypress and of Myrtle. Device of M. A. Colonna.] =Cypress.= In Persian art, this tree is the frequently-occurring emblem of the religion of Zoroaster, and of the soul aspiring to Heaven. In Christian and modern symbolism it is the emblem of mourning. The device of _cypress_ and _myrtle_ assumed by Marc Antonio Colonna on the occasion of the defence of Ravenna is emblematic of “_death_ or _victory_.” The wood of the cypress-tree was much used for statuary by the ancients. Carved chests of cypress were especially used, in the Middle Ages, for keeping clothes and tapestry; its aromatic properties were considered a specific against moth. (Fig. 234.) =Cyprus.= Thin stuff of which women’s veils were made. =Cyprus= or =Verona Green=. A pigment mentioned by Pliny as _Appian Green_: it is prepared from green earths found at Cyprus or Verona, which are coloured by oxide of copper. (See APPIANUM.) =Cysts= or =Cists=, Etrus. (κίστη, a chest). Offerings dedicated by women in the temple of Venus, of cylindrical caskets of enchased bronze. The handles of these caskets represent small figures, and the feet the claws of animals. Those which have been found in Etruscan tombs, chiefly at Præneste, are in many cases decorated with _a graffito_ designs. =Cyzicenæ=, Gr. (κυζικηναί). Large and richly-decorated apartments, built for the first time at Cyzicus, which had their principal fronts to the north, and were situated in a garden. D. =Dabber.= A tool used in etching to distribute the etching-ground over a plate of metal in the first process of engraving, and, in printing from copper-plate engraving and woodcuts, to spread the ink. =Dactyliography= or =Dactyliology=, Gen. (δακτύλιος, a ring). The study of rings. =Dactyliotheca=, Gr. (δακτυλιο-θήκη, a ringbox). (1) A glass case or casket containing rings. (2) A collection of rings, engraved stones, or precious stones. (See GLYPTOTHECA.) =Dactylus=, Gr. (δάκτυλος, a finger). The Roman _digitus_; a finger-breadth, the 16th part of a foot. =Dado=, Arch. (1) The part of a pedestal between the base and the cornice. (2) In apartments, an arrangement of moulding, &c., round the lower part of the wall. =Dædal.= A fanciful word coined by the poet Spenser, for “variegated in design.” =Dædala=, Gr. Ancient images preserved in sanctuaries in memory of Dædalus, to whom were attributed the greater number of those works of art the origin of which was unknown. Hence the name was especially attributed to certain wooden statues, ornamented with gilding, bright colours, and real drapery, which were the earliest known form of images of the gods. =Dædala=, Gr. (δαίδαλα). Festivals in honour of Hera, celebrated in Bœotia. =Dæmon=, =Daimon=, Gr. (δαίμων). The good genius who watched over an individual during his whole life, like the Latin _Lar_ and _Genius_. It was the belief of Socrates that he was guided by his Daimon in every important act and thought of his life. The word has a general meaning of “Divinity.” =Dag= or =Dagge=. Old English name of a pistol. =Dagges=, O. E. Ornamental cutting of the edges of garments, introduced into England about 1346. (See the illustration to COINTISE, Fig. 177). =Dagob=, Hindoo. A conical tumulus or shrine in which relics and images of Buddha were worshipped. =Dag-swain=, O. E. A sort of rough material of which coverlets for beds, tables, or floors were made. =Daguerreotype=. A kind of photography on plates of silver, named after M. Daguerre, the inventor. =Daidies=, Gr. (from δαίω, to kindle). A festival held at Athens, during which torches were lit; it lasted three days. [Illustration: Fig. 235. Dais.] =Dais=, Chr. An architectural structure, decorated with sculptures and ornaments, which serves as a canopy for an altar, throne, pulpit, chair (_cathedra_), statue, or group. Fig. 235 represents a stone dais of the St. Anne door in the cathedral of Paris. =Dais.= In Anglo-Saxon houses, and generally; a covered seat of honour, at the upper end of the hall, on a raised floor. (“In all the houses of the wealthy _in China_ there are two raised seats at the end of the reception-room, with a table between them.” _Fortune_.) (See DEAS.) =Dalmahoy=, O. E. A kind of bushy bob-wig, worn especially by chemists; 18th century. [Illustration: Fig. 236. Ecclesiastical Dalmatic.] =Dalmatic.