CHAPTER XVI.

THE WATERWAYS OF CANADA. “Heads the running springs and standing lakes, And bounding banks for winding rivers makes.” —_Dryden._ It appears to be among the “things not generally known” that Canada has, relatively to the trade and population of the Dominion, one of the most extensive and perfect systems of canal communication in existence. The really important canals are few in number, and the traffic that they transport is by no means so considerable as that carried on many of the canals of the United States and some European countries. But, all the same, the Canadian people, always appreciative of the advantages of cheap water transport, and looking to that agency as a means for the development of their internal resources, have neglected no opportunity that offered for advancing their waterways, and utilising them to the utmost extent. The principal canals in Canadian territory are the Welland, the Lachine, the Cornwall, the Galops, the Murray, the Quebec and Montreal, and the Sault Ste Marie, or St. Mary’s Falls, the latter being partly on United States and partly on Canadian territory. These canals have chiefly been constructed for the purpose of affording communication between the great lakes and the St. Lawrence river, whence vessels pass into the Atlantic. _The Welland Canal._—The waters of Lake Erie empty into Lake Ontario through the Niagara river and over the Niagara Falls. The difference in the levels of the two lakes cannot be stated with any exactness, as the influences which cause the variations in the height of water in the two lakes are not identical. It is, however, as nearly as can be ascertained, 326¾ feet. The course of the Niagara river is due north, and its current is swift and turbulent The Welland river flows nearly at right angles with the Niagara river, and discharges into it at Chippewa, a village about 2 miles above Niagara Falls. It is navigable for deeply loaded vessels for a distance of 40 miles or more, and has scarcely any current. The Grand River flows south-easterly, and empties into Lake Erie. Port Maitland, one of the safest harbours on Lake Erie, is situated at the mouth of the Grand River. Port Colborne, another very secure harbour on the same lake, is about 18 miles west of the upper end of the Niagara river. Port Dalhousie, on Lake Ontario, is about 11 miles west of the mouth of the Niagara. The desirability of connecting the two lakes by navigable water was, very early in the history of the country, admitted by all who gave the matter attention; surveys were made from time to time, and various plans were proposed and discussed, but nothing definite was done until, in 1824, a company was incorporated under the name of the Welland Canal Company. Their first intention seems to have been to establish a line of communication between the two lakes by a combination of canal and railway, the canal to be of comparatively small capacity; but this plan was soon laid aside, and it was determined to secure water communication throughout the whole length, and to build a canal sufficiently large to admit schooners and sloops. The plan thus adopted contemplated utilising the Niagara river from Lake Erie to the mouth of the Welland river, the Welland river being followed for a distance of 8¾ miles, and building a canal from Welland river to Lake Ontario. The water supply was to be obtained from the Welland river, and a high ridge of land in the line of the proposed canal was to be overcome by a deep cut. There were many objections to this plan, the chief of which were the circuitous course necessitated by the use of the Niagara and Welland rivers, the swift current of the Niagara, and its unsuitability for heavily loaded boats, and the constant danger of slides, because of the unstable character of the soil through which the deep cutting would have to be made. Notwithstanding these objections, and various other obstacles which were developed by close inquiry and examination, the company adhered to their plans, and in July 1825 entered into a contract for the prosecution of the work. But the undertaking dragged from lack of funds. [Illustration: THE WELLAND CANAL, WITH LOCKS OPEN.] In the summer of 1828 the work of construction had made such progress that it was confidently expected that the water would be let into the canal by the autumn of that year; but just at this time the predictions of the opponents of the scheme were realised, and the completion of the enterprise was delayed by the falling in of a part of the embankment in the deep cut. The accident was so formidable as to seriously embarrass the company, already well drained of its resources, and working on a plan not generally approved. The directors, therefore, abandoned the design of using the Welland river as a feeder, and determined to obtain their water supply for the canal from the Grand River, through a new feeder to be constructed for a distance of 27 miles. This necessitated