Introduction. Some of these are ascertained, by historical or

by internal evidence, to have been executed in the _ninth century_, there is one also, of an extraordinary rude and fantastic character, in a MS. in the ancient library of St. Galle, which is ascertained to be of the _eighth century_. _At all events, there seems no just grounds at present for assigning an earlier date._"[202:2] "Early Christian art, such as it appears in the bas-reliefs on sarcophagi, gave but one solitary incident from the story of Our Lord's Passion, _and that utterly divested of all circumstances of suffering_. Our Lord is represented as young and beautiful, free from bonds, with no '_accursed tree_' on his shoulders."[202:3] The oldest representation of Christ Jesus was a figure of a _lamb_,[202:4] to which sometimes a vase was added, into which his blood flowed, and at other times couched at the foot of a cross. _This custom subsisted up to the year 680, and until the pontificate of Agathon, during the reign of Constantine Pogonat._ By the sixth synod of Constantinople (canon 82) it was ordained that instead of the ancient symbol, which had been the LAMB, _the figure of a man fastened to a cross_ (such as the _Pagans_ had adored), should be represented. All this was confirmed by Pope Adrian I.[202:5] A simple cross, which was the symbol of eternal life, or of salvation, among the ancients, was sometimes, as we have seen, placed alongside of the _Lamb_. In the course of time, the _Lamb_ was put on the cross, as the ancient _Israelites_ had put the paschal lamb centuries before,[202:6] and then, as we have seen, they put a _man_ upon it. Christ Jesus is also represented in early art as the "Good Shepherd," that is, as a young man with a lamb on his shoulders.[202:7] This is just the manner in which the Pagan Apollo, Mercury and others were represented centuries before.[203:1] Mrs. Jameson says: "_Mercury_ attired as a _shepherd_, with a _ram_ on his shoulders, borne in the same manner as in many of the Christian representations, was no unfrequent object (in ancient art) and in some instances led to a difficulty in distinguishing between the two,"[203:2] that is, between _Mercury_ and _Christ Jesus_. M. Renan says: "The Good Shepherd of the catacombs in Rome is a copy from the _Aristeus_, or from the _Apollo Nomius_, which figured in the same posture on the _Pagan_ sarcophagi; and still carries the flute of _Pan_, in the midst of the four half-naked seasons."[203:3] The Egyptian Saviour _Horus_ was called the "Shepherd of the People."[203:4] The Hindoo Saviour _Crishna_ was called the "Royal Good Shepherd."[203:5] We have seen, then, on the authority of a Christian writer who has made the subject a special study, that, "there seems no just grounds at present for assigning an earlier date," for the "earliest instances of the crucifixion" of Christ Jesus, represented in art, than the _eighth_ or _ninth_ century. Now, a few words in regard to _what these crucifixes looked like_. If the reader imagines that the crucifixes which are familiar to us at the present day are similar to those early ones, we would inform him that such is not the case. The earliest artists of the crucifixion represent the Christian Saviour as _young and beardless_, always without the crown of thorns, alive, and erect, apparently elate; no signs of bodily suffering are there.[203:6] On page 151, plate 181, of Jameson's "History of Our Lord in Art" (vol. ii.), he is represented standing on a foot-rest on the cross, alive, and eyes open. Again, on page 330, plate 253, he is represented standing "with body upright and arms extended straight, with _no nails_, _no wounds_, _no crown of thorns_--frequently clothed, and with a regal crown--a God, young and beautiful, hanging, as it were, without compulsion or pain." On page 167, plate 188, are to be seen "the thieves _bound_ to their _cross (which is simply an upright beam, without cross-bars)_, with the figure of the Lord _standing_ between them." He is not bound nor nailed to a cross; no cross is there. He is simply standing erect in the form of a cross. This is a representation of what is styled, "_Early crucifixion with thieves_." On page 173, plate 190, we have a representation of the crucifixion, in which Jesus and the thieves are represented crucified on the Egyptian _tau_ (see Fig. No. 12). The thieves are _tied_, but the man-god is _nailed_ to the cross. A similar representation may be seen on page 189, plate 198. On page 155, plate 