1811. He studied theology at Göttingen, Berlin, Heidelberg and Munich,

and was ordained priest in 1844. He resolved to consecrate his life to maintaining the cause of the freedom of the Church from the control of the State. This brought him into collision with the civil power, an attitude which he maintained throughout a stormy and eventful life. Ketteler was rather a man of action than a scholar, and he first distinguished himself as one of the deputies of the Frankfort National Assembly, a position to which he was elected in 1848, and in which he soon became noted for his decision, foresight, energy and eloquence. In 1850 he was made bishop of Mainz, by order of the Vatican, in preference to the celebrated Professor Leopold Schmidt, of Giessen, whose Liberal sentiments were not agreeable to the Papal party. When elected, Ketteler refused to allow the students of theology in his diocese to attend lectures at Giessen, and ultimately founded an opposition seminary in the diocese of Mainz itself. He also founded orders of School Brothers and School Sisters, to work in the various educational agencies he had called into existence, and he laboured to institute orphanages and rescue homes. In 1858 he threw down the gauntlet against the State in his pamphlet on the rights of the Catholic Church in Germany. In 1863 he adopted Lassalle's Socialistic views, and published his _Die Arbeitfrage und das Christenthum_. When the question of papal infallibility arose, he opposed the promulgation of the dogma on the ground that such promulgation was inopportune. But he was not resolute in his opposition. The opponents of the dogma complained at the very outset that he was wavering, half converted by his hosts, the members of the German College at Rome, and further influenced by his own misgivings. He soon deserted his anti-Infallibilist colleagues, and submitted to the decrees in August 1870. He was the warmest opponent of the State in the _Kulturkampf_ provoked by Prince Bismarck after the publication of the Vatican decrees, and was largely instrumental in compelling that statesman to retract the pledge he had rashly given, never to "go to Canossa." To such an extent did Bishop von Ketteler carry his opposition, that in 1874 he forbade his clergy to take part in celebrating the anniversary of the battle of Sedan, and declared the Rhine to be a "Catholic river." He died at Burghausen, Upper Bavaria, on the 13th of July 1877. (J. J. L.*) KETTERING, a market town in the eastern parliamentary division of Northamptonshire, England, 72 m. N.N.W. from London by the Midland railway. Pop. of urban district (1891), 19,454; (1901), 28,653. The church of SS Peter and Paul, mainly Perpendicular, has a lofty and ornate tower and spire. The chief manufactures are boots, shoes, brushes, stays, clothing and agricultural implements. There are iron-works in the immediate neighbourhood. The privilege of market was granted in 1227 by a charter of Henry III. KETTLE, SIR RUPERT ALFRED (1817-1894), English county court judge, was born at Birmingham on the 9th of January 1817. His family had for some time been connected with the glass-staining business. In 1845 he was called to the bar, and in 1859 he was made judge of the Worcestershire county courts, becoming also a bencher of the Middle Temple (1882). He acted as arbitrator in several important strikes, and besides being the first president of the Midland iron trade wages board, he was largely responsible for the formation of similar boards in other staple trades. His name thus became identified with the organization of a system of arbitration between employers and employed, and in 1880 he was knighted for his services in this capacity. In 1851 he married; one of his sons subsequently became a London police magistrate. Kettle died on the 6th of October 1894 at Wolverhampton. KETTLEDRUM[1] (Fr. _timbales_; Ger. _Pauken_; Ital. _timpani_; Sp. _timbal_), the only kind of drum (q.v.) having a definite musical pitch. The kettledrum consists of a hemispherical pan of copper, brass or silver, over which a piece of vellum is stretched tightly by means of screws working on an iron ring, which fits closely round the head of the drum. In the bottom of the pan is a small vent-hole, which prevents the head being rent by the concussion of air. The vellum head may thus be slackened or tightened at will to produce any one of the notes within its compass of half an octave. Each kettledrum gives but one note at a time, and as it takes some little time to alter all the screws, two or three kettledrums, sometimes more, each tuned to a different note, are used in an orchestra or band. For centuries kettledrums have been made and used in Europe in pairs, one large and one small; the relative proportions of the two instruments being well defined and invariable. Even when eight pairs of drums, all tuned to different notes, are used, as by Berlioz in his "Grand Requiem," there are still but the two sizes of drums to produce all the notes. Various mechanisms have been tried with the object of facilitating the change of pitch, but the simple old-fashioned model is still the most frequently used in England. Two sticks, of which there are several kinds, are employed to play the kettledrum; the best of these are made of whalebone for elasticity, and have a small wooden knob at one end, covered with a thin piece of fine sponge. Others have the button covered with felt or india-rubber. The kettledrum is struck at about a quarter of the diameter from the ring. The compass of kettledrums collectively is not much more than an octave, between [music notes]; the larger instruments, which it is inadvisable to tune below F, take any one of the following notes:-- [Music notes]. and the smaller are tuned to one of the notes completing the chromatic and enharmonic scale from [music notes]. These limits comprise all the notes of artistic value that can be obtained from kettledrums. When there are but two drums--the term "drum" used by musicians always denotes the kettledrum--they are generally tuned to the tonic and dominant or to the tonic and subdominant, these notes entering into the composition of most of the harmonies of the key. Formerly the kettledrums used to be treated as transposing instruments, the notation, as for the horn, being in C, the key to which the kettledrums were to be tuned being indicated in the score. Now composers write the real notes. The tone of a good kettledrum is sonorous, rich, and of great power. When noise rather than music is required uncovered sticks are used. The drums may be muffled or _covered_ by placing a piece of cloth or silk over the vellum to damp the sound, a device which produces a lugubrious, mysterious effect and is indicated in the score by the words _timpani coperti_, _timpani con sordini_, _timbales_ _couvertes_, _gedämpfte Pauken_. Besides the beautiful effects obtained by means of delicate gradations of tone, numerous rhythmical figures may be executed on one, two or more notes. German drummers who were renowned during the 17th and 18th centuries, borrowing the terms from the trumpets with which the kettledrums were long associated, recognized the following beats:-- [Illustration: Music notes. Single tonguing (_Einfache Zungen_) Double tonguing (_Doppel oder gerissene Zungen_) Legato tonguing (_Tragende Zungen_) Whole double-tonguing (_Ganze Doppel-Zungen_) Double cross-beat[2] (_Doppel Kreuzschläge_) The roll (_Wirbel_) The double roll (_Doppel Wirbel_)] It is generally stated that Beethoven was the first to treat the kettledrum as a solo instrument, but in _Dido_, an opera by C. Graupner performed at the Hamburg Opera House in 1707, there is a short solo for the kettledrum.