CHAPTER XIII

AIDS AND ATTRACTIONS TO TRAFFIC AND TRAVEL It is a well-recognized fact that pleasure riding constitutes by far the greater part of automobile riding. With ten million pleasure cars and two million trucks that is obvious, notwithstanding every pleasure car is used more or less for business. Assuming that the pleasure cars average 3000 miles per year each, a conservative estimate, and that two-thirds of this is purely for pleasure,[222] and that the average number of passengers is 2¹⁄₂, there results the almost inconceivable number of fifty billion passenger miles. If one person did all that traveling he would have to circle the earth two million times, or about one circuit every quarter of a minute. Each of the hundred million people in the United States, therefore, joy rides annually to the extent of 500 miles, at an expense of about $50, one-fourth of which is for gasoline and oil. Or, stating it another way the expense of this pleasure, recreation, outing, release from business cares, is about $1 per week per person.[223] This hardly seems to be too much for the returns received, but if it is it cannot be helped. The automobile is here. It is here to stay. It is going to be used more and more. And economy is not the most stimulating element toward its use. Like the telephone, it is rapidly being emancipated from the luxury class and is establishing itself among the necessaries. This being true, the road must not only be made usable in an economic sense but must also cater to the comfort and pleasure of the user. “Make business a pleasure and pleasure is business.” This means new developments not only in the road construction, surfacing, maintenance, but in the many other things that always follow improvements. The road was made smooth and hard and level because larger loads at less expense could be hauled; they were widened and the curves flattened that there might be more speed, thus cutting down the cost of transportation. All these things came along as a matter of economy, but at the same time they brought increased safety and much pleasure to the traveler. Now the beautification of the highway, discussed in the last chapter, while primarily for pleasure, has been found to increase the use of the road and bring money in new ways to the pockets of many. The beautiful and the scenic are truly economic assets of great worth. California will realize many times over from the tourist traffic alone the cost of her wonderful roads. The famous Columbia River Highway will return to Oregon again and again its cost through tourists and other pleasure riders attracted to it as bees to sweets by the lure of its scenic vistas. Standing upon the streets of my home city it is an unusual day if I do not see license tags from a half dozen states within a few minutes, sometimes ranging from coast to coast and from the Great Lakes to the Gulf. Think what it means to a community to have all these people pass through it. If they have good roads to travel upon, few hardships and a hospitable treatment along the way, they are bound to feel kindly toward the community, speak well of it when they go home. This, unintentionally perhaps, suggests to others to travel over the same roads, and some, no doubt, will return for the purpose of taking up their abode in a community so hospitable and up to date in its activities. If there are factories that make articles for sale the traveler having seen their signs and buildings as he passes by feels a kindly interest in them ever after. The manufactories, the stores, wholesale and retail, the farms, and all others will directly or indirectly benefit from the travel and interchange of social courtesies brought about by it. The direct sale of goods and supplies, the sums spent at garages and hotels constitute a very small part of the benefits received from those who use the roads, yet it is by no means negligible, for “many mickles make a muckle.” It may be sordid to think of the money brought in by these persons, and taken out in almost equal amounts by our own travelers, but the money certainly is put into circulation and flows from those who have more to those who have less, balancing, as the rains do the rivers, the backward flow through various channels from those who have less to those who have more. If the transportation of commodities and goods from market to market over the country can be likened to the life blood of the human body, then the passage of citizens from place to place is like the lymphatic circulation repairing wastes due to ambition, greed, and ignorance. =Ranking and Parking.=--Frequently the things which will attract the motorist are those which also prevent accidents, which cause vehicles to interfere with each other as little as possible, relieve congestion, which make it easier for the stranger to find his way, as well as make it more pleasant and more comfortable for passenger and driver. All road regulations might be considered under the heading of conveniences and comforts, for they all tend to make traveling more safe and pleasant. Of arrangements of this character the first to be discussed will be ranking and parking. Ranking is defined by the “General Traffic Regulations of the Council of National Defense, U. S. A.” as “standing vehicles behind one another parallel with the curb,” and parking as “standing vehicles along side one another at an angle to curb.”