183, there is a representation of what is called "Virgin and St. John at foot of _cross_," but this _cross_ is simply _an upright beam_ (as Fig. No. 13). There are no cross-bars attached. On page 167, plate 188, the thieves are _tied_ to an upright beam (as Fig. 13), and Jesus stands between them, _with arms extended in the form of a cross_, as the Hindoo Crishna is to be seen in Fig. No. 8. On page 157, plate 185, Jesus is represented crucified on the Egyptian cross (as No. 12). Some ancient crucifixes represent the Christian Saviour crucified on a cross similar in form to the Roman figure which stands for the number _ten_ (see Fig. No. 14). Thus we see that there was no uniformity in representing the "cross of Christ," among the early Christians; even the cross which Constantine put on his "Labarum," or sacred banner, was nothing more than the monogram of the Pagan god Osiris (Fig. No. 15),[204:1] as we shall see in a subsequent chapter. [Illustration: No. 12, No. 13, No. 14, No. 15] The dogma of the _vicarious atonement_ has met with no success whatever among the Jews. The reason for this is very evident. The idea of vicarious atonement, in any form, is contrary to Jewish ethics, but it is in full accord with the _Gentile_. The _law_ ordains that[205:1] "every man shall be put to death for _his own_ sin," and not for the sin or crime committed by any other person. No ransom should protect the murderer against the arm of justice.[205:2] The principle of equal rights and equal responsibilities is fundamental in the law. If the law of _God_--for as such it is received--denounces the vicarious atonement, viz., _to slaughter an innocent person to atone for the crimes of others_, then God must abhor it. What is more, Jesus is said to have sanctioned this law, for is he not made to say: "Think not that I am come to destroy the law, or the prophets: I am not come to destroy, but to fulfill. For verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law."[205:3] "Salvation is and can be nothing else than learning the laws of life and keeping them. There is, in the modern world, neither place nor need for any of the theological 'schemes of salvation' or theological 'Saviours.' No wrath of either God or devil stands in man's way; and therefore no 'sacrifice' is needed to get them out of the way. Jesus saves only as he helps men know and keep God's laws. Thousands of other men, in their degree, are Saviours in precisely the same way. As there has been no 'fall of man,' all the hundreds of theological devices for obviating its supposed effects are only imaginary cures for imaginary ills. What man does need is to be taught the necessary laws of life, and have brought to bear upon him adequate motives for obeying them. To know and keep God's laws is being reconciled to him. This is health; and out of health--that is, the perfect condition of the whole man, called holiness or wholeness--comes happiness, in this world and in all worlds." FOOTNOTES: [181:1] Monier Williams: Hinduism, pp. 36-40. [182:1] Monier Williams: Hinduism, p. 36. [182:2] See Prog. Relig. Ideas, vol. i. p. 303. [182:3] Kenrick's Egypt, vol. i. p. 443. [183:1] Herodotus: bk. ii. ch. 39. [183:2] In the trial of Dr. Thomas (at Chicago) for "_doctrinal heresy_," one of the charges made against him (Sept. 8, 1881) was that he had said "the BLOOD of the Lamb had nothing to do with salvation." And in a sermon preached in Boston, Sept. 2, 1881, at the Columbus Avenue Presbyterian Church, by the Rev. Andrew A. Bonar. D. D., the preacher said: "No sinner dares to meet the holy God until his sin has been forgiven, or until he has received _remission_. The penalty of sin is death, _and this penalty is not remitted by anything the sinner can do for himself_, but only through the BLOOD of Jesus. If you have accepted Jesus as your Saviour, you can take the blood of Jesus, and with boldness present it to the Father _as payment in full of the penalties of all your sins_. Sinful man has no right to the benefits and the beauties and glories of nature. _These were all lost to him through Adam's sin_, but to the blood of Christ's sacrifice he has a right; it was shed for him. It is Christ's death that does the blessed work of salvation for us. It was _not_ his life nor his Incarnation. His Incarnation could not pay a farthing of our debt, but his _blood_ shed in redeeming love, _pays it all_." (See Boston Advertiser, Sept. 3, 1881.) [183:3] _Habet ergo Diabolus Christos suos._ [183:4] Huc's