= A long robe or upper tunic partly opening at the sides, so named from its being of Dalmatian origin; an ecclesiastical vestment; also a portion of the coronation robes of sovereign princes. It was usually made of white silk with purple stripes, occasionally of other colours, the left sleeve only being ornamented; the right was plain for convenience. As early as the reign of Richard I., the dalmatic is mentioned amongst the coronation robes. (Fig. 236.) (See COLOBIUM, DEACON.) =Damara= or =Dammar=. A resin used for varnishes. It is a valuable substitute for mastic. =Damaretion.= A Sicilian coin, supposed to have been of gold, equal in value to a half-_stater_. =Damas= (or =Damascus=) =Pottery Ware=. The commercial name in the 16th century for a large class of wares, now generally known as Persian. [Illustration: Fig. 237. Specimen of Arabic Damascening (full size).] =Damascening=, or =Damaskeening=, is the art of incrusting one metal on another, not in _crusta_, but in the form of wire, which by undercutting and hammering is thoroughly incorporated with the metal it is intended to ornament. (See DAMASK, DAMASCUS BLADES.) The process of etching slight ornaments on polished steel wares is also called Damascening. (Fig. 237.) =Damascus Blades= are prepared of a cast steel highly charged with carbon, which, being tempered by a peculiar process, assumes the manycoloured _watered_ appearance by which they are known. The process is called DAMASCENING (q.v.). =Damask.= A rich fabric, woven with large patterns, in silk, linen, wool, or even cotton, originally made at Damascus. (See Fig. 88.) =Dames=, O. E. The old name for the game of draughts, represented early in the 14th century. The pieces were originally square. =Danace= (δανάκη). The _obolus_ which was placed in the mouth of the dead to pay the passage of the Styx. =Dance of the Corybantes.= (See CORYBANTICA.) =Dance of Death=, =Danse Macabre=, Chr. Paintings, illuminations, or sculptures in bas-relief, representing men dancing under the eye of Death, who presides at this dance. In some instances the performers are skeletons and corpses. The most celebrated Dance of Death was that painted in fresco by Holbein in the cloister of the Dominicans at Basle. It has been destroyed by fire, but the etching-needle has preserved it for us. Other examples that may be named are, that in the new church at Strasburg, that of Lucerne, that in the palace at Dresden, and—most ancient of all—that at Minden, in Westphalia, which dates from 1380. =Dancette=, Arch. The chevron or zigzag moulding peculiar to Norman architecture. (See CHEVRON.) =Dangu Faience.= Pottery from a manufactory near Gisors in France, established in 1753. =Daphnephoria= (δάφνη, a laurel). A festival held in honour of Apollo every ninth year at Thebes, in which the assistants carried laurel branches. =Dara=, Ind. A kind of tambourine. =Darabukkeh.= An Egyptian drum, unaltered from ancient times. =Daric Money.= A Persian gold coin, stamped on one side with the figure of an archer kneeling, and on the other with a deep cleft, and to which the name of _Daric money_ has been given by numismatists. Its proper name is the Stater of Dareius I., king of Persia. Its value is about 1_l._ 1_s._ 10_d._ =Darned Netting= (needlework). (See LACIS.) =Datatim ludere=, R. To play with a ball (“_catch-ball_”). =Davenport Pottery= is the produce of a manufactory of fine faience established at Longport in England by John Davenport in 1793. =Day=, Arch. Part of a window: the same as BAY. =Deacon=, Chr. A dalmatic, or an alb; i. e. a _deacon’s_ vestment. =Dead-boot=, O. E., Chr. Prayers for the dead. =Dealbatus=, R. (_dealbo_, to whiten over). Covered with a coating of stucco (_albarium opus_). The builders of antiquity made great use of stucco, both in the interior and exterior of buildings. All the buildings of Pompeii are stuccoed. =Deambulatory=, Arch. (_deambulo_, to walk about). The lateral nave which surrounds the choir of a church; it is usually separated from the aisles by a grating (_cancelli_). =Deas=, =Dais=, =Dees=, Scotch, (1) A table, especially the great hall table. (2) A pew in a church. (3) A turf seat erected at the door of a cottage. (See DAIS.) =Death’s-man=, O. E. The executioner. =Debased=, Her. Reversed. =Decadence.