[224] Notwithstanding these definitions by common usage the word “parking” is made to include any method whatsoever of “standing automobiles.” Just as the generic term “man” includes both “man” and “woman” so the term “parking” includes both “parking” and “ranking,” and the verb “park” both “park” and “rank.” Usage makes this so whether it be scientific or not. People who come to the city or have business in the city must have some place to stand their vehicles. The question of where this shall be is becoming one of great importance, as the number of vehicles is constantly increasing and the parking space does not increase correspondingly. A number of cities are making local regulations limiting the time of parking in certain localities. Such limitations seem just, for the reason that near large office buildings, for instance, all available space is appropriated by cars parked early in the day which remain there until their owners, the occupants of the offices, are ready to go home at evening. Outsiders and others wishing to park near places where they desire to do business find it impossible to do so. As a result they either walk back several blocks or make their purchase where they can find parking space. The writer has frequently done the latter when he really wanted to patronize the store near which he could not park. The stores at such places actually lose considerable trade that they are entitled to and for which they pay large rent or other overhead. Such practice may in the long run help the little store farther out and cause a corresponding decrease in property and rental prices. [Illustration: “RANKING”--STANDING VEHICLES BEHIND ONE ANOTHER PARALLEL TO THE CURB. 1 2 VEHICLES RANKED AT CURB VEHICLES RANKED IN CENTER VEHICLES RANKED NEXT TO CAR TRACKS] [Illustration: “PARKING”--STANDING VEHICLES ALONGSIDE ONE ANOTHER AT AN ANGLE TO THE CURB. VEHICLES PARKED AT CURB VEHICLES PARKED AT CENTER VEHICLES PARKED NEXT TO CAR TRACKS AFTER END] =Parking Spaces a Convenience to Motorists.=--The figures above show several methods for parking. Spaces in front of fire hydrants and certain building entrances, at crossings, and street car stops are usually marked with no-parking signs and the curb painted a distinctive color. There may be other places where general parking and unlimited time may be allowed. If these spaces happen to be paved it would be well to have the parking stalls marked, as more machines will park when this is done. Such general parking places may be alongside public parks, vacant lots, in wide streets, and elsewhere where parking will not interfere with the flow of traffic. Special and limited parking spaces, such as those set aside for buses, cabs, and trucks, or those on which the parking is limited as to time should be marked by the city with a standard sign. [Illustration: Space required for backing out.] The angle of parking depends upon the width of street and other local conditions. On narrow streets it may have to be zero degrees, that is, ranking; on others 30°, 45°, 60° or 90°. Since it is best to have machines head in, the 90° angle is difficult unless there is ample turning space. Likewise in backing out the same difficulty occurs. The following widths are suggested[225] for parking spaces if in the middle of the street, and parking is at an angle of: 90°, the space should be at least 15 feet wide 45°, 15 37¹⁄₂°, 14 30°, 13 When the parking space is next to the curb the widths can be reduced 1 foot each. For any angle of stalls between 90° and 45° the parking space width must be greater than 15 feet; for 60° about 16 feet. There are streets where this could be allowed and more machines accommodated than at 45°. Ranking spaces should be marked off 9 feet wide. Some cities have special rules that ranked cars shall stand 6 feet apart to allow any one to get out. The stalls, whether the parking is to be on one side, both sides, or in the middle, should be slanted toward the approach of traffic. [Illustration: Rotary scheme for traffic around a danger zone where streets meet at right angles.] There is an advantage to parking in the center of the street in that other vehicles may drive up to the sidewalk for loading or unloading passengers. It is objected to, however, on the theory that more space is required for mid-street parking. Where possible parking spaces should be paved with hard surfaces, like concrete or brick. Vehicles parked upon asphalt for a considerable time sink in, and as there is no ironing out by traffic of these depressions the pavement soon becomes rough, retains rain and sprinkling water and rots. An asphalt strip for driving and a concrete strip for parking is ideal, for this separates distinctly by color the two spaces. On fairgrounds and picnic grounds where many cars are to be taken care of two rows of parked cars are headed together, then a lane and two more rows, another, lane, etc. Parking should usually be at 90° to the lane. =One Way and Rotary Traffic.