Travels, vol. i. pp. 326 and 327. [184:1] Hinduism, p. 214. [184:2] Ibid. p. 115. [184:3] Vishnu Purana, p. 440. [184:4] Ibid. [184:5] Ibid. [184:6] Aryan Mythology, vol. ii. p. 132. [184:7] Pages 274 and 612. [184:8] "On reconte fort diversement la mort de Crishna. Une tradition remarquable et avérée le fait périr sur un bois fatal (un arbre), ou il fut cloué d'un coup de flèche." (Quoted by Higgins: Anacalypsis, vol. i. p. 144.) [185:1] See Higgins: Anacalypsis, vol. i. p. 499, and Mrs. Jameson's "History of Our Lord in Art," ii. 317, where the cross is called the "accursed tree." [185:2] Chap. xxi. 22, 23: "If a man have committed a sin worthy of death, and he be to be put to death, and thou hang him on a tree: his body shall not remain all night upon the tree, but thou shalt in any wise bury him that day; (for he that is hanged is accursed of God;) that thy land be not defiled, which the Lord thy God giveth thee for an inheritance." [185:3] Galatians, iii. 13. [185:4] See Higgins: Anacalypsis, vol. i. p. 146, and Inman's Ancient Faiths, vol. i. p. 402. "The crucified god Wittoba is also called Balü. He is worshiped in a marked manner at Pander-poor or Bunder-poor, near Poonah." (Higgins: Anacalypsis, vol. i. p. 750, _note_ 1.) "A form of Vishnu (Crishna), called _Viththal_ or _Vithoba_, is the popular god at Pandharpur in Maha-ráshtrá, the favorite of the celebrated Marathi poet Tukarama." (Prof. Monier Williams: Indian Wisdom, p. xlviii.) [185:5] See Lundy: Monumental Christianity, p. 160. [185:6] This can be seen by referring to Calmet, Sonnerat, or Higgins, vol. ii., which contain plates representing Crishna. [186:1] Monumental Christianity, p. 128. [186:2] Ancient Faiths, vol. i. p. 411. [186:3] Luke, xxiii. 39-43. [186:4] Vasudeva means God. See Vishnu Purana, p. 274. [186:5] Vishnu Purana, p. 612. [187:1] See Prog. Relig. Ideas, vol. i. p. 72. [187:2] "Si ita se res habet, ut existimat Beausobrius, _Indi_, et _Budistæ_ quorum religio, eadem est ac Tibetana, nonnisi a Manichæis nova hæc deliriorum portenta acceperunt. Hænamque gentes præsertim in urbe Nepal, Luna XII. _Badr_ seu _Bhadon Augusti_ mensis, dies festos auspicaturæ Dei _Indræ_, erigunt ad illius memoriam ubique locorum _cruces_ amictas _Abrotono_. Earum figuram descriptam habes ad lit. B, Tabula pone sequenti. Nam A effigies est ipsius _Indræ crucifixi_ signa Telech in fronte manibus pedibusque gerentis." (Alph Tibet, p. 203. Quoted in Higgins' Anacalypsis, vol. i. p. 130.) [188:1] "Ils conviennent qu'il a répandu son sang pour le salut du genre humain, ayant été percé de clous par tout son corps. Quoiqu'ils ne disent pas qu'il a souffert le supplice de la croix, ou en trouve pourtant la figure dans leurs livres." (Quoted in Higgins' Anacalypsis, vol. ii. p. 118.) [188:2] "Although the nations of Europe have changed their religions during the past eighteen centuries, the Hindoo has not done so, except very partially. . . . The religious creeds, rites, customs, and habits of thought of the Hindoos generally, have altered little since the days of Manu, 500 years B. C." (Prof. Monier Williams: Indian Wisdom, p. iv.) [188:3] See Higgins: Anacalypsis, vol. i. pp. 147, 572, 667 and 750; vol. ii. p. 122, and note 4, p. 185, this chapter. [188:4] See Max Müller's Science of Religion, p. 224. [188:5] Quoted in Lillie's Buddhism, p. 93. [188:6] See Bunsen's Angel-Messiah, p. 20. [188:7] See Bunsen's Angel-Messiah, pp. 20, 25, 85. Prog. Relig. Ideas, vol. i. p. 247. Huc's Travels, vol. i. pp. 326, 327, and almost any work on Buddhism. [188:8] See Bunsen's Angel-Messiah, p. 20. [188:9] Ibid. Johnson's Oriental Religions, p. 604. See also Asiatic Researches, vol. iii., or chapter xii. of this work. [188:10] See Bunsen's Angel-Messiah, p. 18. [188:11] Ibid. [188:12] Ibid. [188:13] Vol. i. p. 118. [189:1] Quoted in Anacalypsis, vol. ii. p. 118. [189:2] Bunsen's Angel-Messiah, p. 20. [189:3] Beal: Hist. Buddha, p. 33. [189:4] Huc's Travels, vol. i. pp. 326, 337. [189:5] Müller: Hist. Sanscrit Literature, p. 80. [189:6] See Maurice: Indian Antiquities, vol. v. p. 95, and Williams: Hinduism, p. 214. [189:7] "He in mercy left paradise, and came down to earth, because he was filled with compassion for the sins and miseries of mankind. He sought to lead them into better paths, _and took their sufferings upon himself, that he might expiate their crimes_, and mitigate the punishment they must otherwise inevitably undergo." (Prog. Relig. Ideas, vol. ii. p. 86.) "The object of his mission