[3] The tuning of the kettledrum is an operation requiring time, even when the screw-heads, as is now usual, are T-shaped; to expedite the change, therefore, efforts have been made in all countries to invent some mechanism which would enable the performer to tune the drum to a fixed note by a single movement. The first mechanical kettledrums date from the beginning of the 19th century. In Holland a system was invented by J. C. N. Stumpff[4]; in France by Labbaye in 1827; in Germany Einbigler patented a system in Frankfort-on-Main in 1836[5]; in England Cornelius Ward in 1837; in Italy C. A. Boracchi of Monza in 1839.[6] The drawback in most of these systems is the complicated nature of the mechanism, which soon gets out of order, and, being very cumbersome and heavy, it renders the instrument more or less of a fixture. Potter's kettledrum with instantaneous system of tuning, the best known at the present day in England, and used in some military bands with entire success, is a complete contrast to the above. There is practically no mechanism; the system is simple, ingenious, and neither adds to the weight nor to the bulk of the instrument. There are no screws round the head of Potter's kettledrum; an invisible system of cords in the interior, regulated by screws and rods in the form of a Maltese cross, is worked from the outside by a small handle connected to a dial, on the face of which are twenty-eight numbered notches. By means of these the performer is able to tune the drum instantly to any note within the compass by remembering the numbers which correspond to each note and pointing the indicator to it on the face of the dial. Should the cords become slightly stretched, flattening the pitch, causing the representative numbers to change, the performer need only give his indicator an extra turn to bring his instrument back to pitch, each note having several notches at its service. The internal mechanism, being of an elastic nature, has no detrimental effect on the tone but tends to increase its volume and improve its quality. The origin of the kettledrum is remote and must be sought in the East. Its distinctive characteristic is a hemispherical or convex vessel, closed by means of a single parchment or skin drawn tightly over the aperture, whereas other drums consist of a cylinder, having one end or both covered by the parchment, as in the side-drum and tambourine respectively. The Romans were acquainted with the kettledrum, including it among the _tympana_; the _tympanum leve_, like a sieve, was the tambourine used in the rites of Bacchus and Cybele.[7] The comparatively heavy tympanum of bronze mentioned by Catullus was probably the small kettledrum which appears in pairs on monuments of the middle ages.[8] Pliny[9] states that half pearls having one side round and the other flat were called _tympania_. If the name _tympania_ (Gr. [Greek: tympanon], from [Greek: typtein], to strike) was given to pearls of a certain shape because they resembled the kettledrum, this argues that the instrument was well known among the Romans. It is doubtful, however, if it was adopted by them as a military instrument, since it is not mentioned by Vegetius,[10] who defines very clearly the duties of the service instruments _buccina_, _tuba_, _cornu_ and _lituus_. The Greeks also knew the kettledrum, but as a warlike instrument of barbarians. Plutarch[11] mentions that the Parthians, in order to frighten their enemies, in offering battle used not the horn or _tuba_, but hollow vessels covered with a skin, on which they beat, making a terrifying noise with these tympana. Whether the kettledrum penetrated into western Europe before the fall of the Roman Empire and continued to be included during the middle ages among the tympana has not been definitely ascertained. Isidore of Seville gives a somewhat vague description of tympanum, conveying the impression that his information has been obtained second-hand: "Tympanum est pellis vel corium ligno ex una parte extentum. Est enim pars media symphoniae in similitudinem cribri. Tympanum autem dictum quod medium est. Unde, et margaritum medium tympanum dicitur, et ipsum ut symphonia ad virgulam percutitur."[12] It is clear that in this passage Isidore is referring to Pliny. The names given during the middle ages to the kettledrum are derived from the East. We have _attambal_ or _attabal_ in Spain, from the Persian _tambal_, whence is derived the modern French _timbales_; _nacaire_, _naquaire_ or _nakeres_ (English spelling), from the Arabic _nakkarah_ or _noqqarich_ (Bengali, _nagara_), and the German _Pauke_, M.H.G. _Bûke_ or _Pûke_, which is probably derived from _byk_, the Assyrian name of the instrument. [Illustration: (Geo. Potter & Co. of Aldershot.) FIG. 1.--Mechanical Kettledrum, showing the system of cords inside the head. This regiment is now the 21st (Empress of India) Lancers.] A line in the chronicles of Joinville definitely establishes the identity of the _nakeres_ as a kind of drum: "Lor il fist sonner les tabours que l'on appelle _nacaires_." The nacaire is among the instruments mentioned by Froissart as having been used on the occasion of Edward III.'s triumphal entry into Calais in 1347: "trompes, tambours, nacaires, chalemies, muses."[13] Chaucer mentions them in the description of the tournament in the _Knight's Tale_ (line 2514):-- "Pipes, trompes, _nakeres_ and clarionnes, That in the bataille blowen blody sonnes." The earliest European illustration showing kettledrums is the scene depicting Pharaoh's banquet in the fine illuminated MS. book of Genesis of the 5th or 6th century, preserved in Vienna. There are two pairs of shallow metal bowls on a table, on which a woman is performing with two sticks, as an accompaniment to the double pipes.