introduction.

[Illustration: Fig. 262. Plan of a Roman house.] Of a Roman house, the principal parts were the VESTIBULUM, or court before the door, open to the street; the OSTIUM, JANUA, or FORES, the entrance; the ATRIUM, CAVUM ÆDIUM, or CAVÆDIUM, with the COMPLUVIUM open over the central tank (termed the IMPLUVIUM); the ALÆ (wings), TABLINUM, FAUCES, and PERISTYLIUM: of each of which a notice will be found in its alphabetical place in this work. (See also CUBICULA, TRICLINIA, EXEDRÆ, PINACOTHECA, BIBLIOTHECA, BALNEUM, CULINA, CŒNACULA, DIÆTA, SOLARIA, &c.) The floors of a Roman house were either of the composition called RUDERATIO, and, from the process of beating down _pavita_, were then called PAVIMENTUM, or of stone or marble or mosaics (MUSIVUM OPUS). The inner walls were usually covered with frescoes. The ceilings left the beams visible, which supported the roof, and the hollow or unplanked spaces (LACUNARIA or LAQUEARIA) were often covered with gold and ivory, or with paintings. (See CAMARA.) The principal apartments had no windows, deriving their light from the roof; in the upper stories there were windows either open or latticed, or later filled with mica, and finally glass. [Illustration: Fig. 263. Atrium with Doric columns. (_See also_ Fig. 49.)] =Don Pottery.= A name given to the productions of a porcelain manufactory established in 1790 at Swinton on the Don. [Illustration: Fig. 264. Donjon.] =Donjon=, Mod. The principal tower of a Norman or mediæval castle. It was generally separate from the other parts of the building. The greater number of feudal fortresses originally consisted merely of a donjon erected on an artificial earthwork. This donjon was surrounded by an open space walled, called the Inner Bailey, and another beyond called the Outer Bailey. Beneath were the dungeons. Fig. 264 represents a donjon called the Tower of Loudun. The White tower is the donjon of the Tower of London. =Doom.= In Christian art, the Last Judgment; a subject usually painted over the chancel arch in parochial churches. =Dorelot.= A network for the hair, worn by ladies in the 14th century. (See CALANTICA, CRESPINE, &c.) [Illustration: Fig. 265. Column and Capital of the Doric Order.] =Doric Order of Architecture.= The earliest and simplest of the three Greek orders. “The Grecian Doric order, at its best period, is one of the most beautiful inventions of architecture—strong and yet elegant, graceful in outline and harmonious in all its forms, imposing when on a great scale, and pleasing equally when reduced in size, by the exquisite simplicity of its parts.” (_Newlands._) The columns of this order had no pedestal, nor base; the capital, which was half a diameter in height, had no _astragal_, but a few plain fillets, with channels between them, under the _ovolo_, and a small channel below the fillets. The _ovolo_ is generally flat, and of great projection, with a _quirk_, or return. On this was laid the ABACUS, which was only a plain tile, without fillet or ornament. A peculiarity of this order was the _flutings_ of the column, twenty in number, shallow, and with sharp edges. The best examples of the Grecian Doric of which we have descriptions and figures are the temples of Minerva (called the Parthenon) and of Theseus at Athens, and that of Minerva at Sunium. The ROMAN DORIC differs in important particulars from the Grecian. (See ROMAN DORIC.) =Dormant= or =Couchant=, Her. Asleep. (See COUCHANT.) =Dormer= (Fr. _dormir_, to sleep). The top story in the roof of a house. =Dormer Window.= A gabled window in the sloping side of a roof, projecting _vertically_; when it lies in the slope of the roof, it is a _skylight_. =Dorneck=, =Dornex=, or =Dornyks=, O. E. An inferior damask, wrought of silk, wool, linen thread, and gold, at Tournay or _Dorneck_; 15th century. =Dorsale=, =Dosser=, =Dossier=, Chr. (_dorsum_, the back). Pieces of tapestry or hangings put up in the arches or bays surrounding the choir of a church in order to screen the clergy and choristers from draughts of air. Also pieces of tapestry hung upon parapets, the panels of pulpits and stalls, and sometimes the backs of side-boards. It was the custom to hang tapestry, cloth of Arras, or needlework round the lower half of all the ancient dining-halls to a height of about five feet above the basement. =Dorsualia=, R. (_dorsum_). An embroidered saddle-cloth, which was laid across the back of a horse on the occasion of a triumphal entry, or on the backs of victims for sacrifice. Examples of _dorsualia_ occur on several monuments, in especial on a bas-relief of the arch of Titus, at Rome. =Doryphorus=, Gen. (δορυ-φόρος). Literally, spear-bearer. Fig. 130 represents a Persian spearman. A celebrated statue of Polycletus (of the Argive school) is called the _Doryphorus_. “Polycletus advanced his art in several respects, chiefly by fixing a law of proportion, of which his Doryphorus, a youth bearing a spear, was called the CANON (q.v.); and also by his making the weight of the body rest on one foot, in contradistinction to the ancient practice, thereby producing a contrast between the supporting, weight-bearing side of the body, and the supported, freely-resting side.” (_Butler’s Imitative Art._) The statue by Polycletus is lost. The proportions handed down to us by Vitruvius are thus described by Bonomi:— (1) The length of the horizontally extended arms equals the height of the figure. (2) The head is an _eighth_, the face a _tenth_ of the whole height. (3) From the top of the scalp to the nipples is _one-fourth_. (4) From the nipples to horizontal line across the centre of the square—the pubes—is _one-fourth_. (5) From that line to one just below the knee-cap is _one-fourth_. (6) From that line to the ground is _one-fourth_. (7) The forearm (from the elbow) is a _fourth_ of the height; the hand a _tenth_. =Dose= or =Dosall=, O. E. (Lat. DORSALE, q.v.). =Dossar.= (See DORSALE.) =Douai.= A manufactory of modern faience established in 1784, producing stone-wares and “cailloutages.” =Doublé=, Fr. (1) The term is applied to precious stones, when cemented upon glass. (2) The inside lining of a well-bound book. [Illustration: Fig. 267. Doublet costume, _temp._ Elizabeth.] =Doublet=, although deriving its name from the French word _doublée_ (lined), is in that language more generally known as “Pourpoint,” of which, in fact, it is merely a variety. It first appeared in England in the 14th century made without sleeves, which for convenience were afterwards added; and being universally adopted, it superseded the tunic. The engraving shows a doublet with stuffed sleeves of the time of Elizabeth. They were worn of varied forms till the reign of Charles II. (Fig. 267.) =Doubling=, Her. The lining of a mantle or mantling. [Illustration: Fig. 268. Two Doves. Device of Giovanna de’ Medici.] =Dove.= A Christian symbol of frequent occurrence; it expresses candour, gentleness, innocence, faith, and, in especial, the Holy Spirit. It is also a symbol of martyrdom and grief, and in this signification appears frequently represented on tombs and sarcophagi. With an olive-bough in its mouth it is a symbol of peace, and accordingly the inscription PAX (Peace) is often found accompanying representations of the dove, more particularly in the catacombs. With the Assyrians and Babylonians the dove was the symbol of Semiramis, who, according to them, took this shape on leaving earth. The dove was the favourite bird of Venus. As a symbol of conjugal fidelity, the device of two turtle-doves was adopted by Giovanna of Austria on her marriage with Francesco de’ Medici. (Fig. 268.) [Illustration: Fig. 269. Dove-tailed Masonry.] =Dove-tail= or =Swallow-tail=, Gen. A method of joining employed for wood, stone, or iron, and so called because the tenon by which the joint is effected is cut in the shape of a dove-tail or swallow-tail. This tail fits into a notch (Fig. 269). The ancients employed double dove-tails for joining stones together; this method of construction was called _Opus_ REVINCTUM (q.v.). =Dove-tail Moulding=, Arch. (Norman; called also TRIANGULAR FRETTE). Decorated with running bands in the form of dove-tails. =Doves, the Eucharistic.= Sacred vessels of gold, silver, gilded bronze, or ivory, in the form of a dove, a tower, &c., which served as receptacles for the reserved Host; they were hung up in the middle of the CIBORIUM (q.v.). At the Amiens Museum a dove of this kind is to be seen dating from the 12th century, and at the church of St. Nazaire at Milan there is one of silver, gilded within and enamelled without, which is also very ancient. =Dowlas=, O. E. Coarse linen cloth made in Brittany; “_filthy dowlas!_” =Drachma=, Gr. (δραχμή; δράσσομαι, to hold in the hand). A drachm, the principal silver coin of the Greeks. There were two kinds of _drachmata_, which differed in value: the Attic drachm and the Æginetan. The Attic _drachma_ was equal in value to a franc, equal to six _oboloi_. The piece of four drachmas was called a _stater_. As a weight the drachma was the eighth of an _uncia_; about = our modern _drachm_. =Draco=, Gen. (1) A dragon; the ensign of the Roman cohort in the time of Trajan, adopted from the Parthians. (2) A fantastic animal of Pagan mythology: the garden of the Hesperides, the Golden Fleece, and the fountain of Castalia were all guarded by dragons. (3) In Christian archæology the dragon symbolizes sin, especially idolatry. (4) The Chinese give to several immortals the figure of a dragon. They distinguish the long dragon of heaven, a being especially sacred; the Kau, dragon of the mountain; and the Li, dragon of the sea. The dragons are represented as “gigantic saurians, with powerful claws, and terminated by a frightful head, scaly and strongly toothed.” There are the scaly dragon, the winged dragon, the horned and the hornless dragons, and the dragon rolled within itself which has not yet taken flight to the upper regions. In their zodiacal system the dragon is the sign for the month of March. (See TCHY.) =Draconarius=, R. The standard-bearer who carried the _draco_. =Dracontarium=, R. A band for the head, so called because it was twisted in imitation of the _draco_ which was used as an ensign. [Illustration: Fig. 270. Heraldic Dragon.] =Dragon=, Her. A winged monster having four legs. (See DRACO.) =Dragon.= A short carbine (hence “dragoons”). =Dragon’s Blood.= A resinous astringent extract of a deep red colour, used as a colouring ingredient for spirit and turpentine varnishes and paints, &c. The Roman _cinnabar_ was Dragon’s Blood. =Draught= (or =Drawte=) =Chamber=, O. E. The with _drawing_ room. =Draughts, Game of.= (See DAMES, LATRUNCULI.) =Dravid’ha=, Hind. A Hindoo temple constructed on an octagonal plan. (See NAGARAS, VIMANA, VESARA.) [Illustration: Fig. 271. Dresden milk-jug.] =Dresden Porcelain=, made at the Royal Manufactory established at Meissen in Saxony in 1709, is most excellent anterior to 1796, since when its ancient perfection has been lost. The mark of the best period is two crossed swords, with a sloped cross or a small circle beneath. The later mark has a star beneath the swords. On rejected pieces the swords were cut across with a line; but the manufactory at the present day counterfeits its old marks. Fig. 271 is a specimen of the best period, later than 1720 and before 1778. [Illustration: Fig. 272. Pot-pourri vase, Dresden china.] =Dressoir= or =Dressouer= (the _buffet_ of the 15th century, the _évidence_ of the 16th) was the principal object of the dining-room, on which were displayed all the ornamental plate of the owner of the house, costly vases, &c. Kings had often three dressers, one for silver, another for silver-gold, and the third for gold plate. In form they varied; but they were made of the most valuable woods, and enriched with the finest carving. They were sometimes covered over with cloth of gold: the city of Orleans offered one in gold to Charles IV., which was valued at 8000 livres Tournois. =Drilbu=, Hind. A bell used in Buddhist worship. =Drinking-cups of Glass= are frequently found in the Saxon barrows or graves in England. They are ornamented in various patterns, and rounded at the bottom. The Anglo-Saxons were also rich in cups of the precious metals. They used horn cups also, as did the Normans. In the 15th century flat-shaped cups or bowls were used. =Drip=, Arch. The edge of a roof; the eaves; the corona of a cornice. =Drip-stone=, Arch. The moulding in Gothic architecture which serves as a canopy for an opening and to throw off the rain. It is also called _weather-moulding_ and _water-table_. (See also CORONA.) =Dromo=, =Dromon=, R. (δρόμων; δραμεῖν, to run). A vessel remarkable for its swift sailing; hence— =Dromon= or =Dromound=, O. E. A mediæval ship, propelled by oars and one sail, used for the transport of troops. The Crusaders called it a _dromedary_. =Dromos=, Gr. and Egyp. (δρόμος). (1) The Spartan race-course. (2) An avenue leading to the entrances of Egyptian temples; that leading to the great temple of Karnac contained 660 colossal sphinxes, all of which were monoliths. =Drop Lake= is a pigment obtained from Brazil wood, which affords a very fugitive colour. =Drops=, Arch. (Lat. _guttæ_). Ornaments resembling drops, used in the Doric entablature, immediately under the TRIGLYPH and MUTULE. =Druidic= (Monuments), Celt. Celtic monuments, also known by the name of _Megalithic_. (See STANDING STONES, DOLMENS, MENHIRS, CROMLECHS, &c.). The most ancient and probably the largest Celtic or Druidical temple was at Avebury in Wiltshire. _Dr. Stukeley_, who surveyed it in 1720, says that “this may be regarded as the grand national cathedral, while the smaller circles which are met with in other parts of the island may be compared to the parish or village churches.” =Drum=, Arch. (1) Of a dome or cupola, the STYLOBATE (or vertical part on which the columns rest). (2) Of the Corinthian and Composite capitals, the solid part; called also BELL, VASE, BASKET. =Dry Point.= Direct engraving upon copper with the sharp etching-needle itself, without the plate being covered with etching-ground, or the lines bit in by acid. This method produces very soft and delicate work, but it is not so durable in printing as the etched line. =Dryers.= In painting, substances imparted to oils to make them dry quickly. The most general in use is OXIDE of LEAD, but white copperas, oxide of manganese, ground glass, oxide of zinc, calcined bones, chloride of lime, and verdigris have all been used at various times. =Drying Oil.