= The term in ancient art is applied to the period after the fall of Rome, and before the _Renaissance_ in the 14th century; in modern art to the period of the _rococo_ style of Louis XV. =Decaduchi= (δεκα-δοῦχοι), Gr. A council of ten, who ruled Athens from B.C. 403 until the restoration of democracy. =Decan=, Egyp. A period of ten days, which was ruled by a star called its _Decan_. The month was divided into three decans, and the year into thirty-six, each being presided over by its own inferior divinity. On zodiacs they are arranged in groups of three above the twelve superior gods. The decans were the tutelary genii of the horoscope. =Decarchia= (δεκ-αρχία). A council of the Lacedæmonians. =Decastellare=, Med. Lat. To dismantle. =Decastylos=, Arch. A building of which the portico has ten columns; a decastylic pediment is a pediment supported by ten columns. =Decemjugus= (sc. _currus_), R. A chariot drawn by ten horses abreast; represented on the medals of the later emperors. =Decempeda=, R. A ten-foot measuring-rod used by architects and surveyors. =Decemremis=, R. (_remus_, an oar). A vessel with ten banks of oars. It is certain that the different ranks of rowers, who had each his own seat, sat one above the other; the lowest row was called _thalamos_, the middle _zuga_, and the uppermost _thranos_; but it is very difficult to understand in what manner so many ranks could have been arranged, and the question has been the subject of infinite discussion. =Decennalia= or =Decennia=. A festival at Rome in commemoration of the refusal of Augustus to become emperor for a longer period than ten years at a time. =Decollation= (= beheading). An ecclesiastical expression applied to St. John the Baptist and other martyrs. [Illustration: Fig. 238. Decorated window.] =Decorated Style of Architecture.= The second of the POINTED or GOTHIC styles of architecture used in England. It was developed from the EARLY ENGLISH at the end of the 13th century, and gradually merged into the PERPENDICULAR during the latter part of the 14th. Its most characteristic feature is the geometrical traceries of the windows. [Illustration: Fig. 239. Decrescent.] =Decrescent=, =In Detriment=, Her. A half-moon having its horns to the sinister. =Decursio=, R. (_decurro_, to run or march). Military manœuvres; a review, sham fight, or any exercise for training soldiers; the term _decursus_ was also used. =Decussis=, R. (_decem_, ten, and _as_). A piece of money marked with the numeral X (10), and which was worth ten asses (post-Augustan; see DENARIUS). =De Fundato= or =Netted=. A name given to certain silks, which were dyed of the richest purple, and figured with gold in the pattern of netting. =De-gamboys=, O. E. A musical instrument. (See VIOL DE GAMBO.) =Degradation=, Gen. The diminishing of the tones of colour, light, and shade, according to the different degrees of distance. (A term used especially in reference to glass painting.) =Degreed=, =Degraded=, Her. Placed on steps. =Deice=, =Deas=, or =Deis=, O. E. (See DAIS.) =Deinos=, Gr. A vessel with a wide mouth and semi-spherical body, something like the _cacabus_. =Delf.= Common pottery from Delft in Holland. [Illustration: Fig. 240. Oil cruet, Delft ware.] =Delft Faiences= are remarkable for the beauty of their paste and of their enamel, but spurious imitations are said to be abundant. Fig. 240 is a representative specimen of the real Delft ware. The date of the establishment of this manufacture is uncertain, but earlier than 1614; the ornamentation is inspired by Japanese art. (Consult _Jacquemart’s History of the Ceramic Art_.) =Delia=, Gr. Festivals and games at Delos. =Delphica= (sc. _cortina_), R. A table of a very costly description, made of white marble or bronze. It was used as a drinking-table, and had only three feet richly ornamented. [Explained under the heading CORTINA.] =Delphinia.