[14] As a companion illumination may be cited the picture of an Eastern banquet given in a 14th century MS. at the British Museum (Add. MS. 27,695), illuminated by a skilled Genoese. The potentate is enjoying the music of various instruments, among which are two kettledrums strapped to the back of a Nubian slave. This was the earlier manner of using the instrument before it became inseparably associated with the trumpet, sharing its position as the service instrument of the cavalry. Jost Amman[15] gives a picture of a pair of kettledrums with banners being played by an armed knight on horseback. [Illustration: (From Härtel u. Wickhoff's "Die Wiener Genesis," _Jahrbuch der kunslhistorischen Sammlungen des allerhöchsten Kaiserhauses_.) FIG. 2.--Kettledrums in an early Christian MS.] [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Medieval Kettledrums, 14th century. (Brit. Museum.)] As in the case of the trumpet, the use of the kettledrum was placed under great restrictions in Germany and France and to some extent in England, but it was used in churches with the trumpet.[16] No French or German regiment was allowed kettledrums unless they had been captured from the enemy, and the _timbalier_ or the _Heerpauker_ on parade, in reviews and marches generally, rode at the head of the squadron; in battle his position was in the wings. In England, before the Restoration, only the Guards were allowed kettledrums, but after the accession of James II. every regiment of horse was provided with them.[17] Before the Royal Regiment of Artillery was established, the master-general of ordnance was responsible for the raising of trains of artillery. Among his retinue in time of war were a trumpeter and kettledrummer. The kettledrums were mounted on a chariot drawn by six white horses. They appeared in the field for the first time in a train of artillery during the Irish rebellion of 1689, and the charges for ordnance include the item, "large kettledrums mounted on a carriage with cloaths marked I.R. and cost £158, 9s."[18] A model of the kettledrums with their carriage which accompanied the duke of Marlborough to Holland in 1702 is preserved in the Rotunda Museum at Woolwich. The kettledrums accompanied the Royal Artillery train in the Vigo expedition and during the campaign in Flanders in 1748. Macbean[19] states that they were mounted on a triumphal car ornamented and gilt, bearing the ordnance flag and drawn by six white horses. The position of the car on march was in front of the flag gun, and in camp in front of the quarters of the duke of Cumberland with the artillery guns packed round them. The kettledrummer had by order "to mount the kettledrum carriage every night half an hour before the sun sett and beat till gun fireing." In 1759 the kettledrums ceased to form part of the establishment of the Royal Artillery, and they were deposited, together with their carriage, in the Tower, at the same time as a pair captured at Malplaquet in 1709. These Tower drums were frequently borrowed by Handel for performances of his oratorios. The kettledrums still form part of the bands of the Life Guards and other cavalry regiments. (K. S.) FOOTNOTES: [1] From "drum" and "kettle," a covered metal vessel for boiling water or other liquid; the O.E. word is _cetel_, cf. Du. _ketel_, Ger. _Kessel_, borrowed from Lat. _catillus_, dim. of _catinus_, bowl. [2] This rhythmical use of kettledrums was characteristic of the military instrument of percussion, rather than the musical member of the orchestra. During the middle ages and until the end of the 18th century, the two different notes obtainable from the pair of kettledrums were probably used more as a means of marking and varying the rhythm than as musical notes entering into the composition of the harmonies. The kettledrums, in fact, approximated to the side drums in technique. The contrast between the purely rhythmical use of kettledrums, given above, and the more modern musical use is well exemplified by the well-known solo for four kettledrums in Meyerbeer's _Robert le Diable_, beginning thus-- [Music notes]. [3] See Wilhelm Kleefeld, _Das Orchester der Hamburger Oper_ (1678-1738); _Internationale Musikgesellschaft_, Sammelband i. 2, p. 278 (Leipzig, 1899). [4] See J. Georges Kastner, _Méthode complète et raisonnée de timbales_ (Paris), p. 19, where several of the early mechanical kettledrums are described and illustrated. [5] See Gustav Schilling's _Encyklopädie der gesammten musikal. Wissenschaften_ (Stuttgart, 1840), vol. v., art. "Pauke." [6] See _Manuale pel Timpanista_ (Milan, 1842), where Boracchi describes and illustrates his invention. [7] Catullus, lxiii. 8-10; Claud. _De cons. Stilich._ iii. 365; Lucret. ii. 618; Virg. _Aen._ ix. 619, &c. [8] John Carter, _Specimens of Ancient Sculpture_, bas-relief from seats of choir of Worcester cathedral and of collegiate church of St Katherine near the Tower of London (plates, vol. i. following p. 53 and vol. ii. following p. 22). [9] _Nat. Hist._ ix. 35, 23. [10] _De re militari_, ii. 22; iii. 5, &c. [11] _Crassus_, xxiii. 10. See also Justin xli. 2, and Polydorus, lib. 1, cap. xv. [12] See Isidore of Seville, _Etymologiarum_, lib. iii. cap. 21, 141; Migne, _Patr. curs. completus_, lxxxii. 167. [13] _Panthéon littéraire_ (Paris, 1837), J. A. Buchon, vol. i. cap. 322, p. 273. [14] Reproduced by Franz Wickhoff, "Die Wiener Genesis," supplement to the 15th and 16th volumes of the _Jahrb. d. kunsthistorischen Sammlungen d. allerhöchsten Kaiserhauses_ (Vienna, 1895); see frontispiece in colours and plate illustration XXXIV. [15] _Artliche u. kunstreiche Figuren zu der Reutterey_ (Frankfort-on-Main, 1584). [16] See Michael Praetorius, _Syntagma Musicum_ and _Monatshefte f. Musikgeschichte_, Jahrgang x. 51. [17] See Georges Kastner, _op. cit._, pp. 10 and 11; Johann Ernst Altenburg, _Versuch einer Anleitung z. heroisch-musikalischen Trompeter u. Paukerkunst_ (Halle, 1795), p. 128; and H. G. Farmer, _Memoirs of the Royal Artillery Band_ p. 23, note 1 (London, 1904). [18] Miller's _Artillery Regimental History_; see also H. G. Farmer, _op. cit._, p. 22; illustration 1702, p. 26. [19] _Memoirs of the Royal Artillery._ KEUPER, in geology the third or uppermost subdivision of the Triassic system. The name is a local miners' term of German origin; it corresponds to the French _marnes irisées_. The formation is well exposed in Swabia, Franconia, Alsace and Lorraine and Luxemburg; it extends from Basel on the east side of the Rhine into Hanover, and northwards it spreads into Sweden and through England into Scotland and north-east Ireland; it appears flanking the central plateau of France and in the Pyrenees and Sardinia. In the German region it is usual to divide the Keuper into three groups, the _Rhaetic_ or upper Keuper, the middle, _Hauptkeuper_ or _gypskeuper_, and the lower, _Kohlenkeuper_ or _Lettenkohle_. In Germany the lower division consists mainly of