2. Roman. _Funera justa_ conveys the same idea as the Greek _dicaia_ of

the right and title of the dead to a proper observance. With the Romans, the washing, anointing, &c. of the body was done by slaves (_pollinctores_) of the undertakers, who were called _libitinarii_, because they dwelt near the temple of Venus Libitina, in which all things requisite for funerals were sold and a mortuary register was kept. The coin having been duly placed in the mouth, the body was laid out in the vestibule dressed, of ordinary citizens in a white toga, and of magistrates in their official robes, and the couch was strewn with flowers, and a branch of _cypress_ was placed at the door of the house. All funerals were, in ancient times, performed at night, but afterwards only those of the poor. At a great funeral the corpse was carried out on the eighth day, preceded by musicians (_cornicines_, &c.) and mourning women (_præficæ_), who chanted a funeral hymn (_nænia_); players and buffoons (_histriones_, _scurræ_) followed, and a procession of the freed slaves wearing the cap of liberty (_pileati_). Images of the deceased and of his ancestors were borne before the corpse, which was carried on a litter (_feretrum_). The common bier of the poor was called _sandapila_, and its bearers _vespillones_, because they bore it forth in the evening (_vespere_). The couches of the rich were of ivory, richly ornamented with gold and purple. The relations walked behind in mourning, sons with the head veiled, and daughters with dishevelled hair. At the forum a funeral oration (_laudatio_) was delivered, and thence the procession went to the place of burial or cremation. Those who were buried (as all were subsequently to the 4th century A. D.) were placed in a coffin (_arca_ or _loculus_), often of stone. The Assian stone, from Assos in Troas, was said to consume all the body, with the exception of the teeth, in forty days, whence it was called sarcophagus (q.v.). For cremation the pyre, or _rogus_, was built like an altar, and the corpse in its splendid couch being placed on the top, the nearest relation, with averted face, fired a corner of the pile. Perfumes were forbidden by the Twelve Tables. Sometimes animals were slaughtered, and in ancient times, captives and slaves, but afterwards gladiators were hired to fight round the blazing pile. (Compare BUSTUM.) When the pyre was burnt down, the embers were soaked with wine, and the bones and ashes collected into urns. (See URNA.) The solemnities continued for nine days after the funeral, at the end of which time a sacrifice was performed called the _novemdiale_. Men wore _black_ for mourning, and women white; but at all banquets given in honour of the dead the guests were clothed in white. [Illustration: Fig. 340. Covered urn of red pottery. Ohojepore.] =Funeral Urns= of Indian pottery are found of extremely ancient date. That represented in Fig. 340 is a covered jar, of primitive make, with an inscription in ancient characters; its date is probably from 260 to 240 B.C. (_Jacquemart._) =Fur.= _Strutt_ says that “the furs of sables, beavers, foxes, cats, and lambs were used in England before the Conquest; to which were afterwards added those of ermines, squirrels, martens, rabbits, goats, and many other animals.” In the Middle Ages the more precious furs, as ermine and sable, were reserved for kings, knights, and the principal nobility of both sexes. Inferior ranks used “vair” and “gris,” or gray; while citizens, burgesses, and priests wore the common squirrel and lamb-skins. The peasants wore cat-skins, badger-skins, &c. In after times were added the skins of badgers, bears, beavers, deer, fitches, foxes, foynes (or martens), grays, hares, otters, sables, squirrels, weasels, wolves, &c. The mantles of our kings and peers, and the furred robes of municipal officers are the remains of this fashion, which in the 13th century was almost universal. [Illustration: Fig. 341. Shield with Ermine.] =Fur=, Her. The _furs_ are of comparatively rare appearance in heraldry, and do not appear in the best ages. _Vair_ and _ermine_ are common. In Fig. 341 is an example of the treatment of ermine from the monument of Edward III. =Furbelow=, O. E. An ornament on the petticoat of a woman’s dress, described as a “puckered flounce,” to display which it became the fashion to roll back the skirts of the gown. “The Old Mode and the New, or the Country Miss with her Furbelow,” is the title of an old play, _temp._ William and Mary. =Furca=, R. A