= Boiled oil, used in painting as a vehicle and a varnish. It is linseed oil boiled with litharge (or oxide of lead). =Dryness.= A style of painting in which the outline is harsh and formal, and the colour deficient in mellowness and harmony. =Duck-bills=, O. E. Broad-toed shoes of the 15th century. [Illustration: Fig. 273. Duke’s coronet.] =Duke=, Her. The highest rank and title in the British peerage; first introduced by Edward III. in the year 1337, when he created the Black Prince the first English duke (in Latin “dux”). The coronet of a duke, arbitrary in its adornment until the 16th century was far advanced, is now a circlet, heightened with eight conventional strawberry-leaves, of which in representation three and two half-leaves are shown. (_Boutell._) =Dulcimer.= A musical instrument, the prototype of our pianoforte. It was very early known to the Arabs and Persians, who called it _santir_. One of its old European names is the _cimbal_. The Hebrew _nebel_, or perhaps the _psanterin_ mentioned by Daniel, is supposed to have been a dulcimer; the _psalterion_ of the Greeks also. A hand organ of the Middle Ages was called a dulcimer. =Dunkirk.= A manufactory of modern faience which only existed for a short time in the 18th century, and was closed within a year. The works are therefore very rare. Jacquemart mentions a clock bearing a close resemblance to certain Dutch products, inscribed _Dickhoof_ and _A. Duisburg_, and by the latter name identified as Dunkirk work. =Duns=, Celtic. Ancient hill forts of the simplest kind, consisting of a round or oval earthen wall and ditch on a rising ground, probably contemporary with the pit dwellings. =Dunster=, O. E. Broad cloth made in Somersetshire, _temp._ Edward III. =Dutch Pink.= (See PINKS.) =Dutch White.= (See CARBONATE OF LEAD, BARYTES.) =Dwararab’ha=, =Dwaragopouras=, =Dwaraharmya=, =Dwaraprasada=, =Dwarasala=, Ind. (See GOPOURAS.) E. [Illustration: Fig. 274. Eagle—Ensign of France.] =Eagle=, Her. The eagle (called in heraldry _Alerion_) appears in the earliest English examples of arms, and his appearance often denotes an alliance with German princes. Both the German emperors and Russian czars adopted the eagle for their heraldic ensign in support of their claim to be considered the successors of the Roman Cæsars. The eagle borne as the ensign of Imperial France sits, grasping a thunderbolt, in an attitude of vigilance, having its wings elevated, but the tips of the feathers drooping, as they would be in a living bird. In remote antiquity the eagle was an emblem of the sun, and the double-headed eagle typifies the rising and the setting sun. The eagle was the attribute of Jove as his messenger. The eagle killing a serpent or a hare is an ancient symbol of victory. In Christian art the eagle is the attribute of St. John the Evangelist, the symbol of the highest inspiration. St. John is sometimes represented with human body and eagle head. The lectern in Christian churches is commonly in the form of an eagle. Elisha the prophet is represented with a two-headed eagle. (See AQUILÆ.) [Illustration: Fig. 275. Earl’s coronet.] =Earl=, Her. (from the Gaelic _iarflath_, “a dependent chief” = _iar_, “after,” and _flath_, “lord”; pronounced _iarrl_). Before 1337 the highest, and now the third degree of rank and dignity in the British peerage. An earl’s coronet has eight lofty rays of gold rising from the circlet, each of which supports a large pearl, while between each pair of these rays there is a golden strawberry-leaf. In representation five of the rays and pearls are shown. Elevated clusters of pearls appear in an earl’s coronet as early as 1445; but the present form of the coronet may be assigned to the second half of the following century. =Earl Marshal.= In England, one of the great officers of state, who regulates ceremonies and takes cognizance of all matters relating to honour, arms, and pedigree. =Early English Architecture.= The first of the pointed or Gothic styles of architecture used in England. It succeeded the NORMAN towards the end of the 12th century, and gradually merged into the DECORATED at the end of the 13th. Its leading peculiarity is the long narrow lancet window. =Earn=, Scotch. An eagle. [Illustration: Fig. 276. Greek or Etruscan ear-rings in gold.] =Ear-rings= (Lat. _inaures_, Gr. ἐνώτια) were a common ornament for ladies in Greece and Rome, and among the early Saxons: they were worn by men during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. =Earth Tables=, Arch. The projecting course of stones in a wall, immediately above the surface of the ground, now called the plinth. (_Parker._) =Earthenware.= (See POTTERY.) =Easel= (from the German _esel_, an ass). A frame with movable rest for resting pictures on. =Easel-picture.= A small portable picture. =Easter=, Chr. (A.S. _eastre_). From the goddess “Eostur,” whose festival fell in April. The Latin name “Paschal” refers to the Jewish feast of the Passover. The Paschal season originally extended over fifteen days, from Palm Sunday to Low Sunday. (See _Smith and Cheetham’s Dict. of Christian Ant._) =Eaves= (A.S. _efese_, the edge). The overhanging “edge” of the roof of a house. =Ebénistes=, Fr. Workers in fine cabinet-making. =Ebony.= A heavy, hard, black wood, obtained from the Diospyrus ebenus. Ebony and other exotic woods came into general use in Europe from the end of the 17th century—subsequently to 1695, when the Dutch settled in Ceylon. The black ebony is the most valuable, but there are green and yellow varieties. Old carved ebony furniture found in English houses dates generally from the early years of the Dutch occupation of Ceylon. =Eburnean.= Made of ivory. =Ecbasios= (ἐκβαίνω, to disembark). A sacrifice offered to Apollo after a favourable voyage. =Ecclesia=, Gr. General assembly of the citizens of Athens. (See _Smith and Cheetham’s Dict. of Christian Ant._) =Echea=, Gr. and R. (ἦχος, sound or noise). Earthenware or bronze vessels used to strengthen the sound in theatres. (See ACOUSTIC VESSELS.) =Echinate.= Armed with spines or bristles like a hedgehog. [Illustration: Fig. 277. Echinus or egg and tongue on the ovolo of a Greek cornice.] =Echinus=, Arch. (Gr. ἐχῖνος, a hedgehog). The _egg and dart_ or _egg and tongue_ ornament frequently carved on the round moulding, much used in classic architecture, called the _ovolo_. (Fig. 277.) =Echometry= (μέτρον, a measure). The art of measuring the duration of sounds. =Ecorchée=, Fr. (lit. flayed). Said of an anatomical model specially prepared for the study of the muscular system. =Ecphonesis=, Chr. That part of a devotional office which is said _audibly_, in contrast with that said _secreté_. =Ectypus=, R. A hollow mould which produces an impression in relief which is called _ectypum_. [Illustration: Fig. 278. Ecuelle, Venetian porcelain.] =Ecuelle=, Fr. A porringer. Fig. 278 is a specimen in the best style of Venetian porcelain. =Edward-Shovelboards=, O. E. Broad shillings of Edward VI., formerly used in playing the game of shovelboard. (_Halliwell._) =Effeir of War=, Scotch. Warlike guise. =Effigies=, R. An image or effigy. The word is usually applied to the heads upon coins or medals. =Egg and Dart=, or =Egg and Tongue, Ornament=, Arch. (Fr. _aards et oves_). A carving commonly inserted on the ovolo moulding. (See ECHINUS.) =Egg-feast= or =Egg-Saturday=, O. E. The Saturday before Shrove Tuesday. =Egg-shell Porcelain.= A very thin white porcelain of the “Rose family,” to which the Chinese have given the name of “porcelain without embryo.” =Eggs=, as a Christian emblem, are supposed to represent “the immature hope of the resurrection.” (_Martigny._) =Egret= (Fr. _aigrette_). A small white heron, marked by a _crest_ on his head. =Egyptian Architecture= and =Sculpture= can be studied in the monuments remaining from remotest antiquity to about A. D. 300. Great varieties of style occur, which can be easily attributed to their respective periods by the hieroglyphical inscriptions. The three primitive motives of all Egyptian buildings are the _pyramid_, _caves_, and _structures of timber_; all contemporary with the most ancient relics. In sculpture, the most ancient works of all are also those most remarkable for fidelity to nature. The conventionality introduced afterwards with the _canon of proportions_ is still combined with a close imitation of Nature in the details. The Grecian or Ptolemaic period begins B.C. 322. [See _Wilkinson’s Ancient Egyptians_, _Canina’s Egyptian Architecture_; and the works of _Brugsch_, _Marriette_, _Soldi_, _Ebers_, &c.] =Egyptian Blue=, the brilliant blue pigment found on the monuments, is found by analysis to consist of the hydrated protoxide of copper, mixed with a minute quantity of iron. The green colour was derived from another oxide of copper; violet from manganese or gold; yellow from silver, or perhaps iron; and red from the protoxide of copper. [Illustration: Fig. 280. Lenticular Phials. Louvre Museum.] [Illustration: Fig. 279. Oviform bottle. Egyptian.] =Egyptian Pottery= of great beauty is found in great quantities along with the costly ornaments in the tombs. It is intermediary between porcelain and stone-ware, and its colouring demonstrates a high degree of skill, science, and precision of execution. Among the forms frequently found are the oviform, long-necked bottles (Fig. 279), lenticular phials, with royal cartouches (Fig. 280), lamps (Fig. 281), &c. (See also Fig. 219.) [Illustration: Fig. 281. Lamp in blue enamelled earthenware. Egyptian.] =Eikon=, Gr., or =Icon=, Lat. An image; hence iconoclasts or image-breakers. =Eileton=, Chr. (from εἴλω, to wind or fold). The cloth on which the elements are consecrated in the Eucharist. “The _eileton_ represents the linen cloth in which the body of Christ was wrapped when it was taken down from the cross and laid in the tomb.” (_Germanus_). =Eisodos=, Chr. A ceremony of the Greek Church, of two parts. (1) The bearing into the church in procession of the book of the Gospels is called the _Lesser Entrance_. (2) A similar bearing in of the elements of the Eucharist is called the _Greater Entrance_. =Elæolite= (lit. oil-stone). A mineral having a fatty resinous lustre. =Elæothesium=, Gr. and R. A room in a suite of baths where oils, perfumes, and essences were kept, and the bathers were anointed and rubbed. =Elaphebolia=, Gr. Athenian festivals held in the month called _Elaphebolion_, or the ninth month of the year, when a stag (ἔλαφος) was sacrificed to Diana. =Elbow-gauntlet.= A long gauntlet of plate armour, adopted from the Asiatics in the 16th century. =Elbow-pieces= (Fr. _coudières_). Plate armour to cover the joint at the elbow. =Elbows=, Mod. (Fr. _accoudoirs_). The divisions between the stalls in a church, also called by the French “museaux,” from the fact of their ends being ornamented with an animal’s head. =Electoral Bonnet=, Her. A cap of crimson velvet guarded with ermine, borne over the inescutcheon of the arms of Hanover from 1801 to 1816. =Electrotint.= A method of preparing engraved copper plates for the printing-press by the electrotype process. (See _Art Journal_, 1850.) =Electrotype.= The process whereby works in relief are produced by the agency of electricity, through which certain metals, such as gold, silver, and copper, are precipitated from their solutions upon moulds in so fine a state of division as to form a coherent mass of pure metal, equal in toughness and flexibility to the hammered metals. (_Fairholt._) At the present day electrotypes are generally taken from engravings on wood for printing from. =Electrum= (ἤλεκτρον). In Homer and Hesiod this word means _amber_. Pliny says that when gold contains a fifth part of silver, it is called electrum. Its colour was whiter and more luminous than that of gold, and the metal was supposed to betray the presence of poison. Specimens are rare. A beautiful vase of electrum is preserved in the St. Petersburg Museum. Some coins in electrum were struck by the kings of Bosporus, and by Syracuse and some Greek states. =Elements=, Chr. The bread and the wine in the Lord’s Supper. In the Eastern liturgies the unconsecrated elements are called “the MYSTERIES,” and the bread alone the SEAL (σφραγὶς), from its being divided by lines in the form of a cross. The interesting subject of the composition and form of the elements in the early churches is fully discussed in the “Dictionary of Christian Antiquities” (Smith and Cheetham). =Elemine.= A crystallized resin used to give consistency to the varnish which forms part of the composition of lacquer. =Elenchus=, R. (ἔλεγχος). (1) A pear-shaped pearl highly esteemed by the Roman ladies, who wore such pearls mounted as drops or pendants to brooches and rings. (See the illustration to CROTALIUM.) (2) An index to a book. =Elephant.= In mediæval heraldry this animal is a symbol of piety, from an ancient legend, mentioned by Ælian, Pliny, and others, that it has in religious reverence, with a kind of devotion, not only the stars and planets, but also the sun and moon. =Elephant Paper.= Drawing-paper manufactured in sheets, measuring 28 inches by 23. _Double Elephant Paper_ measures 40 inches by 26¾. =Eleusinian Mysteries.= The holiest and most venerated of the Greek festivals. The Lesser Eleusinia, held at Agræ in the month Anthesterion, were a preparation for the Greater, which were celebrated at Athens and Eleusis. The _Mystæ_ were the initiated at the Lesser, of which the principal rite was the sacrifice of a sow, previously purified by washing in the Cantharus. The Greater were celebrated every year in the month Boedromion, and lasted nine days. On the first day the Mystæ assembled at Athens; on the second they went through a ceremony of purification at the sea-coast; the third was a day of fasting; on the fourth there was a procession of a waggon drawn by oxen, followed by women who had small mystic cases in their hands; on the fifth, or torch day, the Mystæ went in the evening with torches to the temple of Demeter, where they passed the night; on the sixth, which was the most solemn of all, a statue of Iacchos, the son of Demeter, was borne in procession to Eleusis, and the Mystæ were there initiated in the last mysteries during the following night. There was something in the secrets of this part of the ceremony which excited greatly the imagination of the ancient writers, especially Christians, who describe them “in an awful and horrible manner.” Each of the initiated was dismissed by the _mystagogus_ with the words κόγξ, ὄμπαξ. On the next day they returned to Athens, and resting on the bridge of Cephisus engaged in a contest of ridicule with the passers-by: the eighth and ninth days were unimportant. =Eleutheria.