grey clays and _schieferletten_ with white, grey and brightly coloured sandstone and dolomitic limestone. The upper part of this division is often a grey dolomite known as the Grenz dolomite; the impure coal beds--_Lettenkohle_--are aggregated towards the base. The middle division is thicker than either of the others (at Göttingen, 450 metres); it consists of a marly series below, grey, red and green marls with gypsum and dolomite--this is the _gypskeuper_ in its restricted sense. The higher part of the series is sandy, hence called the _Steinmergel_; it is comparatively free from gypsum. To this division belong the Myophoria beds (_M. Raibliana_) with galena in places; the Estheria beds (_E. laxitesta_); the Schelfsandstein, used as a building-stone; the Lehrberg and Berg-gyps beds; Semionotus beds (_S. Bergeri_) with building-stone of Coburg; and the Burgand Stubensandstein. The salt, which is associated with gypsum, is exploited in south Germany at Dreuze, Pettoncourt, Vie in Lorraine and Wimpfen on the Neckar. A ½-metre coal is found on this horizon in the Erzgebirge, and another, 2 metres thick, has been mined in Upper Silesia. The upper Keuper, Rhaetic or _Avicula contorta_ zone in Germany is mainly sandy with dark grey shales and marls; it is seldom more than 25 metres thick. The sandstones are used for building purposes at Bayreuth, Culmbach and Bamberg. In Swabia and the Wesergebirge are several "bone-beds," thicker than those in the middle Keuper, which contain a rich assemblage of fossil remains of fish, reptiles and the mammalian teeth of _Microlestes antiquus_ and _Triglyptus Fraasi_. The name Rhaetic is derived from the Rhaetic Alps where the beds are well developed; they occur also in central France, the Pyrenees and England. In S. Tirol and the Judicarian Mountains the Rhaetic is represented by the Kössener beds. In the Alpine region the presence of coral beds gives rise to the so-called "Lithodendron Kalk." In Great Britain the Keuper contains the following sub-divisions: _Rhaetic or Penarth beds_, grey, red and green marls, black shales and so-called "white lias" (10-150 ft.). _Upper Keuper marl_, red and grey marls and shales with gypsum and rock salt (800-3000 ft.). _Lower Keuper sandstone_, marls and thin sandstones at the top, red and white sandstones (including the so-called "waterstones") below, with breccias and conglomerates at the base (150-250 ft.). The basal or "dolomitic conglomerate" is a shore or scree breccia derived from local materials; it is well developed in the Mendip district. The rock-salt beds vary from 1 in. to 100 ft. in thickness; they are extensively worked (mined and pumped) in Cheshire, Middlesbrough and Antrim. The Keuper covers a large area in the midlands and around the flanks of the Pennine range; it reaches southward to the Devonshire coast, eastward into Yorkshire and north-westward into north Ireland and south Scotland. As in Germany, there are one or more "bone beds" in the English Rhaetic with a similar assemblage of fossils. In the "white lias" the upper hard limestone is known as the "sun bed" or "Jew stone"; at the base is the Cotham or landscape marble. Representatives of the Rhaetic are found in south Sweden, where the lower portion contains workable coals, in the Himalayas, Japan, Tibet, Burma, eastern Siberia and in Spitzbergen. The upper portion of the Karroo beds of South Africa and part of the Otapiri series of New Zealand are probably of Rhaetic age. The Keuper is not rich in fossils; the principal plants are cypress-like conifers (_Walchia_, _Voltzia_) and a few calamites with such forms as _Equisetum arenaceum_ and _Pterophyllum Jaegeri_, _Avicula contorta_, _Protocardium rhaeticum_, _Terebratula gregaria_, _Myophoria costata_, _M. Goldfassi_ and _Lingula tenuessima_, _Anoplophoria lettica_ may be mentioned among the invertebrates. Fishes include _Ceratodus_, _Hybodus_ and _Lepidotus_. Labyrinthodonts represented by the footprints of Cheirotherium and the bones of _Labyrinthodon_, _Mastodonsaurus_ and _Capitosaurus_. Among the reptiles are _Hyperodapedon_, _Palaeosaurus_, _Zanclodon_, _Nothosaurus_ and _Belodon_. _Microlestes_, the earliest known mammalian genus, has already been mentioned. See also the article TRIASSIC SYSTEM. (J. A. H.) KEW, a township in the Kingston parliamentary division of Surrey, England, situated on the south bank of the Thames, 6 m. W.S.W. of Hyde Park Corner, London. Pop. (1901), 2699. A stone bridge of seven arches, erected in 1789, connecting Kew with Brentford on the other side of the river, was replaced by a bridge of three arches opened by Edward VII. in 1903 and named after him. Kew has increased greatly as a residential suburb of London; the old village consisted chiefly of a row of houses with gardens attached, situated on the north side of a green, to the south of which is the church and churchyard and at the west the principal entrance to Kew Gardens. From remains found in the bed of the river near Kew bridge it has been conjectured that the village marks the site of an old British settlement. The name first occurs in a document of the reign of Henry VII., where it is spelt Kayhough. The church of St Anne (1714) has a mausoleum containing the tomb of the duke of Cambridge (d. 1850) son of George III., and is also the burial-place of Thomas Gainsborough the artist, Jeremiah Meyer the painter of miniatures (d. 1789), John Zoffany the artist (d. 1810), Joshua Kirby the architect (d. 1774), and William Aiton the botanist and director of Kew Gardens (d. 1793). The free school originally endowed by Lady Capel in 1721 received special benefactions from George IV., and the title of "the king's free school." The estate of Kew House about the end of the 17th century came into the possession of Lord Capel of Tewkesbury, and in 1721 of Samuel Molyneux, secretary to the prince of Wales, afterwards George II. After his death it was leased by Frederick prince of Wales, son of George II., and was purchased about 1789 by George III., who devoted his leisure to its improvement. The old house was pulled down in 1802, and a new mansion was begun from the designs of James Wyatt, but the king's death prevented its completion, and in 1827 the portion built was removed. Dutch House, close to Kew House, was sold by Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, to Sir Hugh Portman, a Dutch merchant, late in the 16th century, and in 1781 was purchased by George III. as a nursery for the royal children. It is a plain brick structure, now known as Kew Palace. The Royal Botanic Gardens of Kew originated in the exotic garden formed by Lord Capel and greatly extended by the princess dowager, widow of Frederick, prince of Wales, and by George III., aided by the skill of William Aiton and of Sir Joseph Banks. In 1840 the