raising the level of the canal, but the depth of cutting was at the same time diminished 15½ feet, and the danger of a recurrence of the accident referred to was much lessened. Work was again begun, and on November 30th, 1829, two schooners ascended the canal from Lake Ontario to the Welland river. [Illustration: THE WELLAND CANAL, WITH LOCKS SHUT.] Vessels drawing 7½ feet of water and not having more than 21½ feet breadth of beam then sailed down the river Niagara until they approached about one-fourth of a mile from the mouth of the Welland river. There they entered a canal, 15 chains in length, which has been cut across a point of land into the Welland river, up which they passed a distance of 9½ miles. They then ascended two locks into the deeper cut, and passed through it for a distance of 16½ miles more into Lake Ontario. The feeder was 20 feet broad at the bottom, 40 feet broad at water-level, and 5 feet deep. The Government, in 1831, granted the company a loan to assist in carrying out an extension of the main line over the Welland river to Port Colborne by enlarging the feeder for about five miles, so as to make it a navigable channel, and excavating a new canal for the remaining distance between the main line, as originally completed, and Lake Erie. This work was finished in 1833, the line thus constructed occupying nearly the same route as the enlarged line of 1841, and the old line of the present day having the same termini on the two lakes. It was 27¼ miles long, and the breadth at the bottom was 24 feet. There were forty locks, built of wood, all 110 feet long by 22 feet wide, except the first three ascending locks from Port Dalhousie, which were 130 by 32 feet, and one at Port Colborne from the canal into Lake Erie, which was 125 by 24 feet. At the solicitation of the company, an Act was passed in 1839 authorising the purchase by the province of the rights of the private stockholders, and, shortly after the union in 1841, the purchase was made and the line was transferred to the new Board of Works of Canada. Up to this time it had cost the province of Upper Canada in loans (which were never repaid), in advances, and in the purchase of stock 1,751,427 dollars; in addition to which 100,000 dollars had been contributed to its construction in the purchase of the company’s stock by the Government of Lower Canada, and 222,220 dollars in loans by the Imperial Government, making the total cost 2,073,647 dollars. The Welland Canal, as originally built, had never been satisfactory, either in its location, in its dimensions, or in the character of the work, and it had never been looked upon as permanently completed. From time to time surveys and investigations had been made, and changes and improvements suggested, but nothing of any moment had been done. As soon, however, as the line came wholly under the control of the Government, by the purchase of the interests of the private holders, it was determined by the Board of Public Works that all the locks should be rebuilt in stone, and their dimensions increased to 120 feet long by 26 feet broad, with 8½ feet water on the sills; that the aqueduct required to carry the canal over the Welland river should be rebuilt of stone; that the feeder should be converted into a navigable channel; that the harbours on both lakes should be improved; and, finally, that the projected Port Maitland branch should be undertaken and completed, with an entrance lock from Lake Erie 200 feet long, 45 feet wide, and having 9 feet depth of water. These works were commenced in 1842 and completed in 1849. The original plan was modified during the progress of the work so as to make the locks 150 feet long by 26½ feet wide, and the bed of the main line 26 feet wide at the bottom. As the Grand River gave evident signs that it could not be relied upon as a feeder, it was decided to obtain the water supply for the canal from Lake Erie. To do this it became necessary to lower the summit-level 8 feet to that of Lake Erie. This undertaking was commenced in 1846, but was not finally completed so as to render the canal independent of the Grand River until a few years ago. These enlargements and improvements cost the Government of Canada up to the 1st of July 1867, 4,900,810 dollars. Even after its enlargement, no vessel drawing more than 10 feet of water, or over 150 feet in length, could pass through the Welland Canal. Increased accommodation being needed, a larger canal with a new set of locks was commenced in 1873, and completed in 1881. This canal branches off from the old canal 19 miles from Lake Erie, and rejoins it again at Lake Ontario. The old canal was deepened from Lake Erie to its junction, with the new canal, so that vessels having a draught of less than 12 feet can pass from one lake to the other. The new canal is 100 feet wide at the bottom, 12 feet in depth, and has side slopes of 2 to 1; but the excavation through rock has been carried down to 14 feet