= A Greek festival in honour of Zeus Eleutherios (the Deliverer). =Elevati= of Ferrara. One of the Italian literary academies. Their device was from the fable of Hercules and Antæus, with the motto from Horace, “_Superat tellus, sidera donat_” (Earth conquers us, but gives us Heaven). =Elevation.= (1) In Architecture, &c., a perpendicular plan drawn to a scale. (2) In Christian archæology, the _lifting up_ of the elements at certain points in the Eucharistic service, universally prescribed in the early Oriental liturgies, and introduced into the Western Church with the doctrine of transubstantiation. [Illustration: Fig. 282. Bas-relief from the frieze of the Parthenon. One of the Elgin Marbles.] =Elgin Marbles.= Friezes and metopes from the Parthenon at Athens, brought to the British Museum by Lord Elgin. They are adorned with sculptures in relief; those on the frieze represent the Panathenaic procession in honour of Athena; those on the metopes, chiefly the contests of the Centaurs and Lapithæ. There are also statues and friezes, especially from the temple of the Wingless Victory and the CHORAGIC MONUMENT of Lysicrates. They are admirably described by Mr. Newton in his “Guide” to these sculptures published by the authorities of the British Museum. (Fig. 282.) [Illustration: Fig. 283. Great Seal of Queen Elizabeth.] =Elizabeth, Queen.= The costume and the royal appurtenances of this monarch are well illustrated by the Royal Seal. In the Royal Arms we see the lions and the lilies (_France modern and England quarterly_). On the reverse (Fig. 284) the Tudor Rose, fleur-de-lis, and harp appear separately crowned for England, France, and Ireland. Elizabeth was fond of allegory and devices. In her portrait by Zoffany “the lining of her robe is worked with eyes and ears, and on her left sleeve is embroidered a serpent—all to imply wisdom and vigilance.” In her other hand is a rainbow with the motto, “_Non sine sole iris_” (no rainbow without the sun). [Illustration: Fig. 284. Great Seal of Queen Elizabeth.] =Elizabethan.= The style of architecture and decoration gradually developed during the reign of the Tudors in England. Its characteristics are a mixed revival of classical forms with quaint and grotesque relics of the Gothic. Typical examples are Crewe Hall, Speke, in Lancashire, Haddon Hall, Kenilworth Castle, Raglan Castle, &c. =Ellipsis=, =Ellipse=. A figure formed by cutting a cone obliquely across its length; hence— =Ellipsograph.= An instrument for describing a semi-ellipse. =Ellotia= or =Hellotia=. A Corinthian festival with a torch-race, in honour of Athena as a goddess of fire. =Ellychnium=, R. (λύχνος, a light). The wick of an oil lamp; it was made of flax fibres or papyrus. =Emarginated.= Having the _margin_ broken by a notch or notches. =Embalming= was frequently practised by the early Christians, especially with the bodies of martyrs. The practice was derived from the Jews. As a pagan ceremony embalming was intended to facilitate _cremation_. =Embalon=, Gr. and R. A beak, corresponding to the modern _ram_, under the bows of a war galley, for the purpose of sinking the enemy. =Embas=, Gr. A shoe of white felt, used esp. by the Bœotians. =Ember Days=, Chr. (in Anglo-Saxon, _ymbren dagas_, “recurrent days;” in Latin, _jejunia quatuor temporum_; in French, _les quatre temps_, &c.). Special fasts appointed to be observed at the commencement of each of the _four seasons_ of the year. In the Eastern Church there is no trace of such an observance. (The word has no connexion with _embers_ in the sense of ashes.) =Emblazon=, Her. (See BLAZON.) [Illustration: Fig. 285. Emblemata.] =Emblemata=, Gr. (ἐμβάλλω, to put in). INLAID-WORK, or (1) Mosaic made of coloured cubes of glass or vitreous enamel. (See SECTILE, TESSELLATUM, VERMICULATUM.) Fig. 285 represents _emblemata_ of different kinds of glass. (2) _Crusts_ exquisitely wrought on the surface of vessels or other pieces of furniture; as, for instance, alabaster on marble, gold on silver, silver on bronze. The Romans generally used the term _crustæ_ for this kind of work. From EMBLEMATA is derived our word EMBLEM, the true meaning of which is “a symbolical figure or composition which conceals an allegory.” Thus an _ape_ symbolized malice and lust; a _pelican_ piety, and the Redeemer’s love for the world. &c. The most important books of Emblems are by Alciati, Paradin, and Sambuco. =Embolismus=, =Embolis=, or =Embolum=, Chr. (1) An inserted or intercalated prayer in a liturgy. (2) The number of days required to make up the lunar year to the solar. (See EPACT.) =Embolium=, Gr. and R. (lit. something thrown in). An interlude or comic piece recited by an actress (_emboliaria_) between the acts of a drama. =Embolos=, Arch., Chr. A covered portico or cloister surrounding the external walls of a church. =Embolum=, Gr. The Greek term answering to the Latin ROSTRUM (q.v.). (See also EMBOLISMUS.) =Embolus=, R. (ἔμβολος). The piston in the chamber of a pump. =Embossing=, =Embossment=. A prominence like a boss; raised ornamental work. =Embowed=, Her. Bent. An arm embowed has the elbow to the dexter. =Embrasure=, Arch. (1) The interval between the COPS of a battlement. (2) An expansion of doorways, windows, &c., given by slanting the sides. (See SPLAY.) [Illustration: Fig. 286. Indian Embroidery. In the Indian section of the South Kensington Museum.] =Embroidery= is one of the oldest of the ornamental arts. Some specimens of ancient _Egyptian_ embroidery are exhibited in the Louvre, and Herodotus mentions the embroidered vestments of the gods in Egypt. The _Israelites_ appointed Aholiab, “a cunning workman, and an embroiderer in blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine linen,” to be _chief embroiderer_ to the sacred ark. The prophet Ezekiel mentions the embroidery of _Tyre_. It was the principal domestic occupation of ladies in _Greece_, from the days when Penelope embroidered a garment for Ulysses, representing a dog chasing a deer. The _Romans_ called embroidery “Phrygium,” and imported it largely from the East. In later times _Byzantium_ was celebrated for its embroidered ecclesiastical vestments. Pope Paschal, in the 9th century, was the greatest patron of the art. When the Caliph Omar pillaged the _Persian_ palace of Khosroes, he found there a carpet of silk and cloth of gold, sixty cubits square, having a garden depicted upon it, and rubies, emeralds, sapphires, beryls, topazes, and pearls arranged with consummate skill to represent trees, fruit and flowers, rivulets, fountains, roses and shrubs. Our English word “embroidery” is derived from the Celtic “brouda,” to prick. Anglo-Saxon embroidery was celebrated throughout Europe as _Opus Anglicanum_. The celebrated Bayeux tapestry is attributed to the 12th century. A copy of it may be seen in the South Kensington Museum. The art decayed in England during the Civil War of the 17th century. =Embrued=, Her. Stained with blood. =Embu.= A French term for the _loss of tone_ in an oil sketch, caused by the absorption of the oil whilst it is drying. It is easily corrected by a glaze. =Emerald.= A precious stone of various shades of green, much used by the ancients for gem-engraving. The less brilliant varieties are known as beryls. For its significance in Christian art, see GREEN. =Emerald Green.= A vivid bright green pigment, prepared from the arseniate of copper, and used both in oil and water-colours; called also _Paul Veronese Green_. =Emissarium=, R. (_emitto_, to send forth). A channel, natural or artificial, for letting off stagnant water. Some of these channels are the most wonderful monuments of Roman ingenuity. The lakes of Trasimene, Albano, Nemi, and Fucino were all drained by EMISSARIA. The last is open to inspection, and is described as “a stupendous work of engineering, planned by Julius Cæsar, and completed by the Emperor Claudius.” =Empaistic=, Gr. _Damascening_ (q.v.) or _in crusta_ work practised by the ancients, as opposed to TOREUTIC ART (q.v.). =Emperor Paper.= The largest kind of drawing-paper manufactured in sheets measuring 66 inches by 47. =Emphotion=, Chr. (from ἐμφωτίζω, to enlighten). A name given in the early Church to the white robe with which persons were invested in baptism; as it were, “a robe of light.” =Emplecton=, Gr. and R. (lit. inwoven). A method of building, originating in Greece and adopted by the Romans, in which a space left in the interior of the wall was filled in with rubble, the whole block of masonry being bound together at intervals by ties (_diatonoi_). In the engraving, _c_ and _b_ are the _square stones_, the parts between them being the ties or diatonoi, and _o_ the rubble. (See Fig. 249.) =Emporium=, Gr. and R. (ἔμπορος, a passenger in a ship). A place at a sea-port where imported merchandise was warehoused and exposed for sale. The remains of the ancient _emporium_ of Rome have been discovered on the banks of the Tiber. The name is sometimes applied to a town, but applies properly only to a certain place in a town. =Enafota= or =Enafodia=, Chr. (Gr. ἐννεάφωτα). A corona or chandelier of “nine lights.” =Enaluron=, Her. (See ENTOIRE.) [Illustration: Fig. 287. Pendant of gold, enamelled and enriched with jewels.] =Enamel= (Fr. _esmail_; Ital. _smalto_). A glassy substance of many brilliant colours, melted and united to gold, silver, copper, bronze, and other metals in the furnace. Enamel is coloured _white_ by oxide of tin, _blue_ by oxide of cobalt, _red_ by gold, and _green_ by copper. Different kinds of enamel are (1) inlaid or incrusted. (2) Transparent, showing designs on the metal under it. (3) Painted as a complete picture. “Many fine specimens of ancient Chinese enamel were seen in the Exhibition of 1851. They have the enamel on copper, beautifully coloured and enlivened with figures of flowers, birds, and other animals. The colouring is most chaste and effective. The Chinese say that no good specimens of this manufacture have been made for the last six or eight hundred years.” (_Fortune._) Beautiful transparent enamels are made in India. They look like slices of emerald or sapphire laid in beds of gold, having tiny figures of beaten gold let into their surfaces. (See also CLOISONNÉ, CHAMP-LEVÉ, BASSE-TAILLE, &c.) The beautiful example of enamel-work, Fig. 287, is attributed to Benvenuto Cellini. (See Fig. 188.) =Enamel.= Painting in enamel is done by means of colours that are vitrifiable, a quality that is communicated to them by combining them with a vitreous base, which is called their flux. These are fused and fixed on the enamel by the action of fire, which produces in the colours applied such changes as the artist has previously learned to calculate. (_Bouvier._) =Enamelled Glass.= (See GLASS.) =Enamelled Wares.= (See GLAZED WARE.) =Encænia=, Chr. A dedication festival. [Illustration: Fig. 288. Encarpa (Festoons) on the Temple of Vesta at Tivoli.] =Encarpa=, Gr. An architectural decoration formed of festoons or garlands of flowers and fruits (καρποὶ), whence its name. Fig. 288 shows an example from the temple of Vesta at Tivoli. =Encaustic=, R. (lit. burning in). The art of painting in encaustic. Pliny says, “The colours were applied with wax on marble, and transparent gum on ivory. Coloured wax was applied to the wall in the form of a paste, and in the manner of mosaic or enamels. This was then melted or fused with hot irons (_cauteria_), a small fillet of a different tint being inserted between each flat tint.” Fairholt says, “There is no antique painting extant which is properly called ENCAUSTIC; all those supposed to be so have, on closer examination, proved to be in FRESCO or in TEMPERA.” =Encaustic Tiles.= Ornamental tiles for floorings, extensively used in the Middle Ages. =Encheirion=, Chr. The napkin with which the priest wipes his hands; worn at the girdle. =Encoignure=, Fr. A table made with an angle to fit into a corner. =Encolpia=, Chr. (lit. worn on the breast, or from the Gr. ἐγκολπίζω, to contain in the womb). (1) Small caskets containing relics or a copy of the Gospels, worn by the early Christians suspended from the neck. (See EPOMADION.) Their use is of the highest antiquity, and specimens have been found in the tombs of the ancient cemetery of the Vatican, belonging to the 4th century. These were square in form, having on one side the sacred monogram ΙΧΡ for ΙΗΣΟΥΣ ΧΡΙΣΤΟΣ between the letters Α and Ω. (2) The pectoral crosses worn by bishops are also called _encolpia_. Reliquaries in the form of a cross are first mentioned by Gregory the Great. He sent one of them to Queen Theodelinda. (_Martigny._) =Encomboma=, Gr. (i. e. girt on). A Greek apron, tied round the waist, worn chiefly by young maidens and by slaves to keep the tunic clean. =Encyclical Letters.= (1) Chr. Letters “sent round” to all who should read them, and not addressed to any particular person (from the members of a council, &c.). (2) Gen. The same words, γράμματα ἐγκύκλια, apply to the subjects which the Greeks included in the “circle of the sciences,” or encyclopædia. =Encysted.= Enclosed in a cyst. =Endecagon= (ἕνδεκα, eleven; γωνία, an angle). A plane figure having eleven sides and eleven angles. =Endorse=, Her. A diminutive of the PALE (q.v.), one-fourth of its width. =Endothys.= (See ENDYTIS.) =Endromis=, Gr. and R. (δρόμος, a course or running). In Greek this name is given to hunting boots of Cretan origin, such as Diana is represented wearing by the Greek sculptors. Among the Romans the _endromis_ was an ample blanket of coarse wool, introduced from Gaul, in which athletes wrapped themselves when they were heated with the exercises. _Endromis Tyria_ was the name given to a large woollen wrap much finer than the ordinary _endromis_, and which was worn by the Roman ladies after their gymnastic exercises. =Endytis=, Chr. (ἐνδύω, to put on). This term, in the Middle Ages, denoted an altar-covering; other terms for it were _endothis_ and _endothys_. =Energumens=, Chr. Men possessed with devils. =Enfeu=, Fr. A sepulchral vault usually placed under the choir of a church; it assumed the form of a large niche. Originally bishops were interred by “droit d’enfeu” in tombs of this kind. The term is derived from the Latin _infodere_ (to dig). =Enfiled=, Her. Pierced with the sword. =Engageants=, Fr. “Double ruffles that fall over the wrists.” (_Ladies’ Dictionary_, 1694.) =Engineer’s Cartridge.