on earth was to instruct those who were straying from the right path, _expiate the sins of mortals by his own sufferings_, and produce for them a happy entrance into another existence by obedience to his precepts and prayers in his name. They always speak of him as one with God from all eternity. His most common title is '_The Saviour of the World_.'" (Ibid. vol. i. p. 247.) [190:1] Quoted in Prog. Relig. Ideas, vol. i. p. 211. [190:2] Ibid. [190:3] See Renouf: Religions of Ancient Egypt, p. 178. [190:4] Bonwick: Egyptian Belief, p. 155. [190:5] Murray: Manual of Mythology, p. 848. [190:6] In Rawlinson's Herodotus, vol. ii. p. 171. Quoted in Knight's Art and Mythology, p. 71. [190:7] Bonwick: Egyptian Belief, p. 185. [190:8] See Mysteries of Adoni, p. 88. [190:9] See Knight: Ancient Art and Mythology, p. xxii. note. [191:1] Dupuis: Origin of Religious Belief, p. 255. [191:2] Vol. ii. [191:3] Lactant. Inst., div. iv. chap. xiii. In Anacalypsis, vol. i. p. 544. [191:4] See chapter xxxix. this work. [191:5] See Higgins: Anacalypsis, vol. ii. p. 114, and Taylor's Diegesis, p. 163. [191:6] See the chapter on "The Resurrection of Jesus." [192:1] Chambers's Encyclo., art. "Prometheus." [192:2] "_Prometheus_ has been a favorite subject with the poets. He is represented as the friend of mankind, who interposed in their behalf when Jove was incensed against them." (Bulfinch: The Age of Fable, p. 32.) "In the mythos relating to Prometheus, he always appears as the friend of the human race, suffering in its behalf the most fearful tortures." (John Fiske: Myths and Myth-makers, pp. 64, 65.) "Prometheus was _nailed_ to the rocks on Mount Caucasus, _with arms extended_." (Alexander Murray: Manual of Mythology, p. 82.) "Prometheus is said to have been _nailed up with arms extended_, near the Caspian Straits, on Mount Caucasus. The history of Prometheus on the Cathedral at Bordeaux (France) here receives its explanation." (Higgins: Anacalypsis, vol. ii. p. 113.) [192:3] See Æschylus' "Prometheus Chained." Translated by the Rev. R. Potter: Harper & Bros., N. Y. [192:4] Ibid. p. 82. [193:1] Petræus was an interchangeable synonym of the name Oceanus. [193:2] "Then Peter took him, and began to rebuke him, saying: Be it far from thee, Lord; this shall not be unto thee." (Matt. xvi. 22.) [193:3] "And there followed him a great company of people, and of women, which also bewailed and lamented him." (Luke, xxiii. 27.) [193:4] See Taylor's Diegesis, pp. 193, 194, or Potter's Æschylus. [193:5] "They say that the god (Bacchus), the offspring of Zeus and Demeter, was torn to pieces." (Diodorus Siculus, in Knight, p. 156, _note_.) [193:6] See Knight: Anct. Art and Mythology, p. 98, _note_. Dupuis: Origin of Religious Belief, 258. Higgins: Anacalypsis, vol. ii. p. 102. [193:7] Knight: Ancient Art and Mythology, p. xxii. _note_. [193:8] Ibid. [193:9] Bonwick: Egyptian Belief, p. 169. [193:10] Dupuis: Origin of Religious Belief, p. 135. [193:11] Ibid. [193:12] Beausobre quotes the inscription on a monument of Bacchus, thus: "C'est moi, dit il, qui vous conduis, C'est moi, qui vous conserve, ou qui vous sauve; Je sui Alpha et Omega, &c." (See chap. xxxix this work.) [193:13] See Higgins: Anacalypsis, vol. i. p. 322. Dupuis: Origin of Religious Belief, p. 195. Bonwick: Egyptian Belief, p. 152. Dunlap: Mysteries of Adoni, p. 94. [193:14] See Celtic Druids, Taylor's Diegesis, p. 153, and Montfaucon, vol. i. [193:15] See Mysteries of Adoni, p. 91, and Higgins: Anac., vol. i. p. 322. [194:1] See Taylor's Diegesis, p. 153. [194:2] See the chapter on "Miracles of Jesus." [194:3] See Dupuis: Origin of Religious Belief, p. 254. [194:4] See Monumental Christianity, p. 186. [194:5] See Higgins: Anacalypsis, vol. ii. p. 15. [194:6] See Giles: Hebrew and Christian Records, vol. ii. p. 86. [194:7] See Anacalypsis, vol. ii. p. 15, and _our_ chapter on Christian Symbols. [194:8] This subject will be referred to again in chapter xxxix. [194:9] See Dunlap's Spirit Hist., pp. 237, 241, 242, and Mysteries of Adoni, p. 123, _note_. [194:10] See Higgins: Anacalypsis, vol. ii. p. 99. [194:11] See Dunlap's Son of the Man, p. 20. "According to the most ancient tradition of the East-Iranians recorded in the _Zend-Avesta_, the God of Light (Ormuzd) communicated his mysteries to some men through his _Word_." (Bunsen's Angel-Messiah, p. 75.) [194:12] Wake: Phallism, &c., p. 47. [195:1] Prog. Relig. Ideas, vol. i. pp. 258, 259. [195:2] Malcolm: Hist. Persia, vol. i. Ap. p. 494; Nimrod, vol. ii. p.