fork with two teeth (_bidens_), or two prongs; a hay-fork: _furca carnarii_, a fork used for taking down the meat hung up in the _carnarium_. The term _furca_ was further applied to a kind of fork by aid of which a foot-traveller carried his baggage, but the more usual name for this kind of fork was _ærumna_ (q.v.). Also, a wooden fork placed for punishment across the shoulders of slaves and criminals, to the prongs of which the hands were tied. Reversed it formed a cross upon which criminals were executed, either by scourging or by crucifixion with nailing. The patibulum was a similar instrument of punishment formed like the letter H. =Furgon=, O. E. (Fr. _fourgon_). A fork for putting faggots and sticks on to the fire. =Furnus=, R. (1) A baker’s oven. (2) A baker’s shop. (See FORNAX.) =Fuschan in Appules=, O. E. Fustian of Naples. (See FUSTIAN.) =Fuscina=, R. (1) A fork with three prongs used for spearing fish. (2) The trident of the _retiarius_. Originally it was called _tridens_, and used as a goad to drive horses. Neptune always carries one. =Fuscinula= (dimin. of _Fuscina_, q.v.). A carving-fork. =Fusée=, Fr. A gun with a wide bore, like a blunderbuss. =Fusiform= (_fusus_, a spindle). In the form of a spindle. [Illustration: Fig. 342. Fusil. Device of Philip of Burgundy (D. 1467).] =Fusil=, Fr. The steel for striking fire from a flint; an ancient device of the Dukes of Burgundy, the motto inculcating the worthlessness of latent virtues never brought into action. =Fusi-yama.= The sacred mountain of the Japanese, often depicted on their porcelain. =Fustian.= “A species of cotton cloth much used by the Normans, particularly by the clergy, and appropriated to their chasubles.” (_Strutt._) It was originally woven at Fustat, on the Nile, with a warp of linen thread, and a woof of thick cotton, so twilled and cut that it showed on one side a thick but low pile. In the 14th century Chaucer says of his knight,— “Of fustian he wered a gepon.” In the 15th century Naples was celebrated for fustian. An old English account of this date has “Fuschan in Appules” (for Fustian from Naples). =Fustibalum=, R. A pole about four feet long, furnished with a sling (_funda_) in the middle. It was wielded by both hands, and was used to hurl huge stones to a distance. =Fusus= (Gr. ἄτρακτος). A spindle. It was generally made of wood; but some nations, as for instance the Egyptians, had spindles of pottery. =Fygury=, O. E. An old name for silks _diapered_ with _figures_ of flowers and fruit. A cope in the York fabric rolls is described “una capa de sateyn fygury.” [Illustration: Fig. 343. Fylfot.] =Fylfot= or _Filfot_. This mysterious ornament exactly resembles the Hindu _arani_ of remote antiquity, i. e. the instrument of wood by which fire was obtained by friction; which is the symbol of _Agni_. This symbol has never been lost, and occurs sixty times on an ancient Celtic funereal urn; also on monumental brasses and church embroidery of the Middle Ages. It is generally called the GAMMADION. G. =Gabardine= or =Gallebardine=, It. “A rough Irish mantle, or horseman’s coat; a long cassock.” It was, and is, a favourite outer garment of the Jews. =Gabion=, Fortification. A basket filled with earth, used in the construction of earthworks for defensive purposes. =Gable=, Arch. (German _Giebel_, point). The triangular end of a house from the eaves to the top. =Gablet.= Diminutive of gable—applied to furniture and niches. =Gadlyngs=, O. E. Spikes on the knuckles of gauntlets, like the modern “knuckle-dusters.” =Gæsum=, R. A weapon of Celtic origin. It was a strong, heavy javelin with a very long barbed iron head, used rather as a missile than a spear. =Gage=, Med. A glove or cap thrown to the ground as a challenge to combat. =Galages=, O. E. (modern, _goloshes_). Clogs fastened with _latchets_. =Galaxia=, Gr. (Γαλάξια). Festivals in honour of Apollo, who was surnamed _Galaxios_; they were so called because the principal offering consisted of a barley cake cooked with milk (γάλα). =Galaxy= (Gr. γάλα, milk). In Astronomy, the Milky Way. It passes between Sagittarius and Gemini, dividing the sphere into two parts. =Galbanum=, R. (_galbus_, yellow). A yellow garment worn by women; men who adopted this kind of dress were looked upon as foppish and effeminate. =Galbe=, Fr. The general contour or outline of any member of architecture; in especial, the shaft of a column. (See CONTRACTURA.) It also denotes the lines of a vessel, console, baluster, &c. =Galea=, R. A helmet; especially one of skin or leather, in contradistinction to CASSIS, which denoted a metal helmet. =Galeated.