gardens were adopted as a national establishment, and transferred to the department of woods and forests. The gardens proper, which originally contained only about 11 acres, were subsequently increased to 75 acres, and the pleasure grounds or arboretum adjoining extend to 270 acres. There are extensive conservatories, botanical museums, including the magnificent herbarium and a library. A lofty Chinese pagoda was erected in 1761. A flagstaff 159 ft. high is made out of the fine single trunk of a Douglas pine. In the neighbouring Richmond Old Park is the important Kew Observatory. KEWANEE, a city of Henry county, Illinois, U.S.A., in the N. W. part of the state, about 55 m. N. by W. of Peoria. Pop. (1900), 8382, of whom 2006 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 9307. It is served by the Chicago Burlington & Quincy railroad and by the Galesburg & Kewanee Electric railway. Among its manufactures are foundry and machine-shop products, boilers, carriages and wagons, agricultural implements, pipe and fittings, working-men's gloves, &c. In 1905 the total factory product was valued at $6,729,381, or 61.5% more than in 1900. Kewanee was settled in 1836 by people from Wethersfield, Connecticut, and was first chartered as a city in 1897. KEY, SIR ASTLEY COOPER (1821-1888), English admiral, was born in London in 1821, and entered the navy in 1833. His father was Charles Aston Key (1793-1849), a well-known surgeon, the pupil of Sir Astley Cooper, and his mother was the latter's niece. After distinguishing himself in active service abroad, on the South American station (1844-1846), in the Baltic during the Crimean War (C.B. 1855) and China (1857), Key was appointed in 1858 a member of the royal commission on national defence, in 1860 captain of the steam reserve at Devonport, and in 1863 captain of H.M.S. "Excellent" and superintendent of the Royal Naval College. He had a considerable share in advising as to the reorganization of administration, and in 1866, having become rear-admiral, was made director of naval ordnance. Between 1869 and 1872 he held the offices of superintendent of Portsmouth dockyard, superintendent of Malta dockyard, and second in command in the Mediterranean. In 1872 he was made president of the projected Royal Naval College at Greenwich, which was organized by him, and after its opening in 1873 he was made a K.C.B, and a vice-admiral. In 1876 he was appointed commander-in-chief on the North American and West Indian station. Having become full admiral in 1878, he was appointed in 1879 principal A.D.C., and soon afterwards first naval lord of the admiralty, retaining this post till 1885. In 1882 he was made G.C.B. He died at Maidenhead on the 3rd of March, 1888. See _Memoirs of Sir Astley Cooper Key_, by Vice-Admiral Colomb (1898). KEY, THOMAS HEWITT (1799-1875), English classical scholar, was born in London on the 20th of March, 1799. He was educated at St John's and Trinity Colleges, Cambridge, and graduated 19th wrangler in 1821. From 1825 to 1827 he was professor of mathematics in the university of Virginia, and after his return to England was appointed (1828) professor of Latin in the newly founded university of London. In 1832 he became joint headmaster of the school founded in connexion with that institution; in 1842 he resigned the professorship of Latin, and took up that of comparative grammar together with the undivided headmastership of the school. These two posts he held till his death on the 29th of November 1875. Key is best known for his introduction of the crude-form (the uninflected form or stem of words) system, in general use among Sanskrit grammarians, into the teaching of the classical languages. This system was embodied in his _Latin Grammar_ (1846). In _Language, its Origin and Development_ (1874), he upholds the onomatopoeic theory. Key was prejudiced against the German "Sanskritists," and the etymological portion of his _Latin Dictionary_, published in 1888, was severely criticized on this account. He was a member of the Royal Society and president of the Philological Society, to the _Transactions_ of which he contributed largely. See _Proceedings of the Royal Society_, vol. xxiv. (1876); R. Ellis in the _Academy_ (Dec. 4, 1875); J. P. Hicks, _T. Hewitt Key_ (1893), where a full list of his works and contributions is given. KEY (in O. Eng. _caég_; the ultimate origin of the word is unknown; it appears only in Old Frisian _kei_ of other Teutonic languages; until the end of the 17th century the pronunciation was _kay_, as in other words in O. Eng. ending in _aég_; cf. _daég_, day; _claég_, clay; the _New English Dictionary_ takes the change to kee to be due to northern influence), an instrument of metal used for the opening and closing of a lock (see LOCK). Until the 14th century bronze and not iron was most commonly used. The terminals of the stem of the keys were frequently decorated, the "bow" or loop taking the form sometimes of a trefoil, with figures inscribed within it; this decoration increased in the 16th century, the terminals being made in the shape of animals and other figures. Still more elaborate ceremonial keys were used by court officials; a series of chamberlains' keys used during the 18th and 19th centuries in several courts in Europe is in the British Museum. The terminals are decorated with crowns, royal monograms and ciphers. The word "key" is by analogy applied to things regarded as means for the opening or closing of anything, for the making clear that which is hidden. Thus it is used of an interpretation as to the arrangement of the letters or words of a cipher, of a solution of mathematical or other problems, or of a translation of exercises or books, &c., from a foreign language. The term is also used figuratively of a place of commanding strategic position. Thus Gibraltar, the "Key of the Mediterranean," was granted in 1462 by Henry IV. of Castile, the arms, _gules_, a castle proper, with key pendant to the gate, _or_; these arms form the badge of the 50th regiment of foot (now 2nd Batt. Essex Regiment) in the British army, in memory of the part which it took in the siege of 1782. The word is also frequently applied to many mechanical contrivances for unfastening or loosening a valve, nut, bolt, &c., such as a spanner or wrench, and to the instruments used in tuning a pianoforte or harp or in winding clocks or watches. A farther extension of the word is to appliances or devices which serve to lock or fasten together distinct parts of a structure, as the "key-stone" of an arch, the wedge or piece of wood, metal, &c., which fixes a joint, or a small metal instrument, shaped like a U, used to secure the bands in the process of sewing in bookbinding. In musical instruments the term "key" is applied in certain wind instruments, particularly