= A Greek festival in honour of Apollo. =Delphinorum Columnæ=, R. The two columns at one end of the _spina_ of a circus, on which marble figures of dolphins were placed. The seven _ova_ (eggs) on similar columns at the end of the _spina_ opposite to these dolphins, served to indicate the number of turns made by the chariots round the goal. (See OVUM.) [The figure of the dolphin was selected in honour of Neptune.] (Cf. CIRCUS.) [Illustration: Fig. 241. Dolphin. Used as an ornament.] [Illustration: Fig. 242. Dolphin. Medal of Syracuse.] =Delphinus=, =Dolphin=, Gen. (δελφίν). The dolphin was often used as an ornament, and especially as a hand-rest or banister to the _vomitoria_ or entrances of the theatres and amphitheatres. Fig. 241 represents a dolphin utilized in this manner at the theatre of Puzzoli. Many medals, as for instance those of Syracuse (Fig. 242), are stamped with a dolphin. (See also DOLPHIN.) =Delphis=, R. A heavy mass of iron or lead used in naval warfare, to drop on board of a hostile ship and sink it. (Compare CORVUS.) =Delubrum=, R. (_deluo_, to cleanse). A shrine; the part of a temple which contains the altar or statue of the deity, and thence a temple containing an altar. =Demembered=, =Dismembered=, Her. Cut into pieces, but without any alteration in the form of the original figure. [Illustration: Fig. 243. Demi-lion, _rampant_.] =Demi=, Her. The half; the upper, front, or dexter half, unless the contrary is specified. =Demi-brassarts=, =Vambraces=, or =Avant-braces=. Half-armour for the arm. =Demi-culverin.= A cannon of four inches’ bore. (_Meyrick._) =Demi-hag.= A smaller kind of hackbut (arquebus). =Demi-haque=, O. E. A fire-arm, smaller than the arquebus; 16th century. =Demi-jambes.= Armour for the shins. =Demi-placcate.= The lower part of a breastplate. =Demi-relievo.= Sculpture in relief, in which one half of the figure projects; generally called _Mezzo-relievo_. (See BASSO-RELIEVO.) =Demiurgi= (δημι-ουργοί). Popular magistrates. =Demosii.= Slaves belonging to the state, at Athens. =Demotic= (writing), Egyp. (δημοτικὰ, sc. γράμματα, i. e. popular writing). A mode of writing among the ancient Egyptians, differing from the _hieroglyphic_ or sacred writing. This writing, which was employed for civil records, was introduced under the twenty-fifth dynasty, being derived from the _hieratic writing_, the first abbreviation of the hieroglyphics. =Demster=, O. E. A judge. =Demyt=, O. E. An old word for dimity; a kind of fustian. Perhaps so called because first manufactured at Damietta. =Denarius=, R. (_deni_, by tens). The silver coin principally in use among the Romans. Until the reign of Augustus the denarius was worth ten asses, and afterwards sixteen. _Denarius aureus_ was a gold denarius, equal in value to twenty-five silver denarii. =Denia.= A city of Valencia in Spain, which disputes with Alcora the production of a remarkable kind of pottery, of which Jacquemart mentions a vase with two handles of Arab form, resembling the alcarazas, upon a smooth white enamel decorated with birds and flowers coarsely painted. =Dens=, R. Literally, a _tooth_; hence the prongs of a fork, the flukes of an anchor, the barbs of a lance, the teeth of a saw or rake. =Dentale=, R. (_dens_, a tooth). The piece of wood in a plough on which the plough-share (_vomer_) is fastened. =Dentatus=, R. Armed with teeth. =Dentelle Decoration.= Of French pottery, a light lace pattern, more delicate than the “_lambrequin_.” =Dentels=, Fr. (See DENTILE.) =Dentile=, =Dentils= (Latin, _denticuli_), Arch. Ornaments in the form of small cubes or teeth, used in the moulding of cornices, in the IONIC, CORINTHIAN, and COMPOSITE orders. (See TOOTH-ORNAMENT, DOG’S-TOOTH.) =Depas=, R. A bowl with two handles, the foot of which is made of a low flat moulding like the Doric fillet. =Depressed=, Her. Surmounted, placed over another. =Derby Porcelain.= Manufactory established in 1750. Jacquemart says, “Derby has made fine porcelains and statuettes which have nothing to fear by comparison with the groups of Saxony or Sèvres.” =Dere=, O. E. Noble, honourable. “Syr Cadore with his _dere_ knyghttes.” =Derring do=, O. E. Deeds of arms. =Deruncinatus=, R. Smoothed and polished with the _runcina_ or carpenter’s plane. =Desca=, Lat. A stall or desk in a church. =Descobinatus=, R. Rasped with the SCOBINA or carpenter’s rasp. =Destrere=, Anglo-Norman. A war-horse. =Desultorius= (sc. _equus_), R. (_desilio_, to leap off). A horse trained for equestrian performances in a circus by the _desultor_. _Desultorius_ is itself sometimes used as a synonym for _desultor_. The _desultor_ rode two horses at once, and got his name from his _leaping_ or vaulting from one to the other. =Desvres=, Pas de Calais, France. An interesting manufactory of faience established in the 17th century, of a style originating in Flanders. (_Jacquemart._) =Detached.