= Drawing-paper manufactured in sheets measuring 30 by 22 inches. _Double Engineer’s Cartridge_ measures 46 inches by 30. =Engobe=, Fr. A “slip” or thin coating of white clay used to coat pottery before the invention of the tin glaze. =Engrailed=, Her. A border line indented in semicircles. =Engraving.= Copper-plate engraving is called CHALCOGRAPHY (q.v.) (Gr. χαλκὸς, copper); wood-engraving, XYLOGRAPHY (q.v.) (Gr. ξύλον, wood); and engraving on stone, LITHOGRAPHY (q.v.) (Gr. λίθος, a stone). [Each process is described under its own heading. See also ETCHING.] =Enhanced=, Her. Raised towards the CHIEF, or upper part of the shield. =Enneapylæ=, Pel. (ἐννέα and πύλαι). Literally, nine gates; a fortified enclosure constructed by the Bœotian Pelasgians round the Acropolis of Athens, some years after the Trojan war. Xerxes destroyed the _enneapylæ_ after the capture of Athens. A few fragments of it remain to this day, not far from the temple of the Wingless Victory. =Enotia=, Gr. (Lat. _inaures_). EAR-RINGS (q.v.). =Enseniator=, Med. Lat. (from the Italian _insegna_, an ensign). A mounted ensign-bearer. =Ensiculus=, R. A small sword, or child’s sword, used as a plaything. It is the diminutive of ENSIS. =Ensigned=, Her. Adorned; having some ensign of honour placed above, as a coronet above a shield. [Illustration: Figs. 289, 290. Gallic Ensigns.] =Ensigns=, Gen. (Lat. _signa militaria_; Gr. σημεῖα). Military symbols beneath which soldiers are ranged according to the different regiments to which they belong. The most ancient Roman ensign was a bundle of straw, hay, or fern. Then came the eagle, the wolf, the minotaur, the horse, and the boar. Afterwards the eagle alone was displayed (B. C. 104); it was made of silver or bronze, with expanded wings. The serpent or dragon was used as a particular ensign by the several _cohorts_, and the centuries had also each its ensign; but these were cloth flags. Under Constantine the LABARUM (q.v.) was introduced. (See CUSPIS, Figs. 228 to 230.) [Illustration: Fig. 291. Gallic Ensign.] =Ensiludium=, Med. Lat. A contest in sport with swords. (See CEMBEL, HASTILUDIUM.) =Ensis, Sword.= A synonym of GLADIUS (q.v.). =Ensis a Estoc=, Med. A stabbing-sword, usually carried at the saddle-bow. [Illustration: Fig. 292. Entablature with leaf ornament.] =Entablature.= A member of architecture placed as a crown to another. The entablature is composed of _architrave_, the part immediately above the column; _frieze_, the central space; and _cornice_, the upper projecting mouldings. (See Fig. 184.) [Illustration: Fig. 293. Entablature with honeysuckle ornament.] =Entalma=, Chr. The document by which a bishop confers the right of hearing confessions. [Illustration: Fig. 294. Egyptian Column, showing entasis.] =Entasis=, Gr. and R. (ἔντασις, a stretching tight). The _swelling_ of a balustre or of the shaft of a column. The narrowing of the shaft is called CONTRACTURA (q.v.). =Enterclose=, Arch. A passage between two rooms in a house. =Enthronisation=, Chr. (Lat. _incathedrare_). (1) The ceremony of placing a newly-ordained bishop upon his throne. (2) That of placing the relics in the altar of a church on consecration. (3) The installation of a presbyter in his church is sometimes called _enthronisation_. =Entire=, Her. Said of a charge when it extends to the border lines of a shield, coat, or banner; also of a shield, coat, or banner of arms, when borne without any difference or mark of cadency. =Entoire=, =Entoyre=, Her. A bordure charged with a series of inanimate figures or devices, as crosslets, roundles, &c. To a similar bordure of living figures the term ENALURON is applied. =Entrance=, Chr. (See EISODOS and INTROIT.) =Entrecoupe=, Fr. When two vaults are superimposed, and both spring from the same walls, “entrecoupe” is the term applied to the arched interval—if any—between them. =Enveloped=, =Environed=, Her. Surrounded. =Eolian (Æolian) Harp.= A musical stringed instrument arranged to be played upon by the wind (from Eolus [or properly Æolus], the ruler of the winds). =Eolodicon.= A musical instrument similar to a harmonium, invented in the last century by Eschenbach. =Eolophone.= A musical instrument similar to a harmonium. =Eōra=, Gr. (ἐώρα). A festival held at Athens in honour of Icarius and his daughter Erigonê. It was known also by the names of _Æora_ (αἰώρα) and _Aletis_ (Ἀλῆτις). The last appellation originated in a hymn which was sung at the festival, and which had been composed by Theodorus of Colophon. It was sometimes called “Eudeipnos,” from the rich banquets usually given during its celebration. =Epact= (Gr. ἐπακταὶ, sc. ἡμέραι; in Med. Lat. _adjectiones Lunæ_). The number of days required at the end of a lunar year to complete the solar year. (See EMBOLISMUS.) =Epagomenæ= (sc. days), Gen. (ἐπαγόμεναι ἡμέραι, i. e. intercalated days). The name given to the five supplementary days of the year among those nations who divided the year into twelve months of thirty days each. =Epaullière= or =Epaullets=, Er. Shoulder-plates; also the shoulder-knots formerly worn by gentlemen, but now restricted to domestic servants. (See AIGLET.) =Ependytes=, Chr. (ἐπενδύτης, i. e. worn above). The “fisher’s coat” of St. Peter. A coarse cloak worn by the monks of the Middle Ages over another garment; it is also called, in the ancient MSS., _superaria_, _superindum_, and _sagus rusticus_. It is frequently described, especially in the East, as made of skins (μηλωτὴς, pelliceus). =Epergne= (Fr. _épargne_, economy). An ornamental stand, with dish and branches, for the centre of a table. =Epernay Ware.= At Epernay were specially made glazed wares in relief for the service of the table, in shapes such as a hare, a fowl, &c., in half relief; also surprise or puzzle jugs. =Epha= or =Ephah=, Heb. A measure of capacity, about 3 pecks and 3 pints. =Ephebeum=, Gr. (ἐφηβεῖον). The large hall of a gymnasium, situated in the centre of the building, in which the youths (_ephebi_) practised gymnastic exercises. =Ephippium=, Gr. (ἐφίππιον, i. e. for putting on a horse). A saddle. Among the Greeks and Romans it was a kind of pad, square or round in shape, and regularly stuffed. Saddle-cloths hung from it, but it had no stirrups. The word _sella_, or _sella equestris_, became common in later times. =Ephod=, Hebrew. A short upper garment worn by the Jewish priests. The ephod, which was also worn by the Jewish judges and kings, was made of fine linen; that of the high priest consisted of a sleeved tunic, woven with gold thread, purple, hyacinth, and twisted flax. Two sardonyx stones set in gold adorned the clasps by which this tunic was fastened round the shoulders. =Epi= or =Girouette=, Fr. The complicated iron ornament with which steeples and pointed roofs were surmounted in the architecture of the Renaissance period, replaced in modern times by the weathercock. A similar spiked ornament, of pottery or metal, is still common on the gables of houses in Normandy. =Epic.= In Art, the graphic representation of an “epos,” or event, cardinal in history. =Epichysis=, Gr. and R. (ἐπίχυσις, i. e. that which pours in). A Greek pitcher with a long neck and a handle; it was used for pouring wine into cups. =Epicopus=, Gr. and R. (ἐπίκωπος, i. e. furnished with oars). A vessel with oars. (See NAVIS.) =Epicrocum=, Gr. and R. A woman’s garment, of a saffron yellow (crocus), whence its name. =Epicycloid.= “A curve described by the movement of the circumference of one circle on the convex or concave part of the circumference of another.” (_Stormonth._) =Epideipnis=, Gr. (i. e. following the dinner). The last course of a dinner or any kind of banquet. =Epidemia=, Gr. (lit. among the people). Festivals held at Argos in honour of Juno, and at Delos and Miletus in honour of Apollo. They received their name from the fact that these deities were supposed to be present at them, and to mingle with the people (ἐπὶ, among; δῆμος, people). =Epidote.= A mineral of a green or greyish colour: of the garnet family. =Epidromos=, Gr. (1) The mizen, or sail on the mast nearest to the stern, in vessels with several masts. (2) A part of the oil-press. (3) A running rope passing through the rings of a large net for catching birds, by means of which the huntsman, who was on the watch, closed the net when the game had found their way into it. =Epigonation=, Gr., Chr. An ornament peculiar to the Eastern Church; a lozenge-shaped piece of some stiff material, hanging from the girdle on the right side as low as the _knee_ (whence its name). =Epigrus.= (See EPIURUS.) =Epiphany=, Chr. This festival is known by various names in the different European languages; and the names are either (1) mere reproductions of the Latin name, or renderings of it; or (2) refer to the manifestation to the Magi as the three Kings, as the Dutch Drie-Koningendag, &c.; or (3) indicate it as the final day of the Christmas festivity, _Twelfth Day_, &c. (See _Smith and Cheetham’s Dictionary of Christian Antiquities_.) =Epiphi=, Egyp. The third month of summer, called the season of harvests. =Epirhedium=, R. (ἐπὶ Gr., and _rheda_ Gallic). A kind of chariot. The word was formed by the Romans as above, and is explained as _Ornamentum rhedarum, aut plaustrum_. (See RHEDA, PLAUSTRUM.) =Episcenium=, Gr. and R. (ἐπι-σκήνιον, i. e. above the stage). A room situated above the stage, in ancient theatres, for the machinery. =Episcopalia=, Chr. The ring and the pastoral staff, the distinctive marks of the authority of a bishop. =Episotron= (ἐπί-σωτρον). (See CANTHUS.) =Epistle Side= (of a church). The south side. =Epistomium=, R. (στόμα, a mouth). The cock of a vessel or water-pipe, which let out only a little water at a time. =Epistylium=, Gr. and R. (ἐπι-στύλιον). An epistyle; literally, on the column (ἐπὶ, on, and στῦλος, a column); that is, the architrave or lower beam of an entablature laid horizontally upon columns. By analogy the term is used to denote the entire ENTABLATURE (q.v.). =Epitaph= (ἐπιτάφιος). (1) A eulogy pronounced at a funeral. (2) Memorials of art in churches, in remembrance of the dead. (3) Inscriptions on tombs. =Epithalamium=, Gr. A nuptial song. A fragment of verses from one of these songs, written by Hesiod, has come down to us. =Epithedes= or =Sima=, Arch. The upper member of the cornice of an entablature. =Epitoga=, R. A cloak worn over the toga. =Epitoxis=, Gr. and R. That part of the catapult in which the missile was laid. =Epitrachelion=, Chr. (i. e. on the neck). The Greek name for the stole. (See STOLE.) =Epiurus=, R. (ἐπίουρος). A wooden peg used as a nail. =Epoch.= A fixed and important period of novelty or change, which gave a new and distinctive character to Art. (_Fairholt._) =Epomadion=, Gr., Chr. The cord or ribbon by which relics, or crosses (ENCOLPIA), were suspended from the neck. =Eques=, R. Generally, any one on horseback, a rider, and by analogy a knight, that is, a patrician or man of distinguished family. _Eques alarius_ was the name given to the cavalry of the allies; _eques cataphractus_ was a knight whose horse, as well as himself, was clad in complete armour; _eques extraordinarius_ were the picked cavalry in the service of the consuls; _eques legionarius_, _eques prætorianus_, the prætorian cavalry; _eques sagittarius_, the mounted archers. =Equipped=, Her. Fully armed, caparisoned, or provided. =Equiria=, R. (_equus_). Games instituted by Romulus, and celebrated at Rome in the Field of Mars on the third of the calends of March (27th February). These games, held in honour of Mars, consisted of chariot races. There were two festivals of this name; the second was on the eve of the ides of March (14th March). =Equuleus= or =Eculeus=, R. (lit. a colt, a young horse). This was an instrument of torture on which slaves were placed astride. The law prescribed that all slaves called as witnesses should be examined under torture. =Equus=, R. A horse; properly a stallion, as opposed to _cauterius_, a gelding, and _equa_, a mare. =Eradicated=, Her. Torn up by the roots. =Erased=, Her. Torn off with a ragged edge. =Eremites=, Gr., Chr. Hermits. =Ergastulum=, R. (ἐργάζομαι, to work). A private prison attached to a farm or _villa rustica_, in which insubordinate and ill-conducted slaves were kept in chains; they were under the superintendence of a gaoler, who was himself a slave, and who was called ERGASTULARIUS. _Ergastula_ were built underground, and thus formed subterranean dungeons. =Ergata=, Gr. and R. (ἐργάτης, i. e. worker). A strong capstan used for moving heavy weights; among other things, for hauling vessels on shore. =Ericius=, R. (lit. hedgehog). A military engine, a cheval-de-frise or long beam studded with iron spikes, whence its name. It was placed across a door or other opening to which it was desired to bar ingress. [Illustration: Fig. 295. The Ermine. Arms of Anne of Brittany.] =Ermine=, =Ermines=, =Erminois=, Her. The animal, the ermine, sometimes appears in blazon, and an ermine spot is borne as a charge. Generally the ermine is an emblem of royalty, purity, and honour. The illustration (Fig. 295) is of the arms of Anne of Bretagne, the Queen of Charles VIII. =Erotidia=, Gr. (ἐρωτίδια). Festivals held every fifth year at Thespiæ in Bœotia, in honour of Eros, the principal divinity of the Thespians. =Erpa=, Egyp. A title in use among the Egyptians implying authority generally; the crown prince was so designated, and the high priest was, in the same manner, called _erpa_ of the priests. [Illustration: Fig. 296. Escallop.] =Escallop= or =Scallop Shells= were emblems worn by pilgrims, and of St. James the Great, from the 13th century. =Escape=, Arch, (or Apopyge). The small curvature given to the top and bottom of the shaft of a column where it expands to meet the edge of the fillet above the torus of the base, and beneath the astragal under the capital. [Illustration: Fig. 297. Escaufaille, or portable brazier.] =Escaufaille=, Fr. A small portable brazier on wheels, which was taken from room to room as required. =Eschelles=, Fr. “A stomacher laced or ribboned in the form of a ladder.” (_Ladies’ Dict._, 1694.) =Escoinson=, Med. Fr. The interior edge of the window-side or jamb. This was often decorated with a pilaster called the “pilastre des écoinsons.” =Escroll=, Her. A ribbon charged with a motto; also a ribbon, coiled at its extremities, borne as a charge. [Illustration: Fig. 298. Escutcheon of the Sforzas.] =Escutcheon.