of the wood-wind type, to the levers which open and close valves in order to produce various notes, and in keyboard instruments, such as the organ or the pianoforte, to the exterior white or black parts of the levers which either open or shut the valves to admit the wind from the bellows to the pipes or to release the hammers against the strings (see KEYBOARD). It is from this application of the word to these levers in musical instruments that the term is also used of the parts pressed by the finger in typewriters and in telegraphic instruments. A key is the insignia of the office of chamberlain in a royal household (see CHAMBERLAIN and LORD CHAMBERLAIN). The "power of the keys" (_clavium potestas_) in ecclesiastical usage represents the authority given by Christ to Peter by the words, "I will give unto thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven" (Matt. xvi. 19). This is claimed by the Roman Church to have been transmitted to the popes as the successors of St Peter. "Key" was formerly the common spelling of "quay," a wharf, and is still found in America for "cay," an island reef or sandbank off the coast of Florida (see QUAY). The origin of the name Keys or House of Keys, the lower branch of the legislature, the court of Tynwald, of the Isle of Man, has been much discussed, but it is generally accepted that it is a particular application of the word "key" by English- and not Manx-speaking people. According to A. W. Moore, _History of the Isle of Man_, i. 160 sqq. (1900), in the Manx statutes and records the name of the house was in 1417 _Claves Manniae et Claves legis_, Keys of Man and Keys of the Law; but the popular and also the documentary name till 1585 seems to have been "the 24," in Manx _Kiare as feed_. From 1585 to 1734 the name was in the statutes, &c., "the 24 Keys," or simply "the Keys." Moore suggests that the name was possibly originally due to an English "clerk of the rolls," the members of the house being called in to "unlock or solve the difficulties of the law." There is no evidence for the suggestion that Keys is an English corruption of _Kiare-as_, the first part of _Kiare as feed_. Another suggestion is that it is from a Scandinavian word _keise_, chosen. KEYBOARD, or MANUAL (Fr. _clavier_; Ger. _Klaviatur_; Ital. _tastatura_), a succession of keys for unlocking sound in stringed, wind or percussion musical instruments, together with the case or board on which they are arranged. The two principal types of keyboard instruments are the organ and the piano; their keyboards, although similarly constructed, differ widely in scope and capabilities. The keyboard of the organ, a purely mechanical contrivance, is the external means of communicating with the valves or pallets that open and close the entrances to the pipes. As its action is incapable of variation at the will of the performer, the keyboard of the organ remains without influence on the quality and intensity of the sound. The keyboard of the piano, on the contrary, besides its purely mechanical function, also forms a sympathetic vehicle of transmission for the performer's rhythmical and emotional feeling, in consequence of the faithfulness with which it passes on the impulses communicated by the fingers. The keyboard proper does not, in instruments of the organ and piano types, contain the complete mechanical apparatus for directly unlocking the sound, but only that external part of it which is accessible to the performer. The first instrument provided with a keyboard was the organ; we must therefore seek for the prototype of the modern keyboard in connexion with the primitive instrument which marks the transition between the mere syrinx provided with bellows, in which all the pipes sounded at once unless stopped by the fingers, and the first organ in which sound was elicited from a pipe only when unlocked by means of some mechanical contrivance. The earliest contrivance was the simple slider, unprovided with a key or touch-piece and working in a groove like the lid of a box, which was merely pushed in or drawn out to open or close the hole that formed the communication between the wind chest and the hole in the foot of the pipe. These sliders fulfilled in a simple manner the function of the modern keys, and preceded the groove and pallet system of the modern organ. We have no clear or trustworthy information concerning the primitive organ with sliders. Athanasius Kircher[1] gives a drawing of a small mouth-blown instrument under the name of _Magraketha_ (_Mashroqitha'_, Dan. iii. 5), and Ugolini[2] describes a similar one, but with a pair of bellows, as the magrephah of the treatise _'Arakhin_.[3] By analogy with the evolution of the organ in central and western Europe from the 8th to the 15th century, of which we are able to study the various stages, we may conclude that in principle both drawings were probably fairly representative, even if nothing better than efforts of the imagination to illustrate a text. The invention of the keyboard with balanced keys has been placed by some writers as late as the 13th or 14th century, in spite of its having been described by both Hero of Alexandria and Vitruvius and mentioned by poets and writers. The misconception probably arose from the easy assumption that the organ was the product of Western skill and that the primitive instruments with sliders found in 11th century documents[4] represent the sum of the progress made in the evolution; in reality they were the result of a laborious effort to reconquer a lost art. The earliest trace of a balanced keyboard we possess is contained in Hero's description of the hydraulic organ said to have been invented by Ctesibius of Alexandria in the 2nd century B.C. After describing the other parts (see ORGAN), Hero passes on to the sliders with perforations corresponding with the open feet of the speaking pipes which, when drawn forward, traverse and block the pipes. He describes the following contrivances: attached to the slider is a three-limbed, pivoted elbow-key, which, when depressed, pushes the slider inwards; in order to provide for its automatic return when the finger is lifted from the key, a slip of horn is attached by a gut string to each elbow-key. When the key is depressed and the slider pushed home, the gut string pulls the slip of horn and straightens it. As soon as the key is released, the piece of horn, regaining its natural bent by its own elasticity, pulls the slider out so that the perforation of the slider overlaps and the pipe is silenced.[5] The description of the keyboard by Vitruvius Pollio, a variant of that of Hero, is less accurate and less complete.