= A term in painting applied to figures which stand out well. =Detriment=, Her. (See DECRESCENT.) =Deunx=, R. (_de_ and _uncia_, a twelfth part off). A nominal value not represented by any coin. The term means literally eleven _unciæ_, or eleven-twelfths of anything [i. e. ounces or twelfths of a pound]. =Developed=, Her. Displayed, unfurled. =Devil=, Chr. Mediæval representations of the devil (especially in painting) were taken from those of the satyrs of the ancients. They were, however, subject to no canon of symbolism at all, and varied from the likeness of a beautiful woman to every imaginable variety of the grotesque and repulsive. [Illustration: Fig. 244. Old Devonshire Lace.] =Devonshire Lace (Old).= This lace is said to have been first introduced into England by the Flemings in 1567–73, and it long preserved its Flemish character. The engraving shows a specimen of old Devonshire lace, made at the beginning of the last century. =Devs=, Pers. Evil genii, servants of Ahriman, in the religion of Zoroaster; they were twenty-eight in number, and were opposed to the ministers of the amchaspands or IZEDS (q.v.). =Dextans=, R. (_de_ and _sextans_, i. e. a sixth part off). A nominal value not represented by any coin. The literal meaning of the term is ten _unciæ_, or ten-twelfths of anything [ounces]. =Dexter=, Her. The right side, i. e. to the spectator’s or reader’s left. [Illustration: Fig. 245. Dextrochere or bracelet.] =Dextrale=, R. (_dexter_, right). A bracelet worn by Greek and Roman women on the right arm, and differing from the _dextrocherium_ (Fig. 245), which was worn on the wrist. The latter ornament was often of gold. (See ARMILLA.) =Dholkee=, Hindoo. A kind of tom-tom, or small drum. (See TOM-TOM.) =Diabathrum=, Gr. and R. (βάθρον, that on which one stands). A sandal or light shoe worn by women, especially such as were tall. The comic poet Alexis, talking of courtesans, says, “One is too short, and so she puts cork in her _baukides_; another is too tall, and she puts on a light _diabathrum_.” =Diaconicum=, =Scevophylacium=, and =Bematis Diaconicon=, Chr. A room in an ancient basilica near the altar, where the priests put on and took off their vestments, and the deacons (διάκονοι) prepared the vessels and sacred ornaments to be used in the service. _Diaconicum majus_ was the sacristy. =Diadema=, R. (diadeô, to bind round). Originally the white fillet worn by Eastern monarchs round the head. It was made of silk, wool, or yarn, narrow, but wider in the centre of the forehead. The Greeks presented a diadem to every victor in the public games, and it was worn by priests and priestesses. As the emblem of sovereignty it is an attribute of Juno. Afterwards the term came to mean a diadem. =Diæta=, Gr. and R. (i. e. a living-place). That part of a house in which a Roman received his guests. The same term was applied to a captain’s cabin in the after-part of a ship. =Diætæ=, R. Summer-houses. (See HORTUS.) =Diaglyph=, Gr. and R. (διαγλύφω, to carve through). An intaglio, or design cut into the material on which it is executed. (See INTAGLIO.) =Diaglyphic.= (Sculpture, engraving, &c.) in which the objects are sunk below the general surface. =Diagonal Rib=, Arch. A cross formed by the intersection of the ribs which cut one another according to the groins of a groined roof. =Dialia=, Gr. and R. (διάλια, from Δὶς, old form for Ζεύς). Festivals held in honour of Jupiter by the Flamen Dialis (the priest of Jupiter). =Diamastigosis=, Gr. (διαμαστίγωσις, i. e. a severe scourging). A festival held at Sparta in honour of Artemis Orthia, during which boys were flogged at an altar in order to harden them to the endurance of pain. [Illustration: Fig. 246. Diamicton.] =Diamicton=, Gr. and R. (διαμίγνυμι, to mix up). A wall, of which the outside surface was made of brickwork or regular layers of masonry, and the centre was filled up with