= (1) The heraldic shield. (2) Metal plates on doors. Escutcheons are abundantly used in Gothic architecture, and are frequently carved on the bosses of ceilings and at the ends of weather mouldings, &c. Sometimes. instead of armorial bearings, escutcheons have the instruments of the Crucifixion or other devices carved on them. =Escutcheon of Pretence=, Her. A shield charged upon the field of another shield of larger size, and bearing a distinct coat of arms. =Espadon.= A long Spanish sword. It was the weapon used for decapitation of criminals. =Espietus=, =Expiotus=, Med. Lat. A dart (1361). =Espringale=, =Springale=, =Espringold=. A machine for throwing darts. =Esquire=, Her. A rank next below that of knight. =Esseda=, =Essedum=, R. (from the Celtic _ess_, a carriage). A chariot of Gaulish origin, drawn by two horses, which was used by the Britons and the Germans in war. It was mounted on two wheels, and was open in front, but closed behind. The pole was broad, and the rider used to run to and fro upon it in the battle. The Romans constructed carriages of a similar kind. A similar chariot drawn by one horse was called the _cisium_. (See CURRUS.) =Essonite.= The cinnamon-stone, a variety of the garnet. It is of a reddish yellow tint, resembling the colour of cinnamon. These stones come principally from Ceylon, and are frequently sold for hyacinths or jacinths, from which, however, they differ in many important peculiarities. (_H. Emanuel._) =Este.= A manufactory in Italy of soft porcelain; also of fine faience and pipe-clay. =Estivation=, Bot. The arrangement of the unexpanded leaves of the flower-bud which burst in Summer; as opposed to VERNATION, the arrangement of the leaves of the bud which burst in Spring. =Estoc=, Fr. (Med. Lat. _estoquum_). A short sword worn at the girdle; also called a “tuck” (_temp._ Elizabeth). =Estoile=, Her. A star with wavy rays or points, which are six, eight, or sometimes more in number. =Estrade=, Fr., Arch. A platform raised three or four inches above the rest of the floor of a chamber, upon which to place a bed or a throne, &c. =Estrif= or =Estref=, Med. A kind of arrow for the balista. =Etching.= In this process the copper plate is covered with an _etching-ground_, which is a preparation of bees’-wax, Burgundy pitch, black pitch, and asphaltum (or other ingredients); and the lines of the design are traced out with _etching-needles_, which remove the etching-ground from the copper wherever they pass, and slightly scratch the surface of the plate. Next, a border of _banking-wax_ is put round the sides of the plate, making a trough of it. The _banking-wax_ is made of bees’-wax, common pitch, Burgundy pitch, and sweet oil melted in a crucible and poured into cold water. The next operation is to pour in nitrous acid reduced with water to a proper strength (about one part acid to four parts water). When the acid has been on a sufficient time to corrode the fainter parts of the subject, it is to be poured off, the plate washed with water, and left to dry. These fainter parts are then to be varnished with a mixture called _stopping-ground_, made of lamp-black and Venice turpentine, applied with a camel’s-hair pencil. This stops the further action of the acid on these parts. When the surface is dry, fresh acid is poured on to _bite in_ the bolder parts, and the processes of _stopping_ and _biting-in_ are alternated for every gradation of tint. The wax is removed from the plate by heat, and cleaned away with a rag moistened with olive oil; and the work is then complete, or it may be finished off with the _graver_. _Etching-points_ or _needles_ resemble common needles, fixed in handles four or five inches long; some are made oval to produce broader lines. The _dry point_ is only a very fine-pointed needle for the delicate lines. Imitations of chalk and pencil drawings are sometimes produced by _etching on soft ground_. _Etching on steel_ is done in the same way as on copper. For _etching on glass_, a ground of bees’-wax is laid on, and the design traced as above. Sulphuric acid is then poured on, and fluor-spar sprinkled on it, or fluoric acid may be at once used; this is allowed to remain four or five hours, and is then removed with oil of turpentine. (See also STIPPLE, MEZZOTINTO, AQUATINTA.) =Eterea= of Padua. One of the Italian literary academies. Their device, a charioteer in his car in the air, drawn by a white and black horse, the one endeavouring to touch the earth, the other to ascend. Motto, “_Victor se tollit ad auras_.” =Etiolation.= The process of blanching to which plants are subject in dark places. =Ettwee.= O. E. for ETUI (q.v.). [Illustration: Fig. 299. Etui.] =Etui=, Fr. (by contraction _Twee_, Boyer). A case formerly worn at the girdle by ladies. They were made of gold or silver, or ornamented with paintings in enamel. The richly-decorated example represented in Fig. 299 was the property of a granddaughter of Oliver Cromwell. =Euripus=, R. (εὔριπος). An artificial canal or watercourse in the gardens of a Roman villa, generally stocked with fish and aquatic or amphibious animals. The same term was applied to a moat dug at the foot of the _podium_ in an amphitheatre or circus, which was intended, in conjunction with the metal railings or trellis-work placed at the top of the _podium_, as a protection to the spectators, when wild beasts were exhibited in the arena. _Euripus_ is also applied by Tertullian and other authors to the _spina_ of a circus. =Eustyle=, Arch. (εὔ-στυλος). An intercolumniation in which the columns are separated by a width of two diameters and a quarter, measured at the lower part of the column, excepting the central intercolumn, which is of three diameters. It is the form of columniation which, according to Vitruvius, satisfied the demands at once of solidity of structure, beauty of appearance, and general harmony of effect. =Euterpean.= Pertaining to music: from the Muse Euterpe. =Everriculum=, R. (_everro_, to sweep out). A fishing-net. =Ewery=, Med. An office of household service, where the ewers, &c., were kept: our modern _scullery_. =Exacisculatus=, R. Destroyed by means of a pick (_acisculus_). The term is of frequent occurrence in sepulchral inscriptions, its purpose being to serve as a notice to the thieves who broke into tombs. =Examen=, R. (_exigo_, to examine). The tongue or index on the beam of a balance. =Exasciatus=, R. Hewn or fashioned with the adze (ascia); whence the expression _opus exasciatum_ for work which only required to be finished or polished. =Excalceatus=, R. (lit. without shoes or boots). A comic actor or comedian who wore sandals. The tragic actor, on the other hand, who wore on the stage the laced boot or _cothurnus_, was called _cothurnatus_. =Excubitorium=, R. The post or guard of the _excubitores_; of these there was one in each quarter of the city, or fourteen in all. [Illustration: Fig. 300. Exedra.] =Exedra=, Gr. and R. An assembly-room or hall for discussion or conversation, forming part of a gymnasium, palæstra, or private house. In many cases _exedræ_ were in the open air, consisting merely of circular marble benches. (Fig. 300.) When an exedra was covered in, one of the sides often terminated in a circular apse (_absis_). [Larger rooms were called “_Leschai_.”] =Exedrium=, R. Diminutive of EXEDRA (q.v.). =Exequiæ.= (See EXSEQUIÆ.) =Exergue.= The bottom space on a coin, where the date is engraved. =Exiteria=, Gr. and R. (ἐξιτήρια, concerning departure or result). Sacrifices offered to propitiate the gods on the eve of an important enterprise, or in gratitude for success. =Exomis=, Gr. and R. (ἐξ-ωμὶς, i. e. off the shoulders). A short tunic, of Greek origin, adopted by the Romans. It left the right shoulder and arm exposed, and had only a short sleeve for the left arm. The term was also applied to the _pallium_, when so arranged upon the person as to resemble the tunic just described. =Exonarthex.= (See NARTHEX.) =Exostra=, Gr. and R. (ἐξώστρα). (1) A flying bridge thrown from a movable tower (_acrobaticon_) on to the walls of a besieged town, by means of which the assailants made their way into the place. (2) A theatrical machine which was pushed to the front of the stage from behind a curtain which concealed it until it was wanted. =Expeditus= (opposed to _impeditus_), R. Free, unencumbered; light-armed troops (_velites_) were thus called (_expediti_), [or any other troops, when they left their _impedimenta_ behind for a forced march, &c.] =Expositories.= (See MONSTRANCES.) =Exsequiæ=, R. (_exsequor_, to follow after). A funeral conducted with great pomp. (See =Funus=.) =Extispicium=, R. (_exta_ and _inspicio_, to inspect). Divination by inspection of the entrails of victims sacrificed on the altar; called also _haruspicina_. =Extra-dos=, Arch. The exterior curve of an arch; opposed to the SOFFIT or INTRA-DOS. =Extremities.= In Art, the head, feet, and hands: compare _acrolithes_. =Ex-voto=, Gen. Offerings of any kind in fulfilment of a vow (_ex voto_). =Eye.= In Christian art, the emblem of Providence. Attribute of St. Lucia, as a symbol, _not_ of her martyrdom, but of the meaning of her _name_ (“light”). (See OUDJA, OCULUS.) F. =Fabaria=, R. Offerings of bean-flour (_faba_) made by the Romans on the 1st of June to the goddess Carna; from these offerings the calends of June took the name of _fabariæ_. =Fabatarium=, R. A large earthenware vessel in which bean-flour (_puls fabacia_) was served, boiled up with water or broth. It formed a kind of _polenta_. =Fabrica=, R. (_faber_, an artisan). The shop in which an artisan works, chiefly a joiner’s or carpenter’s shop. =Fabrilia=, R. A general term, including all the different kinds of tools used by an artisan. =Façade=, Arch. The _face_ or front of a building. =Face-guard.= On a helmet, a bar or bars of iron protecting the face. =Face-painting=, O. E. Portrait painting. =Facets= (Fr. _facette_, a little face). The flat surfaces cut upon precious stones. =Facial Angle.= The angle formed by two lines, one horizontal from the nostrils to the ear, the other perpendicular from the nostrils to the forehead. =Fac-simile= (from Latin _factum_, made, and _simile_, like). A perfectly exact copy. =Factorium= (sc. _vas_), R. A vessel containing exactly a _factum_, or quantity of grapes or olives proper to be placed under the press (_torcular_) at one _factum_ or making. =Faculæ=, R. Little torches. [Illustration: Fig. 301. Faenza sweetmeat-dish.] =Faenza.= A manufacture of pottery considered by some writers to be the most ancient in Italy. _Garzoni_, writing in 1485, says, “The majolicas of F. are white and polished, and one can no more confound them with those of Treviso, than one would take puff-balls for truffles.” _Vincenzo Lazari_ says they are distinguished by the softness of the tints, the correctness of the drawing, and the whiteness of the enamel at the back. For a long and interesting account of this most important botega, see _Jacquemart_, _Hist. of the Ceramic Art_. The name of _Fayence_ is derived from Faenza, and _not_ from the little town of Fayence in France. (Fig. 301.) =Faience.= (See FAYENCE.) =Fairy Butter=, O. E. (1) A fungous excrescence about the roots of trees, and (2) a species of _tremella_ found on furze and broom are so called. =Fairy Circles.= Circles of coarse green grass common in meadows, and attributed to the dancing of the fairies. =Fairy Dances= = FAIRY CIRCLES (q.v.). =Fairy Darts.= Small flints in the form of arrow-heads, possibly of the stone age. =Fairy Faces.= Fossil _echini_ or sea-urchins. =Fairy Groats.= A country name for certain old coins. (See _Harrison’s England_, p. 218.) =Fairy Loaves.= Fossils found in the chalk, called also _fairy faces_. =Fairy Money.= Treasure trove was so called. =Fairy Pipes.= Small old tobacco-pipes, frequently found in the north of England. =Fairy Rings.= (See FAIRY CIRCLES.) =Fairy Sparks.= Phosphoric light seen on various substances in the night time. (_Halliwell._) =Fairy Stones.= (See FAIRY LOAVES.) =Faith=, in Christian art, is represented by a female figure holding the Eucharistic cup. =Fala=, R. A wooden tower used in the siege of a fortified place, but the exact form of which is unknown; it differed from the ACROBATICON. =Falarica= or =Phalarica=, R. A heavy spear, used by the Saguntines, which was generally discharged from a _balista_. Its shaft was sometimes enveloped with sulphur and resin, and with tow steeped in oil; and it was launched blazing against wooden towers for the purpose of setting them on fire. =Falbala.= (See FURBELOW.) =Falcastrum=, R. (_falx_, a sickle). An agricultural tool with a curved blade for tearing up weeds. =Falcatus=, R. Furnished with scythes (_falces_). (See CURRUS.) =Falchion.= A broadsword, spelt “fawchon;” 14th century. (See FALX.) =Falcicula.= Dimin. of _falx_. =Falcon=, in mediæval art, is the attribute of a gentleman, in allusion to the restrictions of the sumptuary laws. =Falcula.