= In Heraldry, wearing a helmet. =Galeola=, R. A very deep vessel in the shape of a helmet. It was used for holding pure wine, and was a kind of ACRATOPHORUM (q.v.). =Galerus=, =Galerum=, R. A peasant’s cap made of fur, and thence a wig. It was a round leather cap, ending in a point, originally peculiar to the priesthood. =Galgal=, Celt. A Celtic or megalithic monument, more commonly called TUMULUS. =Galiot=, =Galliot= (dimin. of _galère_). A ship moved by both sails and oars. =Gall= (A.S. _gealla_). In an animal, a bitter yellowish green fluid secreted by the gall-bladder. Ox-gall, clarified by boiling with animal charcoal and filtering, is used in water-colour and in ivory painting to make the colours spread more evenly upon the paper, ivory, &c.: mixed with gum-arabic it thickens, and fixes the colours. A coating of it _sets_ black-lead or crayon drawings. This word is also applied to anything exceedingly bitter, especially to the bitter potion which it was customary among the Jews to give to persons suffering death under sentence of the law, for the purpose of rendering them less sensible to pain. ὄξος μετὰ χολῆς, “vinegar to drink mingled with gall.” (Matt. xxvii. 34.) =Galle= (Tours de), Celt. A name applied to certain ancient monuments in France, built by the Gauls. =Galleon= (Sp. _galeon_). A large Spanish ship, formerly used in trading to America as a war vessel. =Gallery=, Gen. A covered place much longer than it is wide. In Christian archæology it is a kind of tribune situated above the side aisles, and having bays over the nave; it is also called TRIFORIUM (q.v.). [Illustration: Fig. 344. Device of Cardinal Richelieu, from the Galerie d’Orléans, Palais Royal.] =Galley= (Icelandic _galleyda_). A one-decked vessel, navigated with sails and oars, in Heraldry called a LYMPHAD (q.v.). The prow of a galley (Fig. 344), one of the devices adopted by Cardinal Richelieu, may still be seen among the architectural decorations of his palace. =Galloon= (Sp. _galon_). A narrow kind of lace made of silk woven with cotton, gold, or silver; or of silk only. =Gallow-balk=, O. E. (See GALOWS.) =Gally-gascoynes=, O. E. Broad loose breeches; 16th century. “His galligaskins were of corduroy, And garters he had none.” (_The Weary Knife-grinder._) =Galows=, O. E. An iron bar fastened inside an open chimney, from which the _reeking-hook_ was hung, for suspending pots and vessels over the fire. =Galvanography.= (See ELECTROGRAPHY, ELECTROTYPE.) =Gamashes.= “High boots, buskins, or startups.” (_Holme_, 1688.) =Gambeson= (Saxon _wambe_, the belly). A quilted tunic, stuffed with wool. It answered the purpose of defensive armour, and was subsequently called a _pourpoint_. =Gamboge.= A gum-resin of a forest tree called Garcinia Cambogia, generally imported in cylindrical rolls. It forms a beautiful yellow pigment, used for water-colour; it is used to stain wood in imitation of box, and the tincture enters into the composition of the gold-coloured varnish for lacquering brass; it also gives a beautiful and durable stain to marble. (_E. B._) =Gamelion.= The seventh month of the ancient Athenian year, corresponding to our January. It was so called because it was a favourite season for marriages (γάμη). =Gammut.= (See GAMUT.) =Gamut.= The musical scale; so called from the first tone, UT (our DO), of the model scale of Guido, which was represented by the Greek _gamma_. =Ganoid= (γάνος, brightness). A name applied to an order of fishes, having angular scales, composed of bony plates, covered with a strong shining enamel. =Gantlet.= (See GAUNTLET.) =Garb=, Her. A sheaf of wheat, or of any other grain to be specified. [Illustration: Fig. 345. Garde de Bras.] =Garde de Bras.= An additional protection for the left arm, to the elbow-piece of which it was fastened by straps and a screw. It was used only for jousting, and first appears at the end of the 15th cent. The example shown is of the 16th cent., from the Meyrick collection. (Fig. 345.) [Illustration: Fig. 346 Gargoulette. Arab.] =Gargoulette.