rubble. Fig. 246. =Diamond=, for glass-cutting, was not used till the 16th century, although suggested in a Bolognese MS. of a century earlier. Its discovery is attributed to Francis I., who, to let the Duchesse d’Estampes know of his jealousy, wrote on the palace windows with his ring,— “Souvent femme varie; Mal habil qui s’y fie.” The art of cutting and polishing diamonds with diamond powder was discovered by Louis de Berquem in 1476. =Diamond=, in Christian art. (See WHITE.) =Diamond Fret=, Arch. The descriptive name for a decorated moulding in Norman architecture. [Illustration: Fig. 247. Di-amante, Punning device of Pietro de’ Medici.] =Diamond Rings= were used as seal and bearings on his escutcheon (represented in Fig. 100) by Cosmo de’ Medici, the founder of the famous Florentine family. The device in various forms was invariably adopted by his descendants. Fig. 247 is the device of Pietro de’ Medici († 1470), the son of Cosmo: a falcon with a ring, and the punning motto, “Semper,” forming with the device the words “_Semper fa-’l-con di_ (Dio) _amante_.” =Diapasma=, Gr. and R. (διαπάσσω, to sprinkle). A powder made of dried flowers and odoriferous herbs, which was put in a sachet for use as a perfume, or rubbed over the body. =Diaper=, Arch. Ornament of sculpture in low relief, sunk below the general surface. =Diaper=, O. E. A mode of decoration by a repeated pattern, carved or painted, generally in squares, representing flowers and arabesques. [Illustration: Fig. 248. Diapered surcoat of a Herald, with the clarion.] =Diaper= or =Damask=, a name given to a fine linen cloth made at Ypres, is spoken of as early as the 13th century. “Of cloth making she had such a haunt, She passed hem of Ypres and of Gaunte.” (_Prologue of Canterbury Tales._) The peculiarity of this cloth, as of that of Damascus, was in the pattern. “_To diaper_” is, in heraldry, to cover the field of an escutcheon with devices independent of the armorial bearings. The engraving shows a surcoat diapered, on which are embroidered armorial bearings. (Fig. 248.) =Diasia=, Gr. Festivals in honour of Zeus, held at Athens, outside of the walls of the city, for the purpose of averting epidemics and other ills (ἄση). =Diastyle=, Arch. An intercolumniation, in which the columns are separated from each other by a space of three diameters. =Diathyrum=, Gr. A passage leading at one end to the street door of a house, and at the other to the door of the courtyard. The Romans called this space PROTHYRUM (q.v.). [Illustration: Fig. 249. Diatonoi.] =Diatoni=, =Diatonoi=, Gr. and R. (διατείνω, to extend through). Long stones extending from one face of a wall to the other (to which modern architects give the name of _perpenders_ or _perpend-stones_), and which were employed in the method of construction called EMPLECTON (q.v.). In Fig. 249 one is represented by the stone placed between b and c. =Diatreta=, Gr. (διάτρητα, i. e. bored through). A drinking-cup made of glass, cut in such a way that the designs or ornaments upon it stand out completely from the body of the vase, and form a tracery, which is only united to the vase itself by small ties or pins left for the purpose. =Diatriba=, Gr. and R. (διατρίβω, to spend time). Places in which learned discussions were held, such as lecture or assembly rooms. =Diaulos=, Gr. The double flute. (See AULOS, FLUTE.) One in the British Museum, found in a tomb at Athens, is of cedar-wood, with tubes fifteen inches in length. =Diazoma=, Gr. (διάζωμα, that which girdles). A Greek synonym of the Latin term PRÆCINCTIO (q.v.). =Dicasterion=, =Dicastery=, Gr. (δικαστήριον; δίκη, justice). A tribunal at Athens in which the people themselves administered justice without the intervention of the magistrates. =Dicastes.