in depth, to facilitate the deepening of the canal if required in the future. It is 13 miles long, and cost 3,840,000_l._ The difference in level is 313 feet, which is surmounted by twenty-five locks, with lifts ranging between 12 to 16 feet. Regulating weirs have also been built, some attaining a width of 300 feet; the flow of water through them is regulated by sluice-gates, formed of sheet iron, which are raised and lowered by screws. The locks are 40 feet 4 inches wide, and have a length of 270 feet between the sills. The side walls are 29 feet high, with a batter of 1 in 24; they are built of limestone ashlar, and are strengthened by counterforts. The lock floor is planked with pine timber, and the gates are constructed of white oak. The gates are moved by chains, guided by rollers and winding round drums, and one man is able to move a gate. The sluice-gates are raised by lifting a small shutter (½ foot by 1 foot), which allows the current to work a small turbine, whose revolutions set in motion a screw which raises and lowers the sluice-gate. The rate of motion transmitted by the turbine is so much reduced in passing through a train of wheels and a revolving nut that 212 revolutions of the turbine are required to raise the sluice-gate 1 inch. The sluice-gates are 5 feet by 1½ foot, and are raised in two minutes. It has been doubted by many men who have carefully studied the question whether the very large expenditure that has been incurred over the Welland Canal will ever be justified by the result. The canal is, of course, the main connecting link between the great lakes of the south and south-west and the principal maritime outlets of the Dominion, and the Dominion Government has no doubt been animated by the belief that the time would come when the great commerce that now passes from Duluth, Chicago, and other ports in the United States to New York, and thence to Europe, would take the Welland Canal route, instead of the Erie Canal, thereby making Montreal the chief port on the American continent. This impression has been supported by the consideration that Montreal is nearly 300 miles nearer to Liverpool than New York. It is, no doubt, of the greatest possible consequence to Great Britain, to the United States, and last, but not least, to the Dominion of Canada, to consider how the immense traffic which is now carried on between the great North-western States and the markets of Europe is to be carried in the time to come. At the present time we receive from the United States about thirty millions of cwts. of wheat per annum, of which two-thirds are brought to us from ports on the Atlantic, and one-third from ports on the Pacific. We also receive between twelve and fifteen million cwts. of wheat meal and flour, and ten to twelve million cwts. of maize or Indian corn, in addition to smaller quantities of barley and other cereals. The great bulk of this immense traffic is transported from Chicago, which is the great gathering ground, to New York, which is the great distributing centre. There is no traffic in the world that is more fiercely competed for. Everything is done that can be done to draw it on to the railways on the one hand, and on to the waterways on the other, and as a consequence the rates of freight, as we have seen, are on both systems reduced to the lowest attainable limit. The Transatlantic traffic is competed for quite as keenly, so that grain has been carried between Chicago and the markets of Great Britain, a distance of over four thousand miles, for less than 20_s._ per ton, including a railway journey of 950 miles, or a lake and canal journey of 1200 miles, in addition to the ocean voyage. It is, however, beginning to be felt that even this extraordinary outcome of the development of the means of efficient transportation may be threatened with successful rivalry. There are those who argue that the natural outlet for the grain grown in the North-west is not New York, but Montreal, which is 270 miles, or a day’s steaming, nearer to Liverpool than New York. The grain traffic is sent from Chicago to Buffalo in either case. But from Buffalo to Liverpool by way of the Erie Canal and New York is 3450 miles, while by way of the Gulf of St. Lawrence and Montreal it is only 3180 miles. In both cases, the grain is carried by water, so that there is practically no difference in point of cost at the port of departure. It has been found necessary in Canada, with a view to meeting the competition of the Erie Canal route, to reduce the canal tolls and harbour dues. Prior to 1884, the rate of tolls on the grain shipped by way of the Welland Canal was 20 cents per ton, which allowed a vessel to pass through the St. Lawrence Canal without additional payment. But, as the tolls on the Erie Canal were abolished in 1883, it became increasingly difficult for the Montreal route to compete with that _viâ_ the enfranchised Erie Canal to New York. A remission of one-half of the tolls on grain has, therefore, since 1884 been allowed on the Welland Canal, so that the present rate is only 10 cents, or 5_d._ per ton. Other concessions have been made in the interval, until now the rate is only 2 cents per ton on grain passing eastwards to Canadian ports. This has had the effect of greatly stimulating the canal traffic. The quantity of grain carried into Montreal by railway was, in 1885, about 3½ million bushels more than that carried by canal. In 1886, however, the canal carried nearly five millions of bushels more than the railway.