= An Arab vase, or water-cooler, with one handle, furnished with a spout adapted for drinking through. The piece in the illustration is from the Arabian potteries of Maghreb in Africa. This pottery is described by M. Jacquemart as “covered with a pinkish grey enamel of rose colour, and heightened by a polychrome decoration in zones, generally consisting of bands of scrolls, flowers, denticulations, rosettes, &c.; where citron, yellow, manganese brown, green, and blue form the most charming harmony.” [Illustration: Fig. 347. Gargoyle, Antique.] [Illustration: Fig. 348. Gargoyle, Gothic.] =Gargoyle=, Mod. The projecting extremity of a gutter. In antiquity terra-cotta masks were used for the purpose. (Fig. 347.) During the Gothic period any kind of representation was employed. Fig. 348 shows an upright gargoyle from the church of St. Remy at Dieppe. =Garland=, Arch. A term employed by some authors as synonymous with foliage; but it denotes rather heavy festoons tied with fillets, and consisting of leaves, fruits, and flowers, as shown in Figs. 287 and 309, taken from the temple of Vesta at Tivoli. (See ENCARPA, FESTOONS.) =Garnet.= This gem, on account of its brilliant colour and hardness, is much used in jewellery, and although an abundant supply renders it of little value, the gem nevertheless possesses every quality necessary for ornamental purposes. It occurs in many colours—red, brown, yellow, white, green, black; the streak is white; the diaphaneity varies from transparent to sub-translucent, or nearly opaque, and it has a subconchoidal or uneven fracture. The varieties used in jewellery are called _carbuncle_, _cinnamon-stone_ (or _essonite_), _almandine_, and _pyrope_ or Bohemian garnet. _Garnets_ are not much used for engraving, being of splintery, bad grain under the tool. (_A. Billing_, _Science of Gems_, &c.; _H. Emanuel_, _Diamonds and Precious Stones_.) =Garnished=, Her. Adorned in a becoming manner. [Illustration: Fig. 349. Order of the Garter. Lesser George.] =Garter, Order of the=, instituted by Edward III. in 1350, consists of the Sovereign and twenty-five knights companions, of whom the Prince of Wales always is one. Knights of the Garter place K.G. after their names; and these letters take precedence of all other titles, those of royalty alone excepted. The stalls of the knights are in the choir of St. George’s Chapel, Windsor Castle, where their garter-plates are fixed and their banners are displayed. The insignia are the garter itself, the badge of the order; the collar, and the Lesser George or jewel. (Fig. 349.) It was this jewel that Charles I., immediately before he suffered, delivered to Archbishop Juxon, with the word “Remember!” The ribbon of the order is dark blue; it passes over the left shoulder, and the Lesser George hangs from it under the right arm. =Garter King of Arms=, Her. The chief of the official heralds of England, and officer of arms of the Order of the Garter. =Gastrum=, R. An earthenware vessel with a round _belly_; whence its name. =Gaulus=, R. A vessel used for drinking and other purposes. The same term was also applied to a broad-built ship employed by the Phœnicians and by pirates. [Illustration: Fig. 350. Gauntlet.] =Gauntlet.= The knight’s gauntlet was made of leather covered with plates of steel. It was not originally divided into fingers. (Fig. 350.) =Gausapa=, =Gausape=, =Gausapum=, R. (γαυσάπης). (1) A garment introduced from Egypt into Rome, in the time of Augustus; it was made of a woollen cloth with a long nap on one side, and was worn on leaving the bath; it was white or dyed purple. Gausapa was used not only for articles of dress, but for table linen, napkins, dusters, and mattings. (2) A wig made of human hair, worn at Rome during the Empire. =Gauze.= A light, transparent silk texture, supposed to have been invented at Gaza in Palestine; whence the name. =Gavotte= (It. _gavotta_). A lively dance-tune in two-fourth time, consisting of two sections, each containing eight measures. =Gehenna= (Heb. _Ge-hin-nom_, i. e. the valley of Hinnom). In this place, on the north of Jerusalem below Mount Zion, is a place called Tophet, where children were sacrificed to Moloch. King Josiah made it the common receptacle for rubbish and carcases, and a fire was kept constantly burning there; hence the Jews used this term to signify “hell.” (Compare HADES.) =Gemellar=, R. (_gemellus_, twin). A case for holding oil; it was called _gemellar_ from the fact of its being divided into two compartments. =Gemelled=, Arch. Double; thus a _gemelled bay_ is one divided into two parts; _gemelled arches_, those which are joined two and two. =Gemelles=, Her. In pairs. (See BARS-GEMELLES.) =Gemmæ=, Lat. (1) Precious stones, esp. cut or engraved. (2) Drinking-vessels or objects made of precious stones. (3) Pearls. (4) The eyes of a peacock’s tail. The original meaning of the word is a _bud_, _eye_, or _gem_ on a plant; anything _swelling_ and bright. =Gemoniæ=, or =Gemoniæ Scales=, R. (i. e. steps of sighs). Steps leading to the prison in the forum, on the stairs of which the corpses of criminals were exposed for several days. =Gems.