= A judge, or rather juryman, chosen annually from the citizens at Athens. =Dicerion=, Chr. (δι-κέραιον, with two horns). A candlestick with two branches, holding which in their hands the Greek priests bless the people. The _dicerion_ is symbolical of the two-fold nature of Christ. (See TRICERION.) =Dichalcon=, Gr. (δίχαλκος, i. e. double-chalcos). A small Greek copper coin worth only one-fourth or one-fifth of an obolus. =Dichoria=, Gr. (δι-χορία, i. e. division of chorus). When the ancient choruses divided into two, to recite in turn a part of the action of a play, or mutually to interchange sentiments, this action was called _dichoria_; each half of the chorus was called _hemichoria_ (ἡμιχορία), and each stanza _antichoria_ (ἀντιχορία). =Dicken=, O. E. The devil. “Odds dickens!” =Dicker=, O. E. Half a score. =Dicomos=, Gr. (κῶμος, a feast). A banqueting-song, which was sung at the second course of the feast at the festivals of Bacchus. =Dicrotos=, =Dicrotus=, Gr. (δί-κροτος, lit. double-beating). The Greek name for a vessel with two banks of oars, the Roman _biremis_. =Dictynnia= (δίκτυον, a hunter’s net). A Cretan festival in honour of Artemis. [Illustration: Fig. 250. Dictyotheton.] =Dictyotheton=, Gr. (from δίκτυον, a net). A kind of masonry composed of regularly-cut square stones, forming, in a wall so constructed, a network or chess-board pattern. It answered to the _opus reticulatum_ of the Romans. =Didrachma=, =Didrachmum=, Gr. (δί-δραχμον). A double silver drachma of the Greek coinage, which was worth about two shillings. =Die.= In Architecture, for _dado_, or the part of a pedestal that would correspond to the _dado_ (q.v.). =Die-sinking.= The art of engraving on steel moulds, medals, coins, and inscriptions. =Difference=, =Differencing=, Her. An addition to, or some change in, a coat of arms, introduced for the purpose of distinguishing coats which in their primary qualities are the same. Differencing is sometimes used in the same sense as Cadency; but, strictly, it is distinct, having reference to alliance and dependency, without blood-relationship, or to the system adopted for distinguishing similar coats of arms. (_Bouteil._) =Digitale=, R. (_digitus_, a finger). A kind of glove worn by the Sarmatians, an example of which may be seen on Trajan’s Column. =Diglyph=, Gr. and R. (δί-γλυφος, doubly indented). An ornament consisting of two _glyphæ_ (γλυφαὶ) or grooves channelled out on consoles. (See TRIGLYPH.) =Diipoleia= (πολιεὺς, of the city). A very ancient Athenian festival, celebrated annually on the Acropolis, in honour of Zeus Polieus. [Illustration: Fig. 251. Rose dimidiated. Device of James I.] =Dimidiated=, Her. Cut in half per pale, and one half removed. Fig. 251 is a device placed by James I. on some of his coins, in which the thistle and rose are respectively _dimidiated_. The legend was, “_Fecit eos in gentem unam_.” =Diocleia.= A festival of the Megarians, held about the grave of an ancient Athenian hero, Diocles. There was a prize for kissing. =Dionysia.= The celebrated orgies of Dionysus or Bacchus, suppressed B.C. 186, and substituted by the Liberalia. (See BACCHANALIA.) =Dioptra=, Gr. and R. (δίοπτρα; διοράω, to see through). An instrument used in surveying to measure distances and to take levels. =Dioscuria=, Gr. and R. (Διοσκούρια). Games instituted at Rome in honour of the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux), who, at the battle of Lake Regillus against the Latins (496 B.C.), were supposed to have fought on the side of the Romans. =Diospolites=, Egyp. One of the nomes or divisions of Lower Egypt. =Diota=, Gr. (δί-ωτα, with two ears). A name applied indifferently to any kind of vase furnished with two handles, such as _lagenæ_, _amphoræ_, _canthari_, &c. =Diplinthus=, R. (πλίνθος, a brick). Masonry two bricks thick. =Diploïs=, Gr. and R. Folded in two; an upper garment which was doubled in the same manner as a woman’s shawl at the present day; it was much worn among the Greeks. =Diploma=, Gr. and R. (δίπλωμα, i. e. double-folded). A passport consisting of two leaves (whence its name). The term is also used to denote a diploma by which any right or privilege is conferred. =Dipteral=, Arch. A building having double wings. The term is applied to any building having a double intercolumniation all round it. =Diptheræ=, Gr. and R. (διφθέραι; δέφω, to make supple). (1) Prepared skins for writing on. (2) A kind of garment; an overcoat of skin or leather which Greek slaves put on over their tunic. =Diptych=, Gr. (δί-πτυχα, i. e. double-folded). Double tablets united by means of strings or hinges. _Diptycha consularia_, _ædilitia_, _prætoria_ had engraved on them portraits of consuls, ædiles, prætors, and