[6] From evidence discussed in the article ORGAN, it is clear that the principle of a balanced keyboard was well understood both in the 2nd and in the 5th century A.D. After this all trace of this important development disappears, sliders of all kinds with and without handles doing duty for keys until the 12th or 13th century, when we find the small portative organs furnished with narrow keys which appear to be balanced; the single bellows were manipulated by one hand while the other fingered the keys. As this little instrument was mainly used to accompany the voice in simple chaunts, it needed few keys, at most nine or twelve. The pipes were flue-pipes. A similar little instrument, having tiny invisible pipes furnished with beating reeds and a pair of bellows (therefore requiring two performers) was known as the regal. There are representations of these medieval balanced keyboards with keys of various shapes, the most common being the rectangular with or without rounded corners and the T-shaped. Until the 14th century all the keys were in one row and of the same level, and although the B flat was used for modulation, it was merely placed between A and B natural in the sequence of notes. During the 14th century small square additional keys made their appearance, one or two to the octave, inserted between the others in the position of our black keys but not raised. An example of this keyboard is reproduced by J. F. Riaño[7] from a fresco in the Cistercian monastery of Nuestra Señora de Piedra in Aragon, dated 1390. So far the history of the keyboard is that of the organ. The only stringed instruments with keys before this date were the _organistrum_ and the _hurdy-gurdy_, in which little tongues of wood manipulated by handles or keys performed the function of the fingers in stopping the strings on the neck of the instruments, but they did not influence the development of the keyboard. The advent of the immediate precursors of the pianoforte was at hand. In the _Wunderbuch_[8] (1440), preserved in the Grand Ducal Library at Weimar, are represented a number of musical instruments, all named. Among them are a _clavichordium_ and a _clavicymbalum_ with narrow additional keys let in between the wider ones, one to every group of two large keys. The same arrangement prevailed in a _clavicymbalum_ figured in an anonymous MS. attributed to the 14th century, preserved in the public library at Ghent[9]; from the lettering over the jacks and strings, of which there are but eight, it would seem as though the draughtsman had left the accidentals out of the scheme of notation. These are the earliest known representations of instruments with keyboards. The exact date at which our chromatic keyboard came into use has not been discovered, but it existed in the 15th century and may be studied in the picture of St Cecilia playing the organ on the Ghent altarpiece painted by the brothers Hubert and Jan van Eyck. Praetorius distinctly states that the large Halberstadt organ had the keyboard which he figures (plates xxiv. and xxv.) from the outset, and reproduces the inscription asserting that the organ was built in 1361 by the priest Nicolas Fabri and was renovated in 1495 by Gregorius Kleng. The keyboard of this organ has the arrangement of the present day with raised black notes; it is not improbable that Praetorius's statement was correct, for Germany and the Netherlands led the van in organ-building during the middle ages. At the beginning of the 16th century, to facilitate the playing of contrapuntal music having a drone bass or _point d'orgue_, the arrangement of the pipes of organs and of the strings of spinets and harpsichords was altered, with the result that the lowest octave of the keyboard was made in what is known as short measure, or mi, ré, ut, i.e. a diatonic with B flat included, but grouped in the space of a sixth instead of appearing as a full octave. In order to carry out this device, the note below F was C, instead of E, the missing D and E and the B flat being substituted for the three sharps of F, G and A, and appearing as black notes, thus:-- D E B[flat] C F G A B C, or if the lowest note appeared to be B, it sounded as G and the arrangement was as follows:-- A B G C D E F G. This was the most common scheme for the short octave during the 16th and 17th centuries, although others are occasionally found. Praetorius also gives examples in which the black notes of the short octave were divided into two halves, or separate keys, the forward half for the drone note, the back half for the chromatic semitone, thus:-- F[sharp] G[sharp] | | D E B[flat] C F G A B C This arrangement, which accomplishes its object without sacrifice, was to be found early in the 17th century in the organs of the monasteries of Riddageshausen and of Bayreuth in Vogtland. See A. J. Hipkins, _History of the Pianoforte_ (London, 1896), and the older works of Girolamo Diruta (1597), Praetorius (1618), and Mersenne (1636). (K. S.) FOOTNOTES: [1] See _Musurgia_, bk. II., iv. § 3. [2] _Thes. Antiq. Sacra._ (Venice, 1744-1769), xxxii. 477. [3] II. 3 and fol. 10, 2. _'Arakhin_ ("Valuations") is a treatise in the Babylonian Talmud. The word _Magrephah_ occurs in the _Mishna_, the description of the instrument in the _gemara_. [4] See the Cividale Prayer Book of St Elizabeth in Arthur Haseloff's _Eine Sächs.-thüring. Malerschule_, pl. 26, No. 57, also Bible of St Etienne Harding at Dijon (see ORGAN: _History_). [5] See the original Greek with translation by Charles Maclean in "The Principle of the Hydraulic Organ," _Intern. Musikges._ vi. 2, 219-220 (Leipzig 1905). [6] See Clément Loret's account in _Revue archéologique_, pp. 76-102 (Paris, 1890). [7] _Early Hist. of Spanish Music_ (London, 1807). [8] Reproduced by Dr Alwin Schulz in _Deutsches Leben im XIV. u. XV. Jhdt._, figs. 522 seq. (Vienna, 1892). [9] "De diversis monocordis, pentacordis, etc., ex quibus diversa formantur instrumenta musica," reproduced by Edm. van der Straeten in _Hist. de la musique aux Pays-Bas_, i. 278. KEYSTONE, the central voussoir of an arch (q.v.). The Etruscans and the Romans emphasized its importance by decorating it with figures and busts, and, in their triumphal arches, projected it forward and utilized it as an additional support to the architrave above. Throughout the Italian period it forms an important element in the design, and serves to connect the arch with the horizontal mouldings running above it. In Gothic architecture there is no keystone, but the junction of pointed ribs at their summit is sometimes decorated with a boss to mask the intersection. KEY WEST (from the Spanish _Cayo Hueso_, "Bone Reef"), a city, port of entry, and the county-seat of Monroe county, Florida, U.S.A., situated on a small coral island (4½ m. long and about 1 m. wide) of the same name, 60 m. S. W. of Cape Sable, the most southerly point of the mainland. It is connected by lines of steamers with Miami and Port Tampa, with