= Dimin. of _falx_. =Faldestol=, O. E. An elbow-chair of state; modern “_fauteuil_.” (See FALDSTOOL.) =Falding= (A.S. _feald_). A kind of coarse cloth, like frieze. =Faldstool=, =Faldistory=, O. E. A folding-stool, like a modern camp-stool, used in cathedral church services in Saxon times. =Fall= or =Falling-band=. A large collar falling on to the shoulders; 16th and 17th centuries. (See BANDS.) =Fallals=, O. E. The falling ruffs of a woman’s dress. =False=, Her. Said of any charge when its central area is removed; thus an annulet is a “false roundle.” =False Roof=, Arch. The space between the ceiling of the garret and the roof. =Falx=, R. A scythe, sickle, bill-hook, &c.; any instrument with a curved edge used for cutting grass, wood, or other objects. There were many different kinds, which were called respectively _arboraria_ and _sylvatica_, _denticulata_, _fænaria_ or _veruculata_, _vinitoria_, _vineatica_, and _putatoria_. The term _falx_ was also applied to a falchion strongly curved at the end. _Falx supina_ was a dagger with a keen and curved blade; _falx muralis_ was an instrument employed in warfare, both by sea and land, either to cut the masts and rigging of a vessel, or to sweep the ramparts clear of defenders. [_Culter_ is a knife with one straight edge; _falx_, one with the edge curved. Hence our _falchion_, &c.] =Familia=, Med. Lat. An old term for a set of chessmen. Among the jewels in the wardrobe-book of Edward I. occur “una _familia_ de ebore, pro ludendo ad scaccarium,” and “una familia pro scaccario de jaspide et crystallo.” [Illustration: Fig. 302. Feather Fan—Italian.] =Fan=, Egyp. With the _Egyptians_, the fan of ostrich feathers for brushing away flies was looked upon as the insignia of princes and chieftains; the _flabellum_ or _umbellum_ (parasol) was carried by inferior officers. Both kinds of fan are frequently represented on the sacred barges. The use of the fan was first introduced into England in the 16th century; they were first made of feathers with long handles of gold, silver, or ivory of elaborate workmanship, and sometimes inlaid with precious stones. The engraving shows one from a portrait of Queen Elizabeth. The _Greeks_ and _Romans_ had fans of various elegant materials, often of peacock’s feathers; sometimes of wings of birds, or of linen stretched on a frame. _Italian_ fans, mediæval, were square flags, as in Fig. 303. Folding fans were first introduced in the 17th century. Inventories of churches and monasteries of the 14th century include ecclesiastical fans or _flabella_. These are still used in the Catholic Church in the East. An illumination at Rouen represents the deacon raising the flabellum, a circular fan with a long handle, over the head of the priest at the altar. In the accounts of the churchwardens of Walberswick, Suffolk, of 1493, is the entry “for a bessume of pekok’s fethers, IVd.” (Figs. 302, 303.) [Illustration: Fig. 303. Venetian lady, with a square fan of the 16th century.] =Fan-crest=, Her. An early form of decoration for the knightly helm. =Fandango.= A Spanish dance. =Fane.= (1) A vane or weathercock; “a fayne of a schipe,” i. e. a vane on the top of a mast. “Of sylver his maste, of golde his _fane_.” (2) _Anglo-Saxon._ A banner. (3) The white flower-de-luce. (_Gerard._) (4) Enemies. (_Halliwell._) (See also FANUM.) =Fanfare=, Fr. A flourish of trumpets. =Fannel= or =Phannel=, O. E. The FANON (q.v.). =Fanon=, Chr. The maniple or napkin worn by the priest at mass. It was originally nothing but a plain strip of linen worn on the left wrist. In later times it was highly decorated, and often made of the richest materials. =Fan-tao=, Chinese. A fabulous peach-tree, which blossoms every 3000 years; represented on pottery as an attribute of Cheou-Lao, the god of longevity, who holds in his hand a fruit of it. =Fan-tracery.= In Gothic architecture, elaborate carved work spread over an arched surface, like a fan with the handle resting on a corbel or stone bracket below. =Fanum=, R. (_fari_, to speak); Eng. =Fane=. A term synonymous with TEMPLUM (q.v.), but implying also the idea of a place which had been consecrated by the solemn formula of the augurs. The _fanum_ thus comprised not only the building itself, the temple, but also all the consecrated ground surrounding it [“_locus liberatus et effatus_.”] =Farrago=, R. (i. e. made of _far_, spelt). Fodder for horses and cattle, consisting of the green ears of different kinds of grain. [Illustration: Fig. 304. Farthingale of the time of Elizabeth.] =Farthingale= (Fr. _vertugale_) is first spoken of in 1547. It was a sort of cage made of whalebone worn under the petticoat, increasing the size of the hips. In Elizabeth’s reign it reached to a preposterous size, giving the wearer the appearance of “standing in a drum,” according to “Sir Roger de Coverley.” There were _wheel-farthingales_ and _tub-farthingales_. Farthingales were worn during the reign of Charles I., but of more moderate dimensions; and in Charles II.’s reign the fashion vanished to reappear in the hoop of the 18th century. The engraving gives an example of a moderate farthingale. (Fig. 304.) =Fartura=, R. (_farcio_, to stuff). The act of fattening poultry; and thence applied to a kind of structure, the centre of which was filled with rubble. =Fasces.= (See FASCIS.) [Illustration: Fig. 305. Roman lictor carrying the fasces.] =Fascia=, R. Any strip of cloth used for a bandage; such as (1) the swathes (Gr. σπάργανον) in which newly-born children were wrapped; (2) a white band, or for women, a purple, worn as a diadem (DIADEMA); (3) (_f. pectoralis_) a bandage worn by young Roman girls to prevent excessive development of the breast; (4) (_f. cruralis_) a bandage wound closely round the leg from the ankle to the knee, &c.; these were adopted in Europe in the Middle Ages; (5) (_f. pedulis_, Gr. ποδεῖον) a sock; (6) see ZONA. (7) In _architecture_ the term _fascia_ or _facia_ is applied to three flat parallel _bands_ of stone, introduced to break the monotony of architraves, more especially of the Ionic, Corinthian, and Composite Orders. =Fasciculus=, R. (dimin. of _fascis_). A small bundle, or number of objects tied up into small bundles. =Fascina= (_fascinum_ = fascination). Amulets worn to avert the “evil eye.” “Nescio quis teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos.” (_Virgil._) =Fasciola= (dimin. of _fascia_). A small bandage. (See FASCIA.) =Fascis=, R. A bundle; a small packet; a small faggot of wood, or fascine. In the plural _fasces_ denoted the bundle of rods, with an axe in the middle, carried by the lictors before certain of the Roman magistrates. (See Fig. 305.) _Fasces laureati_ were the fasces crowned with laurel leaves, which were carried before a victorious general; _fasces versi_, the reversed fasces, which were carried axe downwards, in token of mourning, at funerals. The fasces were carried by the lictors on their shoulders, as shown in Fig. 305; and when an inferior magistrate met a superior one, the lictors of the former lowered their fasces to him; hence the expression _submittere fasces_, to yield or confess inferiority. =Faselus.= (See PHASELUS.) =Fasti=, R. (_fas_, divine law). Archives or calendars engraved on stone or marble; they were of two kinds. (1) The _fasti sacri_ or _kalendares_, a kind of almanack or calendar, setting out the _dies fasti_, or lawful days on which certain kinds of business might be transacted without impiety; also the religious festivals, &c. The calendars were entirely in the keeping of the priests. (2) The _fasti annales_ or _historici_, which contained the names of the consuls and magistrates, and a short account of the most remarkable events. Some important lists of this kind of the time of Tiberius are preserved in the capitol at Rome, and called the Fasti Capitolini. =Fastigium=, R. (_fastigo_, to raise to a point). The top of a pediment, and thence the entire pediment itself. In a building this term also signifies the _ridge_, or top of a roof whose two sides rise up to a point. =Faun= (Lat. _Faunus_). A woodland god, frequently represented with sharp ears and with the feet of a goat. =Fauteau=, Fr. A military engine used in the Middle Ages; it was a kind of battering-ram suspended in a tower. (See ARIES.) =Faux=, R. Any narrow passage, lobby, corridor, or entrance to a house, in especial the passage which formed the communication between two blocks of a house. In the plural, _fauces_, like _carceres_, denoted stalls or stables for horses. (See CARCER.) =Favissæ=, R. Pits or cellars under a temple, in which all the furniture and sacred implements which had become unfit for use were kept. =Favour=, O. E. A love-gift; a ribbon or glove, &c., worn on the crest of the favoured knight at a tournament, &c. =Favourite=, O. E. A lock of hair: “a sort of modish lock, dangling on the temples.” (_Ladies’ Dictionary_, 1694.) =Favus=, R. A flagstone or tablet of marble cut into a hexagon, like the cell of a honeycomb (_favus_), whence its name. [Pavements of this pattern were called Sectilia.] =Fax=, R. A torch. This consisted either of pieces of wood joined together and steeped in resin, or a metal tube filled with inflammable materials, such as resin, pitch, tallow, tow impregnated with wax, &c. [The early evening was hence called _prima fax_, and as marriages were celebrated at that time of day, the _torch_ was made an attribute of Hymen, and a symbol of marriage. The torch was also carried at funerals to fire the pile with.] =Fayence.= Pottery. =Feather.= In Christian art (German) an attribute of St. Barbara; it is generally a peacock’s feather. This refers to an old German version of her legend, which relates that when St. Barbara was scourged by her father, angels changed the rods into feathers. =Featherings=, in Architecture, are lacelike ornaments along the edges of arcs in windows, canopies, &c. [Illustration: Fig. 306. Ostrich feathers. (An escroll for a coronet.)] =Feathers=, Her. The feathers borne as crests and badges are generally those of the ostrich, sometimes of the swan, the turkey, and a few other birds. Fig. 306 is a representation of an early plume of ostrich feathers, as they are carved, with an escroll in place of a coronet, in the Abbey Church of St. Albans. From the time of the accession of the House of Stuart to the crown of the United Kingdom, the coroneted plume of three ostrich feathers appears to have been regarded, as it is at this present day, as the special badge of the Princes of Wales. =Februa=, =Februales=, R. A festival in honour of the dead instituted by Numa; it was celebrated every year on the ides of February. =Feet.= In Christian art the feet of Our Lord, also of angels and of the Apostles, should always be represented naked, without shoes or sandals. (_Fairholt._) =Felt= (Fr. _feutre_). A sort of coarse wool, or wool and hair. Felt hats were first made in England by Spaniards and Dutchmen, in the beginning of the reign of Henry VIII. Felt was also used for the stuffing of garments. =Feminalia= or =Femoralia=, R. (_femur_, the thigh). Short breeches or a kind of drawers which reached from the waist to about the knee. [Worn by Augustus Cæsar, who was very susceptible to cold.] =Fendace= (armour). The old name for the gorget. =Fenestella=, Chr. (lit. a small window). A niche made in the wall of a church, near the altar, and containing the stone basin in which the priest poured away the water in which he had washed the chalice. =Fenestra, Window.= _Fenestra biforis_ is a _Gemel-window_, formed by a double bay. _Fenestra_ was the name given to the hole pierced in the ears to receive the ear-rings, as also to the loop-holes made in the walls of a fortress. =Fenestration=, Arch. A term which expresses the disposition and arrangement of all the windows in a house. =Fengite.= Transparent alabaster used for glass in windows. =Ferculum=, R. (_fero_, to carry). Contracted form of _fericulum_, a tray, and thence the dishes carried upon a tray; a _course_ or _remove_. In a triumphal procession the term was applied to a platform for displaying an enemy’s spoils, a rich booty, images of the gods, &c.; or the ashes of the dead in a funeral. [Illustration: Fig. 307. Silver Feretory or Reliquary, of good English work, for the most part in repoussé.] =Feretory=, Chr. (1) A richly ornamented shrine, often of solid gold and set with jewels, in which the relics of saints are carried in Roman Catholic processions. (2) The enclosure or chapel in which the shrine was kept. =Feretrum= or =Pheretrum=, Gr, R., and Chr. (Lat. _capulus_). A bier; sometimes a shrine. The term was used at a period when coffins were uncommon; more properly the FERETORY, 1 (q.v.). =Feriæ=, R. Days of festival among the Romans; they were classed as follows: (1) _Feriæ statæ_ or _stativæ_, which were held regularly on the days indicated in the calendar; these were the _immovable festivals_, such as the Agonalia, Carmentalia, Lupercalia, &c. (2) _Feriæ conceptæ_ or _conceptivæ_, which were held every year, but at uncertain intervals; these were the _movable festivals_, such as the Latinæ, Sementivæ, Paganalia, and Compitalia. (3) Lastly, there were the _feriæ imperativæ_ or _official festivals_, which were held by order of the dictators, consuls, or prætors. All _feriæ_ were _dies nefasti_, on which lawsuits, political transactions, &c. were impious, and slaves were relieved of their labour. The _feriæ Latinæ_ were the most important of all Roman festivals. =Fermail=, Her. A buckle. =Ferr=, Her. A horse-shoe. =Ferrara.= A manufactory of majolica in North Italy, described by Jacquemart as “one of the most brilliant in Italy;” established by Alfonso I. with artists imported from Faenza, circa 1495. (_Jacquemart._) =Ferrea Solea.= A horse-shoe. (See SOLEA and HIPPOSANDALIUM.) =Ferriterium.= A prison for slaves. Synonym of ERGASTULUM (q.v.). =Ferula=, R. The fennel; a plant with which children were beaten for slight faults, and thence a cane or stick with which slaves were chastised. [Illustration: Fig. 308. Fesse.] =Fesse=, Her. One of the ordinaries. A broad band of metal or colour crossing the shield horizontally. =Fesse-point=, Her. The central point of an escutcheon. =Fesse-wise=, =In Fesse=, Her. Disposed in a horizontal line, side by side, across the centre of a field, and over the fesse-point of a shield. [Illustration: Fig. 309. Festoon of foliage.] =Festoon=, Arch. Garland of flowers. (Fig., 309.) (See ENCARPA.) =Festra=, R. An abbreviation anciently employed for FENESTRA (q.v.). =Festuca= or =Vindicta=, R. The rod which the lictor held over the head of a slave during the ceremony of _manumissio_, by which he was given his freedom. (See MANUMISSIO.) =Fetter-lock=, Her. A shackle, padlock; a Yorkshire badge. =Fibrinæ= (vestes), =Fibrinæ= (lanæ). (See CASTOREÆ.) [Illustration: Fig. 310. Fibula. Gallic.] [Illustration: Fig. 311. Fibula. Gallic.] =Fibula=, Gen. (_figo_, to fix). (1) A clasp, buckle, or brooch; any contrivance made of gold, silver, bronze, ivory, &c., used for fastening male or female attire. (2) The buckle of a head-band (_tænia_, _vitta_). Figs. 310 and 311 represent buttons and clasps belonging to the Gaulish and Merovingian periods. [The girdles of the _Franks_ and _Saxons_, found in English tombs, were usually ornamented most profusely. Not only were the buckles (_fibulæ_) of the richest workmanship, and conspicuous for size and decoration, but they are sometimes supplemented by enchased plates, or plates set with precious stones. (_Roach Smith._)] (See Figs. 105 to 113.) =Fictile Ware=, =Keremania=, R. (_fingo_, to mould). Any object made of terra-cotta or pottery, such as tiles, bricks, vases, &c. (See POTTERY.) =Fiddle= (A.S. _fithele_), or =Viol=, is represented in an Anglo-Saxon MS. of the 11th century, of a pear-shape, with four strings. The fiddle-bow probably originated in Hindustan, where the _Hindus_ claim that the ravanastron was invented about 5000 years ago by Ravanon, a king of Ceylon. Almost identical with this is the _Chinese_ fiddle called _urheen_, which has only two strings, and its body consists of a small block of wood, hollowed out and covered with a snake-skin. A German fiddle of the 9th century, called _lyra_, has only one string. In the Nibelungen Lied Volker is described as dexterous in playing the fiddle. Interesting representations of performers on the fiddle are painted on the roof of Peterborough Cathedral. They are attributed to the 12th century. =Fidelia=, R. An earthenware vessel or jar used as a receptacle for cement. =Fides= or =Fidis=, R. A general term comprising all stringed or gut instruments (from _sphidé_, catgut). =Fidicula=, R. (dimin. of _fides_). A very fine catgut string, a _treble-string_. The plural _fidiculæ_ denotes an instrument of torture for slaves, the form of which is unknown. =Field.