= Precious stones, especially when carved. (See CAMEOS.) =Genet=, Her. A spotted animal, something like a marten. =Genethliaci=, Gr. and R. (γενέθλη, birth). Astrologers who cast “_nativities_.” =Genius=, R. (_geno_, to beget). The Romans believed the existence of a good genius, or guardian angel, born with every mortal, and which died at the same time with him. _Genius loci_ was the name given to the guardian spirit of a place. [See JUNONES, LARES, PENATES, &c. The superstition has many forms in Christian as well as in pagan art.] [Illustration: Fig. 351. Genoa Point Lace—Pillow-made.] =Genoa Lace.= Mention is made of Genoa Lace as early as the 15th century. Genoa was as celebrated for its pillow lace as Venice for its needle-made. The characteristic of this lace was its design, a kind of barleycorn-shaped pattern, radiating into rosettes from a centre. It was particularly adapted for the large turnover collar of Louis XIII., and was produced by plaiting, and made entirely on the pillow. =Genouillières=, Fr. (1) Steel coverings for the knees. From the 13th century. They were often richly ornamented. (2) In _Fortification_, the sill of the embrasure. =Genre Pictures.= Those representing scenes of every-day life and manners. =Geodes.= In Mineralogy, hollow lumps of chalcedony found deposited in the cavities of flints, formed by the chemical action of water. [Illustration: Fig. 352. “George” Gold Noble, Henry VIII.] =George.= A gold noble of the time of Henry VIII. (Fig. 352.) =George, Saint=, Her. The patron saint of England. His red cross on a silver field first appears in English heraldry in the 14th century. (See Fig. 349.) =George, The=, Her. A figure of St. George on horseback, worn as a pendant to the collar of the Order of the Garter. (See GARTER.) =Georgic= (γεωργικὸς, rustic; from γῆ, earth, and ἔργον, work). Poems on the subject of husbandry. =German Silver.= An alloy of nickel, zinc, and copper. The proportions recommended are nickel 25, zinc 25, copper 50. =Gerrhæ.= Persian shields made of wicker-work. =Ghebres=, Pers. Fire-worshippers. =Ghibellines.= An Italian faction, 13th century, who supported the German Emperors against the _Guelphs_, who stood by the Pope. The war-cry of the Guelphs was taken from the name of Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, of the house of _Wolf_; that of the Ghibellines from _Weiblingen_, a town of Würtemberg, the seat of the Hohenstauffen family, to which Conrad, Duke of Franconia, belonged. These two dukes were rivals for the imperial throne of Germany. =Ghoul=, =Ghole=, Pers. A demon who fed on dead bodies of men. =Giallo=, =Giallolino=, =Gialdolino=, It. Pale yellow. (See MASSICOT.) =Giaour=, Turkish. An unbeliever in Mohammed. =Gigantomachia=, Gr. A favourite subject of Greek art, representing the War of the Giants, sons of Cœlus and Terra, against Jupiter. They “heaped Ossa on Pelion” to scale heaven, and were defeated by Hercules. They are represented as of vast stature and strength, having their feet covered with scales. A beautiful cameo in the Naples Museum represents Jove in his chariot subduing the giants. In 1875 the German expedition found among the ruins of a temple at Pergamus a series of sculptures of almost colossal proportions, representing, as Pliny describes them, the Wars of the Giants. These sculptures are now in the Berlin Museum. =Gillo=, R. A wine-cooler, of earthenware. [Illustration: Fig. 353. Gimmel Rings. The device of Cosmo de’ Medici.] =Gimmel Ring=, Her. Two, sometimes three annulets interlaced. (Fig. 353.) =Gingham= (Javanese _ginggan_). Cotton cloth, woven from dyed yarns; distinguished from cloth printed or dyed _after_ weaving. =Ginglymus=, R. (γίγγλυμος). A hinge moving in a socket. =Gingrinus=, R. (γίγγρας). A flute used at funerals. [Illustration: Fig. 354. Gipcière.] =Gipcières.= Richly ornamented leather purses of the 14th and 15th centuries. They were often engraved with religious mottoes. (Fig. 354.) =Gipon.= Probably the same as _gambeson_. =Girandole.= A large kind of branched candlestick. =Girdled=, =Girt=, Her. Encircled or bound round. [Illustration: Fig. 355. Girdle of a Flemish lady of the 15th century.] =Girdles.