Galveston, Texas, with Mobile, Alabama, with Philadelphia and New York City, and with West Indian ports, and by regular schooner lines with New York City, the Bahamas, British Honduras, &c. There is now an extension of the Florida East Coast railway from Miami to Key West (155 m.). Pop. (1880), 9890; (1890), 18,080; (1900), 17,114, of whom 7266 were foreign-born and 5562 were negroes; (1910 census), 19,945. The island is notable for its tropical vegetation and climate. The jasmine, almond, banana, cork and coco-nut palm are among the trees. The oleander grows here to be a tree, and there is a banyan tree, said to be the only one growing out of doors in the United States. There are many species of plants in Key West not found elsewhere in North America. The mean annual temperature is 76° F., and the mean of the hottest months is 82.2° F.; that of the coldest months is 69° F.; thus the mean range of temperature is only 13°. The precipitation is 35 in.; most of the rain falls in the "rainy season" from May to November, and is preserved in cisterns by the inhabitants as the only supply of drinking water. The number of cloudy days per annum averages 60. The city occupies the highest portion of the island. The harbour accommodates vessels drawing 27 ft.; vessels of 27-30 ft. draft can enter by either the "Main Ship" channel or the south-west channel; the south-east channel admits vessels of 25 ft. draft or less; and four other channels may be used by vessels of 15-19 ft. draft. The harbour is defended by Fort Taylor, built on the island of Key West in 1846, and greatly improved and modernized after the Spanish-American War of 1898. Among the buildings are the United States custom house, the city hall, a convent, and a public library. In 1869 the insignificant population of Key West was greatly increased by Cubans who left their native island after an attempt at revolution; they engaged in the manufacture of tobacco, and Key West cigars were soon widely known. Towards the close of the 19th century this industry suffered from labour troubles, from the competition of Tampa, Florida, and from the commercial improvement of Havana, Cuba; but soon after 1900 the tobacco business of Key West began to recover. Immigrants from the Bahama Islands form another important element in the population. They are known as "Conchs," and engage in sponge fishing. In 1905 the value of factory products was $4,254,024 (an increase of 37.7% over the value in 1900); the exports in 1907 were valued at $852,457; the imports were valued at $994,472, the excess over the exports being due to the fact that the food supply of the city is derived from other Florida ports and from the West Indies. According to tradition the native Indian tribes of Key West, after being almost annihilated by the Caloosas, fled to Cuba. There are relics of early European occupation of the island which suggest that it was once the resort of pirates. The city was settled about 1822. The Seminole War and the war of the United States with Mexico gave it some military importance. In 1861 Confederate forces attempted to seize Fort Taylor, but they were successfully resisted by General William H. French. KHABAROVSK (known as KHABAROVKA until 1895), a town of Asiatic Russia, capital of the Amur region and of the Maritime Province. Pop. (1897), 14,932. It was founded in 1858 and is situated on a high cliff on the right bank of the Amur, at its confluence with the Usuri, in 48° 28´ N. and 135° 6´ E. It is connected by rail with Vladivostok (480 m.), and is an important entrepôt for goods coming down the Usuri and its tributary the Sungacha, as well as a centre of trade, especially in sables. The town is built of wood, and has a large cathedral, a monument (1891) to Count Muraviev-Amurskiy, a cadet corps (new building 1904), a branch of the Russian Geographical Society, with museum, and a technical railway school. KHAIRAGARH, a feudatory state in the Central Provinces, India. Area, 931 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 137,554, showing a decrease of 24% in the decade due to the effects of famine; estimated revenue, £20,000; tribute £4600. The chief, who is descended from the old Gond royal family, received the title of raja as an hereditary distinction in 1898. The state includes a fertile plain, yielding rice and cotton. Its prosperity has been promoted by the Bengal-Nagpur railway, which has a station at Dongargarh, the largest town (pop. 5856), connected by road with Khairagarh town, the residence of the raja. KHAIREDDIN (_Khair-ed-Din_ = "Joy of Religion") (d. 1890), Turkish statesman, was of Circassian race, but nothing is known about his birth and parentage. In early boyhood he was in the hands of a Tunisian slave-dealer, by whom he was sold to Hamuda Pasha, then bey of Tunis, who gave him his freedom and a French education. When Khaireddin left school the bey made him steward of his estates, and from this position he rose to be minister of finance. When the prime minister, Mahmud ben Ayad, absconded to France with the treasure-chest of the beylic, Hamuda despatched Khaireddin to obtain the extradition of the fugitive. The mission failed; but the six years it occupied enabled Khaireddin to make himself widely known in France, to become acquainted with French political ideas and administrative methods, and, on his return to Tunisia, to render himself more than ever useful to his government. Hamuda died while Khaireddin was in France, but he was highly appreciated by the three beys--Ahmet (1837), Mohammed (1855), and Sadok (1859)--who in turn followed Hamuda, and to his influence was due the sequence of liberal measures which distinguished their successive reigns. Khaireddin also secured for the reigning family the confirmation from the sultan of Turkey of their right of succession to the beylic. But although Khaireddin's protracted residence in France had imbued him with liberal ideas, it had not made him a French partisan, and he strenuously opposed the French scheme of establishing a protectorate over Tunisia upon which France embarked in the early 'seventies. This rendered him obnoxious to Sadok's prime minister--an apostate Jew named Mustapha ben Ismael--who succeeded in completely undermining the bey's confidence in him. His position thus became untenable in Tunisia, and shortly after the accession of Abdul Hamid he acquainted the sultan with his desire to enter the Turkish service. In 1877 the sultan bade him come to Constantinople, and on his arrival gave him a seat on the Reform Commission then sitting at Tophane. Early in 1879 the sultan appointed him grand vizier, and shortly afterwards he prepared a scheme of constitutional government, but Abdul Hamid refused to have anything to do with it. Thereupon Khaireddin resigned office, on the 28th of July