= In Numismatics, the surface of a coin on which objects were engraved; in Heraldry, the entire surface of a shield or banner. =Figure-paintings.= Paintings of the human figure. [Illustration: Fig. 312. Silver Filigree. Reliquary, belonging to Lord Hastings, said to have been dug up in the foundations of St. Paul’s, London.] =Filagree=, =Filigree=, or =Filigraine= (It. _filigrana_ = _filum_ and _granum_, or granular network; so called because the Italians, who first introduced this style of work, placed beads upon it. [_Ure._]). This work is of gold or silver wire plaited and soldered into delicate arabesques and flower patterns. In the 15th century the Spanish Moors “made admirable chiselled, enamelled, and gilt work, and applied filigree work on the surface, a system kept up at Salamanca and Cordova to the present day.” The Eastern nations have always been famous for filigree work. =File=, Her. A label (from the Latin _filum_, a narrow ribbon). =Filfot=, called also the =Gammadion=. (See FYLFOT.) =Filigree Glass.= (See GLASS.) =Fillet=, Her. A diminutive of a chief. =Fillets=, Gen. Strips of linen employed for various purposes. The victims which were conducted by priests to sacrifice were adorned with sacred fillets. Among the Egyptians fillets were employed to swathe mummies, the strips being repeatedly wound by the embalmers round the corpse, till it reassumed the appearance it had presented before being dried. (See DIADEM, FASCIA.) In Architecture, a small round or rectangular moulding which separates two others which are larger and more prominent; the fillet also separates the flutings of columns. (See TÆNIA.) =Fimbria=, R. The border or fringe of a cloth or garment. [These were more common among the Egyptians and Assyrians than the Greeks and Romans, and are mentioned in the Bible.] [Illustration: Fig. 313. Cross fimbriated.] =Fimbriated=, Her. Bordered; the border (which is narrow) lying in the same plane with the object bordered. (Fig. 313.) [Illustration: Fig. 314. Finial.] =Finial.= In Gothic architecture, an ornament of carved work representing foliage, on the apex of a spire or pinnacle. (See CROCKET.) (Fig. 314.) =Fir-cone= upon a stem was the form of vases special to the majolica manufactory of Deruba; “a form,” says Jacquemart, “quite special to that manufactory, and directly imitated from the extreme East and from Asia Minor.” =Fire.= Flames of fire placed near St. Anthony signify his spiritual aid as patron saint against fire in all shapes, in the next world and in this. _Tongues of fire_ are, of course, depicted on the heads of the Apostles, in representations of the Day of Pentecost. =Fire-dog.= (See ANDIRON.) =Fire-lock.= The musket fired by flint and steel, invented in France about the year 1630. (See MATCH-LOCK.) =Fire-stommer=, O. E. A poker. =Fiscus=, R. A wicker-work basket used for gardening purposes, especially for gathering in the olive and grape crops. The Romans also made use of this basket for transporting sums of money; hence _fiscus_ came to mean a moneychest, and was the name given to that part of the revenue which was applied to the civil list of the emperors [opposed to _ærarium_, the property of the senate]; but at last the word was used to signify generally the property of the state. =Fish.= In Christian art, the symbol of water and the rite of baptism. (See ACROSTIC and VESICA PISCIS.) =Fistuca=, R. A pavior’s ram or beetle; a wooden bar or pile used to consolidate floorings, masonry, and pavements. =Fistula=, R. (1) A water-pipe of lead or earthenware. (2) A writing-pen made of reed, and thence a Pan’s pipe. (3) A rolling-pin for making pastry. (4) A probe. (5) A machine for bruising corn, which was called _fistula farraria_. =Fitch.= The best of paint-brushes are made of the hair of the _fitch_ or polecat. They are black, elastic, and firm though soft. They are made flat or round, and are used also for varnishing. =Fitchée=, Her. Pointed at the base. =Flabelliform=, Arch. (_flabellum_). Fan-shaped. The term is usually applied to an ornament composed of leaves and palms, which is of frequent occurrence on Romano-Byzantine monuments. =Flabellum=, Gen. (_flo_, to blow). A fan. (See FAN.) =Flagellum=, Gen. (_flagrum_). A whip or scourge made with thongs of leather, especially thongs of the ox’s hide, or twisted or knotted cords, &c., used in antiquity for punishing slaves or culprits. It was a terrible weapon, and the lash was often knotted with bones, or heavy metal _hooks_ to tear the flesh (_scorpio_). Gladiators used to fight in the arena with _flagella_. =Flagon=. A vessel with a long neck covered at top, and a spout. The flagons of the 15th and 16th centuries are the best in design and ornamentation. =Flail.= A weapon like a flail, of wood and iron armed with spikes, _temp._ Henry VIII. =Flake-white.= So called from its form, in commerce, of _flakes_ or scales. As a pigment it possesses great body, and enters largely into numerous compound tints. (_Fairholt._) (See CARBONATE OF LEAD.) =Flamboyant= (style), Mod. The style of French architecture peculiar to the 15th century, so called because the mullions and tracery of the windows in the monuments belonging to that period are curved and twisted like the waving of flames. This style was contemporary with that called “the perpendicular” in England. =Flamen=, R. A priest devoted to the service of any one god; e. g. _Flamen Martialis_, the priest of Mars. Their characteristic dress was the APEX, the LÆNA, and a laurel wreath. =Flaming Heart=, in Christian symbolism, expresses fervent piety and love. =Flammeolum= (dimin. of _flammeum_). A term denoting a texture much finer than that of the _flammeum_. =Flammeum=, R. A bridal veil worn by the bride on the day of her marriage; it was of light gauze, and in colour of a vivid and brilliant yellow, like a flame; whence its name. It covered the lady from head to foot, and was removed by the bridegroom on their arrival home after the ceremony. =Flammula=, R. A small flame; a small banner borne by light cavalry regiments; it was of a vivid and brilliant yellow colour, like the bridal _flammeum_; whence its name. (Modern ORIFLAMME, q.v.) =Flanches=, =Flasques=, Her. Subordinaries. [Illustration: Fig. 315. Flat-heads.] =Flat-heads=, =Projecting-heads=, Mod. An ornament peculiar to the Romano-Byzantine period, which decorates archivolts. Fig. 315 gives an example of flat-heads; Fig. 316 of projecting-heads. [Illustration: Fig. 316. Projecting-heads.] =Flaying-knife.= An attribute of St. Bartholomew, signifying the manner of his martyrdom. In Croyland Abbey it was anciently the custom to present all members of the community with small flaying-knives on St. Bartholomew’s Day (Aug. 24). [Illustration: Fig. 317. Old Flemish Lace.] =Flemish Lace.= Flanders and Italy dispute the invention of pillow lace. It is certain, however, that lace of home manufacture was worn in the 15th century in the Low Countries, and from that time to the present lace-making has formed a source of national wealth to Belgium. The engraving shows a fine specimen of old Flemish lace composed of six different designs joined together, commonly known as “Trolle Kant.” A similar lace is made in some of our own counties, and called “Trolly.” (Fig. 317.) [Illustration: Fig. 318. “Cosse de Genest,” showing a Cross fleurettée.] =Fleur-de-lis= (Fr.), the royal insignia of France, was first adopted by Louis VII. (about A. D. 1137) _semée_, or scattered over the field. This shield is blazoned as “France Ancient.” On the occasion of his marriage, in 1234, St. Louis instituted the order of the “Cosse de Genest” (Fig. 318), and, as an emblem of his humility, took for his badge the broom-flower with the motto _Exaltat humiles_. The collar of the order was composed of broom-flowers enamelled, intermixed with fleurs-de-lis. In the reign of Charles VI. four collars of the order of the Cosse de Genest were sent as presents to King Richard II. and his uncles the Dukes of Lancaster, Gloucester, and York. The fleur-de-lis entered the English insignia in 1275 with the marriage of Edmund with Blanche of Artois, and was erased on January 1, 1801. =Fleurettée=, Her. Terminating in, or bordered with fleurs-de-lis, like the cross in Fig. 318. =Fleuron.= A small full-blown rose placed in the centre of the abacus of the capital in certain orders of architecture. =Flexed=, Her. Bowed, bent. =Flighted=, Her. Feathered, as arrows are. =Flo=, O. E. An arrow. “Robin bent his joly bowe, Therein he set a _flo_.” (_Wright’s Songs and Carols._) =Floralia=, or =Florales Ludi=. A Roman festival in honour of Flora, said to have been instituted B.C. 238, to invoke the protection of the goddess upon the spring blossoms. =Florentine Fresco.= A peculiar method of fresco-painting, by which the lime is kept moistened during the process. =Florentine Lake.= (See CARMINATED LAKES.) =Florentine Mosaic.= Inlaid-work in coloured stones, and precious stones combined into beautiful patterns. =Florid= (style), Arch. This term, now disused, has been replaced by that of FLAMBOYANT style (q.v.). =Florimontana.= A literary society established at Annecy in 1606. They took for their device an orange tree, with the motto, “_Flores, fructusque perennes_.” =Fluor-spar= or =Derbyshire-spar=. A mineral rock very common in Derbyshire, where it is made into ornaments, &c., with the lathe. =Flute=, Gen. Said to have been invented by Apollo or Mercury. The simplest form of flute was made with an oat-stalk (_avena_) or a hollow reed (_calamus_); in the course of time it was made of ivory, bone, or the shin-bones of animals; whence its Latin name of TIBIA (q.v.). The Greek flute (_aulos_) was held like a flageolet, and a vibrating reed was inserted into the mouthpiece. The single flute was called _monaulos_; the double one _diaulos_. A specimen of the last in the British Museum was found in a tomb at Athens. It is made of cedar, and the tubes, which are fifteen inches in length, have each a separate mouthpiece and six finger-holes, five of which are at the upper side, and one underneath. The flutes of the _Etruscans_ were often of ivory; those used in religious ceremonies were of box-wood, ass’s bone, bronze, and silver. The _Persian_ flute called “_nay_,” and the “_surnay_” a kind of oboe, are still popular in the East. In _Mexico_, the young man sacrificed to the god was taught to play the flute, and as he went to his death he broke a flute on each of the steps of the temple. The practice of making flutes of the bones of their enemies was common with many Indian tribes in America. [Illustration: Fig. 319. Flutings.] =Flutings= or =Flutes=, Arch. Small semicircular indents or grooves cut perpendicularly, by way of ornament, in the shafts of columns and pilasters. Flutings may be either decorated or plain. When filled with a bead moulding, they are said to be _cabled_. Fig. 319 represents flutings decorated with leaves twined round a reed. =Fly=, Her. The length and also the side of a flag furthest from the mast. =Fo=, Chinese. (See DOG OF FO.) The “Hand of Fo” is a fragrant fruit, a kind of _cédrat_, generally styled the Chinese hand-plant, used to perfume apartments. =Focale=, R. (_fauces_, the throat). A square piece of cloth which was wrapped round the neck, and covered the ears. [Illustration: Fig. 320. Foculus.] =Foculus=, R. (dimin. of _focus_). A portable fireplace; a brazier or chafing-dish. (Fig. 320.) =Focus=, R. The hearth or fireplace of a house, consecrated to the Lares or household gods. =Foil=, in Architecture. (See TREFOIL, QUATREFOIL, &c.) [Illustration: Fig. 321. Foliage of the Acanthus.] =Foliage=, Gen. Nearly every style of architecture has made use of foliage for purposes of ornamentation. In antiquity, the leaves of the acanthus, palm, laurel, olive, ivy, &c., were thus employed; the Romano-Byzantine, Byzantine, and Pointed styles utilized for the same purpose the vine, oak, cinquefoil, parsley, mahonia, mullein, thistle, &c. Foliage has been applied to the decoration of capitals, archivolts, bands, cornices, and friezes; and it has also been used to form CROCKETS (q.v.), crownings, pinnacles, &c. Architectural work thus enriched is said to be FOLIATED, and the ornament itself is called FOLIATION. [Illustration: Fig. 322. Foliage on moulding.] =Folliculus=, R. A leather cap encircling the hole by which an oar protruded from a ship. The term is a diminutive of FOLLIS (q.v.). =Follis=, R. A small ball of leather inflated with air, which also went by the name of _folliculus_; used for a plaything. =Fong-hoang=, Chinese. A fabulous bird which is immortal, lives in the highest regions of the air, and only approaches men to announce to them happy events and prosperous reigns. It is easily recognized (on pottery, &c.) by its carunculated head, its neck surrounded by silky feathers, and its tail partaking of the Argus pheasant and the peacock. (_Jacquemart._) [Illustration: Fig. 323. Pompeian fountain.] =Fons=, =Fountain=, Gen. In antiquity, natural springs and fountains were objects of religious worship. Fig. 323 represents a Pompeian fountain known as the Fountain of Abundance. [Illustration: Fig. 324. Baptismal font (Romano-Byzantine).] =Font=, Chr. The vessel which contains the consecrated water used in the administration of baptism, by sprinkling or aspersion (Fig. 324), introduced in lieu of the original mode of immersion (Fig. 325). (Compare PISCINA.) [Illustration: Fig. 325. Early English Font.] [Illustration: Fig. 326. The Fontange Head-dress.] =Fontange=, Fr. “A modish head-dress,” deriving its name from Mademoiselle de Fontange, a lady of the court of Louis XIV., who invented it. (Fig. 326.) =Font-cloth=, O. E. (1) The hanging with which the font was ornamented. (2) The CHRISMALE (q.v.). =Fools.