[121] The Canadian port, however, notwithstanding its advantages in point of nearer proximity to Liverpool, and its equally good if not superior navigation from Buffalo, is very far behind that _viâ_ New York. The receipts of grain at New York in some recent years have amounted to as much as 175 millions of bushels, or fully nine times as much as the quantity received at Montreal in 1886. It is manifest, therefore, that Montreal, whatever its geographical advantages, has not secured that share of this immense trade to which it has considered itself to be entitled. This fact is probably due to a variety of causes, one of which, the impediments in the way of the navigation of the St. Lawrence, the Canadian Government have recently been attempting to overcome. But the most serious drawback to Montreal is, no doubt, the climate, which closes up the navigation entirely for a great part of the year, while that of New York is always open. _The Cornwall Canal._—This canal, which is now being enlarged, between Moulinette and Milleroches, where several breaches have occurred in its banks, was originally constructed with a width of 100 feet at the bottom and 10 feet depth. The embankment was raised to 14 feet above the canal bottom, and was made 12 feet wide at the top with slopes on either side of two to one. That portion of the canal embankment on the upper reach, which, for upwards of a mile in length (from Moulinette to Milleroches) holds the water in the canal at a level of about twenty feet above the branch of the St. Lawrence, which runs alongside, is in part founded upon the treacherous clay bottom in which were found springs of water, and in part in side cutting permeated by streaks of sand. The embankment over this ground was formed with extra care, the earth being laid on in courses with carts, and where the outer slope ran out into the river, it was protected by boulder stones along its outer edge. Where springs were found under the seat of the embankment they were led out to the river’s edge by French drains, and where the streaks of sand were encountered in the side cutting they were cut off by puddle trenches, 6 feet deep or more, and the bottom and side bank were lined with puddle, 3 feet thick, from the puddle trench to high-water mark. This mode of protection was not continuous over the whole line, but was confined to such parts of the bank only as appeared to require it. Since the opening of the canal, there have been several breaches in this bank, the last and worst of all, which occurred in 1888, inflicting serious damage upon the trade of the St. Lawrence in that year. The enlarged canal is to be 6 feet deeper than the old one. Sixteen feet of water, instead of 10 feet, implies greater strain upon the bank, and a deeper searching after the hidden springs and streaks of sand that may be interposed between the canal bottom and the river. It has been proposed, with a view of avoiding this risk, to substitute a lake three miles in length for a canal where the breaks have occurred, and to throw dams across the narrow channels at the head and foot of Speek’s Island, in order to raise the water up to canal level. _The Sault St. Marie Canal._[122]—The Dominion of Canada, which borders on the Sault, has, or believes that she has, quite as great an interest in the development of the traffic on this route as her neighbours, and hence has resolved on constructing a canal at this point, which will, of course, be built on Canadian territory. So far back as 1852, the Canadian Government had surveys made with a view to the construction of a canal on the Canadian shore, and the execution of the project was recommended by the Canadian Canal Commission of 1871, but it was not until 1888 that the work was actually placed under contract. On the Canadian side of the St. Mary’s river there is to be a lock of 18 feet, with a chamber 600 feet in length between the gates, 85 feet wide, and narrowed at the gates to 60 feet on opposite sides. _The Canadian Canal System generally._—A Commission appointed by the Dominion Government in 1870 to report on the best means of improving the canal system of Canada, adopted a series of recommendations, which have since been followed as far as possible. The principal of these were:— [Illustration: MAP SHOWING THE POSITION OF THE SAULT ST. MARIE, IN RELATION TO THE AMERICAN LAKES, AND THE TRADE FROM WEST TO EAST.]