= These were the most beautiful and costly articles of dress during the Middle Ages. They were frequently made entirely of gold or silver, decorated with cameos, precious stones, &c. Besides the knightly sword; the purse, dagger, rosary, or penner and ink-horn and other objects were suspended from the girdle. From this word the waist was called the _girdlestead_, or place (_sted_) of the girdle. The girdles of ladies were equally splendid, and frequently depended nearly to the ground, as in Fig. 355. The girdle is an attribute of St. Thomas, from a legend that the Virgin, pitying his weakness of faith, threw down to him her girdle, after her assumption into heaven. =Girgillus=, R. A roller turned by a windlass, for drawing up the bucket of a well. (See JACK.) =Girouette.= (See EPI.) =Girt=, Her. (See GIRDLED.) =Gisarme.= A scythe-shaped weapon with a pike, fixed on a long staff. =Gittern=, O. E. A small guitar, strung with catgut. =Givre.= (See WYVERN.) =Glabrous= (Lat. _glaber_). Smooth, bald. =Glade= (Norman _glette_, a clear spot among clouds). An opening or passage in a wood through which the light may shine. =Gladiators= were first exhibited at Rome, B.C. 264, at a funeral. The practice had its origin in that very ancient one of slaughtering slaves and captives on such occasions. Subsequently it became more general. The different classes of gladiators, distinguished by their arms and other circumstances, were: _Andabatæ_, who wore helmets without any opening for the eyes, and therefore fought blindfold; _Essedarii_, who fought from chariots (ESSEDÆ); _Hoplomachai_, who wore heavy defensive armour; _Laqueatores_, who carried a sort of lasso or noose; _Meridiani_, who fought in the middle of the day, and were very slightly armed; _Mirmillones_, so called from their having the image of a fish (mormyr) on their helmets; _Retiarii_, armed with a trident and a net. Others, as _Samnites_, _Thraces_, &c., were named from the nation whose fashion of armour they adopted. The fights of gladiators were favourite subjects of Roman art, and it is assumed that in cases where no actual combats took place at a funeral, they were represented on the walls of tombs in sculpture or paint. The most celebrated statues of the kind are the so called “Dying Gladiator” in the museum of the capitol at Rome, and the Gladiator of the Borghese collection. =Gladiolus.= Diminutive of GLADIUS, and synonym of LIGULA. (See both words.) [Illustration: Fig. 356. Roman sword.] [Illustration: Fig. 357. Gallic swords.] =Gladius=, R. A general term, including all the different kinds of swords or glaives, but denoting more particularly the two-edged swords used by the Greeks, Romans, and Gauls. Fig. 357 represents two Gaulish swords, the form of which may easily be guessed, even though they are in the scabbard; Fig. 356 is a Roman _gladius_. =Glaive.= A blade on a pole having its edge on the outside curve, used by foot-soldiers in the 15th century. =Glans=, Gr. and R. (lit. an acorn). A large leaden slug, of long oval form, which was hurled by a sling in place of stones. [Illustration: Fig. 358. Venetian Glass Vase, 16th century.] =Glass.= The discovery is lost in remote antiquity. Pliny gives a legend which ascribes it to chance. Glass bottles in Egypt are represented upon monuments of the 4th dynasty (at least 2000 years B.C.). A vase of greenish glass found at Nineveh dates from B.C. 700. Glass is found in the windows at Pompeii; and the Romans stained it, blew it, worked it on lathes, and engraved it. Pliny mentions, as made by the Romans in his time, glass coloured opaque, red, white, black (like _obsidian_), or imitating jacinths, sapphires, and other gems; also _murrhine glass_. This last was either an imitation of fluor-spar, or a kind of agate, or fluor spar. The Romans also made _mosaic_ or _millefiori_, in which the threads of colour are melted into a rod, so that at every section the whole pattern appears; and _cameo glasses_, in which a paste of one colour is laid over another, and the whole then carved into the required design; _gold leaf_ was also worked into the substance or fixed on the surface. A gate at Constantinople took its name from the glass works near it, but little is known of the Byzantine art, nor of earlier European art than the 13th century. In mediæval times stained glass windows, in leaden frames, were constructed with great success in England, France, and Flanders. In the 13th century they appear in Italy. The Venetian art took its impulse from the capture of Constantinople in