= In Church architecture and decoration, grotesque figures of men with fool’s cap and bells are frequently seen under the seats of choir-stalls and _miserere_ seats. (See the article OBSCŒNA.) =Foolscap.= A fool’s cap was the device of the Italian society called the Granelleschi, formed at Venice in 1740 to oppose the corruption of the Italian language. A sheet of foolscap paper is 17 in. by 13½ in. =Forceps.= Tongs or pincers, the attributes of some of the martyrs. (See FORFEX.) =Foreshortening.= The art of representing objects on a plane surface as they appear to the eye in perspective. [Illustration: Fig. 327. Roman Forfex.] [Illustration: Fig. 328. Forfex.] =Forfex=, R. (1) Large scissors or shears used to cut hair or shear animals. (2) A clip, in the form of shears, for raising weights. (Fig. 327.) Fig. 328 represents a shears described by Vitruvius, which was used to raise stones. =Fori=, R. This term, which is the plural of _forus_, denotes (1) the flooring of a ship; (2) the flooring of a bridge; (3) the standing-places on a temporary platform; (4) the shelves forming the divisions or different stories of a beehive; (5) the narrow parallel furrows drawn in a garden by means of the hoe. =Foricula.= A little door. Dimin. of FORIS (q.v.). =Foris=, R. The door as distinguished from the frame in which it hung. In the plural, _fores_ denotes a folding-door with two leaves, as, for instance, _fores carceris_, the door of the stalls in a circus. =Forks= were not in general use earlier than the 14th century. One of the earliest occasions on which a fork is mentioned informs us that John, Duke of Brittany in 1306, had one “to pick up soppys.” =Forlon.= A Spanish carriage with four seats. =Forma=, R. (_fero_, to produce). A mould, form, or model; a mould for making bricks or other objects in clay, such as (1) antefixa, masks, &c.; (2) a shoemaker’s last; (3) the waterway of a subterranean aqueduct. _Diminutive_, =Formella=, R. A small shape or mould used especially by the Romans to give an artificial form to the fish which was served as one of the courses at dinner. =Fornacalia=, R. A festival of bakers in honour of the goddess _Fornax_ (oven-goddess). It took place in February, the day being given out by the _curio maximus_, who announced, in tablets which were placed in the forum, the part which each _curia_ had to take in the festival. Those persons who did not know to which curia they belonged, performed the rites on the last day, called _Stultorum feriæ_ (the feasts of fools). =Fornacula= (dimin. of FORNAX, q.v.). (1) A small furnace for smelting metals. (2) A small furnace for a bath-room. =Fornax=, R. A furnace; an oven; a kiln for baking pottery: _fornax calcaria_, a lime-kiln; _fornax æraria_, a blast-furnace for smelting metals; _fornax balnei_, a hypocaust or bathfurnace; this was also called FORNACULA (q.v.). FORNAX is also the name of the goddess of _ovens_. =Fornix=, R. A term having the same meaning as ARCUS (q.v.). It also denotes (1) a triumphal arch (_arcus triumphalis_); (2) a vault or vaulted room; (3) a vaulted gate. =Forril.= A kind of parchment, specially prepared for bookbinding. =Forulus=, R. (dimin. of _forus_, a shelf). A cupboard, cabinet, or dwarf bookcase. [Illustration: Fig. 329. Ground-plan of the Forum at Pompeii.] =Forum=, R. A large open space used by the Romans as a market; it answered to the Greek AGORA (q.v.). Fig. 329 represents the _forum civile_ of Pompeii, unquestionably one of the most complete examples bequeathed to us by antiquity. _A_ is the principal entrance; _B_, a Corinthian temple; _C_, the public prison (_carcer publicus_); _D_ is supposed to have been a horreum, or public granary; _E_, the temple of Venus, the guardian goddess of the city; _F_, the basilica; _G_, _H_, _I_, the curiæ, which were a kind of civil and commercial tribunals; _K_ is a rectangular building which probably served the purpose of a shop for money-changers; _L_, a portico terminating in an absis; _M_, the temple of Mercury or Quirinus; _N_, a building with a large semicircular tribune, which probably formed the residence of the AUGUSTALES. =Forus.= A synonym of FORUM (q.v.). _Forus aleatorius_ was the term applied to a dice-table. =Fossil Ivory.= The tusks of the mammoth—the extinct _elephas primigenius_—found in great quantity in Siberia, are the material of which nearly all the ivory-turner’s work in Russia is made. The ivory has not undergone any petrifying change like other fossils, and is as well adapted for use as that procured from living species. =Fote= (or =Foot=) =Mantel=. An outer garment of the petticoat kind, bound round the hips (of a woman on horseback) “to keep her gown or surcoat clean.” (_Strutt._) “A _fote-mantel_ about hir hips large.” (_Chaucer._) =Fountain=, Her. A circular figure or ROUNDLE that is _barry wavy_ arg. is so blazoned. =Fourchée=, Her. Divided into two parts; said of a lion with a double tail. =Fraces=, R. A kind of fuel made of the tan obtained from the residuum of oil-presses; it was thus the pulp of olives. =Frænum=, =Frenum=, R. A horse’s bridle, including the bit and the reins. [The bit was called _orea_ or Greek στόμιον.] =Framea=, R. (1) A German spear, the iron head of which was short but very sharp; it was employed by them as a pike. (2) A weapon used by the Franks. =Francisca.= A kind of battle-axe used by the Franks. =Frankfort Black.= A German pigment prepared like _blue black_ (q.v.). =French Ultramarine.= (See GUIMET’S ULTRAMARINE.) =Fresco-Painting= (i. e. _al fresco_, upon fresh or wet ground), generally employed for large pictures on walls and ceilings, is executed with mineral and earthy pigments upon a freshly-laid ground of stucco. It was known to the ancients, and must be distinguished from DISTEMPER PAINTING (q.v.) on plaster, which is a different process. “_Buon_ (or genuine) _fresco_,” painted on the fresh surface of plaster, is distinguished from “_fresco secco_,” or a process of painting on dry plaster commonly practised in Italy and Munich. It is argued that the latter was the process used at Pompeii, and generally by the ancients, because (1) lime is found in nearly all the colours, and (2) the nature of the joinings in the work indicates that each compartment does not contain only one day’s work, as it must in _buon fresco_. [Illustration: Fig. 330. Greek Fret.] [Illustration: Fig. 331. Greek Fret.] [Illustration: Fig. 332. Greek Fret.] =Fret=, Arch. An angular, interlaced architectural ornament of the Greek and Romano-Byzantine period, also known as _broken batoon_ and _Vitruvian scroll_, and presenting some analogy with _chevron_ or zigzag. There are _crenelated_ or _rectangular frets_, _triangular_, _nebulated_, _undulated frets_, &c. [Illustration: Fig. 333. Undulated Fret.] [Illustration: Fig. 334. Scroll Fret.] =Fret=, O. E. A _caul_ of gold or silver wire. “A _fret_ of golde she had next her hair.” (_Chaucer._) [Illustration: Fig. 335. Badge of the Arundel family, with fret.] =Fret= or =Frette=, Her. One of the subordinaries. The illustration is one of the badges of the Arundel family: a chapeau or and gules, surmounted by a _fret_ or, and an acorn leaved vert. =Frieze=, Arch. That part of the entablature which is included between the architrave and the cornice. (See Fig. 184.) Another name for it is ZOOPHORUS (q.v.). It was generally richly sculptured. The finest frieze ever found is that of the Parthenon, the ornamentation of which may be studied in the Elgin-marble room at the British Museum. (See Fig. 282.) =Frieze=, =Frize=. A coarse woollen cloth, first mentioned 1399. “Cloth of gold, do not despize To match thyself with cloth of frize. Cloth of frize, be not too bold, Though thou be matched with cloth of gold.” =Frigidarium=, R. (_frigidus_, cold). (1) A cool apartment in a bathing establishment. (2) A cool place used as a larder. =Frisquet.= In wood-engraving, a piece of paper laid over the proof-paper in the act of printing, to keep clean the parts not intended to be exposed to the ink. =Fritillus=, R. A dice-box of a cylindrical form, called also _turricula_ or _pyrgus_ (Greek φιμός). [Illustration: Fig. 336. Frog. The device of Mæcenas.] =Frog.= An ancient emblem of silence and secrecy, from a legend quoted by Ælian that the frogs of Syriapha never croak in their own marshes. Hence it was adopted by Mæcenas, the friend of Augustus, for his device. (Fig. 336.) [Illustration: Fig. 337. Frontale of a bridle.] =Frontale=, Gen. (_frons_, the forehead). (1) A frontlet or head-band worn by Greek women, and to be seen principally on the statues of goddesses. (2) A plate or band of metal placed across the forehead of horses (Fig. 337) as a protection for the frontal bone. The Medes, Persians, Greeks, and Romans made use of the _frontale_ for their cavalry horses. For the ecclesiastical =Frontal=, Mediæval, see ANTEPENDIUM. Henry III. gave a FRONTAL to the high altar at Westminster Abbey, upon which, besides carbuncles in golden settings, and several large pieces of enamel, were as many as 866 smaller pieces of enamel. =Frontispiece.= In Architecture, the façade or face of a building. The engraved title-page of a book was originally called the frontispiece. =Frote=, O. E. To rub; to stir. =Frountere=, O. E. FRONTAL (q.v.). =Fucus=, Gr. Cosmetic paint, much used by the Greek and Roman ladies. They stained their eyebrows black with a preparation of sulphuret of antimony called _stimmi_, or of soot, _asbolos_. The Roman ladies, in addition to rouge and white for the complexion, used to trace out the veins on their temples with a blue paint, and they wore the patches of Queen Anne’s time (_splenia_). “From beef without mustard, a servant which overvalues himself, _and a woman which painteth_,—good Lord deliver us!” (_Stubbes._) =Fuller’s Bat= or =Club=. Attribute of St. James the Less, who was killed with such an implement. =Fullonica=, =Fullonum=, R. (_fullo_, a fuller). A fuller’s establishment. An example of one, in perfect preservation, is preserved at Pompeii. The _fullones_ acted as laundrymen to Greek and Roman families, washing linen as well as woollen clothes by treading in tubs (using urine for soap, which was unknown to them); hence _saltus fullonicus_, a fuller’s dance. =Fulmen.= The thunderbolt of Jove. (See also ILLAPA.) It is generally represented as a double cone of flame, with lightnings on each side, or frequently with wings. =Fumarium=, R. (_fumus_, smoke). A chamber in the upper part of a Roman house, into which the smoke from the fires was conducted. The smoke-room was used for drying wood and ripening wine. The “Rauchkammer” or smoke attic is still a common institution in good houses in Germany. =Funale=, R. (_funis_, a rope). A link or torch made of various materials. =Funalis= or =Funarius= (sc. _equus_). The tracehorse, so called because its traces, instead of being of leather, were of rope (_funis_). =Funarius.= (See FUNALIS.) =Funda, Sling=, Gen. The sling has been employed by most of the peoples of antiquity as a weapon of warfare for hurling stones, chiefly flints or leaden bullets (_glandes_). The slings of the Egyptians were made of leather thongs or plaited cord. The _funaitores_, or slingers, of the Greek and Roman armies carried each a provision of stones in the folds (_sinus_) of his pallium, a shield on his left arm, and brandished his sling in the right hand. The most celebrated slingers were the inhabitants of the Balearic Islands, which took their ancient name from this circumstance. [Illustration: Fig. 338. Fundibalus—Onager.] =Fundibalus=, =Fundibalum=, R. (βάλλω, to throw). A machine for hurling stones; a kind of _balista_ (q.v.). (Fig. 338.) [Illustration: Fig. 339. Street at Pompeii.] =Fundula=, R. A blind alley or _cul-de-sac_. Fig. 339 represents one of the kind at Pompeii. =Fundulus=, R. The piston of a hydraulic machine. =Funeral Ceremonies.= 1. Greek. The expressions τὰ δίκαια, νομιζόμενα, or προσήκοντα, the just and lawful rites, are expressive of the Greek idea that the proper burial of the dead was a most sacred duty to them. The first act was to place in the mouth of the corpse an _obolus_, with which the spirit would pay the ferryman in Hades. This coin was then called _danaké_. The body was then washed and anointed, the head crowned with flowers, and the handsomest robes put on. All this was done by the women of the family. By the side of the bed upon which the corpse was then laid (πρόθεσις) were placed painted earthen vessels (_lecuthoi_; see LECYTHUS), which were afterwards buried with the corpse. (These vases are frequently disinterred in modern excavations.) A honeycake (_melittouta_) to throw to the dog Cerberus was laid on the bed. Before the door a vessel of water (_ostracon_ or _ardalion_) was set, to be used, like the holy water of Catholic times, by persons _leaving_ the house, for purification. On the third day after death, the _ecphora_, or carrying out for burial, took place in the morning before sunrise. The men walked before the corpse, and the women behind. Hired mourners (_threnodoi_) accompanied the procession, playing mournful tunes on the flute. The bodies were either buried or burned, until cremation gave way to a Christian prejudice. The body was placed for burning on the top of a _pyre_ (Gr. πῦρ, fire); and, in remote ages, animals, prisoners, or slaves were burned with it. Oils and perfumes were thrown into the flames. Finally, the smouldering ashes were quenched with wine, and relatives and friends collected what remained of the bones. The bones were then washed with wine and oil, and placed in urns, often golden.