other magistrates. These consular diptychs were a part of the presents sent by new consuls on their appointment to very eminent persons. The series of them is a very valuable record of the progress of the art of ivory carving. In Christian archæology diptychs were decorated with scenes from biblical history. There were also diptychs of the baptized; of the bishops and benefactors of a church, living or dead; of saints and martyrs; and, lastly, of deceased members of the congregation, whose souls were to be remembered at mass. (See TRIPTYCH.) =Directors=, or =Triangular Compasses=. A mathematical instrument adapted for taking three angular points at once. =Diribitorium=, R. (_diribeo_, to sort or separate). A place or building in which a public officer inspected the troops, distributed the pay, and enrolled the conscripts in their respective regiments. =Dirige=, Chr. A psalm forming part of the burial service, “Dirige gressus meos,” &c.; hence =Dirge=, for funereal music or hymns in general. =Dirk.= A Scotch dagger. [Illustration: Fig. 252. Tazza of Diruta, with head of “Rome.”] =Diruta.= An important porcelain manufactory in the Papal States, established by a pupil of Luca della Robbia in 1461. =Discerniculum=, R. (_discerno_, to divide). A bodkin used by Roman women in the toilet to part their hair. (See COMBS.) =Discharging Arch.= An arch built into the structure of a wall, to relieve the parts below it of the pressure of those above it; such arches are common over flat-headed doors or other openings. =Discinctus=, Gr. and R. (_discingo_, to ungird). A man who is _ungirt_, that is, who does not wear a girdle round the waist of his tunic; for a man, this was a mark of effeminate manners. _Discinctus miles_ denoted a soldier who had been stripped by his commander of his sword-belt, as a mark of disgrace. (Compare CINGULUM.) =Disclosed=, Her. With expanded wings, in the case of birds that are not birds of prey. The contrary to CLOSE. [Illustration: Fig. 253. Discobolus of Myron copied on a gem.] =Discobolus=, Gr. and R. (δισκο-βόλος, i. e. discus-throwing). A man throwing the DISCUS (q.v.). [A celebrated statue of the sculptor Myron so called.] =Discus=, R. (δίσκος; δικεῖν, to throw). This term denoted (1) the discus hurled by the DISCOBOLUS (q.v.); that is, a circular plate of metal or stone, about ten or twelve inches in diameter. (2) A sun-dial. (3) A shallow circular vessel for holding eatables. =Disk.= (See WINGED DISK.) =Disomum=, Chr. (δί-σωμον, double-bodied). An urn or tomb which held the ashes or bodies of two persons; _bisomum_ was also used. Both terms are met with in Christian inscriptions. [Illustration: Fig. 254. Falcon Displayed.] =Displayed=, Her. Birds of prey with expanded wings. Fig. 254 represents the crest of Edward IV., the falcon and fetterlock. =Displuviatus=, =Displuviatum=, R. An atrium, the roof of which was sloped outwards from the COMPLUVIUM (q.v.), instead of being sloped towards it. (See IMPLUVIUM and ATRIUM.) =Disposed=, =Disposition=, Her. Arranged, arrangement. =Distaff.= A common object in ancient art. It is an attribute of the Fates, and generally distaffs of gold were given to the goddesses. It was dedicated to Minerva. (See COLUS.) The name of St. Distaff’s Day was given to the day after Twelfth Day in England. =Distance.= In a picture, _the point of distance_ is that where the visual rays meet; _middle distance_ is the central portion of a picture, between the _foreground_ and the _extreme distance_. =Distemper.= A kind of painting in which the pigments are mixed with an aqueous vehicle, such as _size_. Distemper is painted on a dry surface. (See FRESCO-PAINTING.) =Ditriglyph=, R. (δὶς, twice, and τρίγλυφος). The space between two triglyphs in the Doric order. The term is therefore a synonym of METOPE (q.v.). =Dividers.= Ordinary compasses for taking off and transferring measurements. =Dividiculum=, R. A reservoir in the form of a tower, in which the water of an aqueduct was collected, and whence it was afterwards distributed. (See CASTELLUM.) =Docana= (δοκὸς, a beam). An ancient Spartan symbol of Castor and Pollux. It consisted of two upright beams, with cross pieces. =Doccia.= An important Italian manufactory of soft porcelain founded in