=--In the crowded cities it has been found necessary to confine traffic to one direction in some of the streets. All streets not wide enough for two vehicles must of course have one-way traffic. Streets a little wider may wish to park or rank cars along one side and have one-way traffic on the other. With parallel streets near together, wide streets even, may be used advantageously as one-way streets with two or more lines of vehicles. For the convenience of the public clear and distinct signs should be placed at every entrance to a one-way street. Of these more will be said further on. At intersections there are two methods of procedure: The block and the rotary. The block requires a traffic officer who stops for a short time the traffic in one direction to allow the other to pass, then in the other. Even the short spaces of time between his whistle blasts are productive of much congestion. To alleviate this condition a movement about the center of the intersection in one direction has been devised. On the intersection of streets where there are small parks, monuments or safety zones the rotary method is most successful. The movement around is such as to leave the center of the intersection, the park or monument, on the left, thus avoiding all left-hand turns. In establishing one-way streets attempts are usually made to avoid left-hand turns whenever possible. The figures on pp. 424 and 426 show sketch plans for rotary service. When there are street-car tracks or other local obstructions slight changes may have to be made. Note only two full passing places for vehicles, _A_, and as only a part of the traffic will want to cross congestion and danger are largely eliminated. There may be one, two, or more lines of traffic at _B_; depending on the width of the street. This scheme, according to Eno, is so practical that after it was put into use in New York in 1908, it was adopted the same year at Boston, by Paris in 1909, by Buenos Aires in 1910, and now is in use in many cities throughout the world. [Illustration: Rotary scheme for traffic around a danger zone where streets meet at an acute angle. Right angle passing at _A_. One, two or more lines of traffic depending on width of street at _B_.] =Taking Care of Opera House Traffic.=--Special arrangement must be made in large cities in front of opera houses and other places where there are large gatherings.[226] A most difficult problem occurs in New York city between 38th and 41st streets, where several large theaters, opera houses, and halls are located. Mr. Eno suggests that a numbered check be given to the owner of each vehicle with a duplicate to the driver on which are printed directions for lining up to be followed by the driver. As each vehicle comes along the line the number is flashed on a board continuously. Or, a roller blackboard could be used and as each number is rolled out of sight at the top a new number is written in at the bottom. As there might be several lines, at least one for each entrance, there would be several boards and the owner’s ticket would direct which one he is to watch. =Public Garages.=--As it was found necessary to go up into the air in large cities to accommodate the demands for room for offices, stores, and other businesses, so now some cities are preparing to build public garages of the sky-scraper type for its automobiles. If press items are correct Chicago is about to make a trial of the sky-scraping garage near the heart of the retail district for the accommodation of automobilists who wish to drive to business, leaving the streets where they now park their cars free for transient motor cars. There is nothing particularly new in a sky-scraper garage. They have been used for private and for hire purposes for some time. The novelty lies in a municipality considering itself obligated to furnish parking places for automobiles. But why not? The public provides, now, roads for them to travel upon, and parking places upon the ground level. If extension to this space is made by piling one parking place on top of another instead of one beside another, what is the difference? It is presumed that a nominal fee would be charged and that outside parking places would be limited in time of occupation by any particular car. The distinguishing feature of several-story garages is the manner in which the cars are taken to the upper floors--whether by elevator propelled from some outside source or whether they are driven up inclined planes by their own power. The press notice regarding the Chicago scheme indicates the car will be driven up to its stall in any one of the ten stories, and when ready to go home the driver will ascend to his car and drive it down the exit ramp and go on his way. It will be an interesting experiment. If it succeeds central garages will be built in even the smaller cities. The elevator garages are quite common. The car is driven onto an elevator large enough to handle it and taken to any story desired, then driven off to its stall. A reverse operation brings it back down. The elevator will probably be run by electric power. The present cost of installing a bus elevator[227] is practically as follows: First cost, $7500; repairs and depreciation, per annum, $500; cost of current, $750; interest on investment at 6 per cent, $450; assuming one operator, salary $1200. Total yearly charge $2900. These figures are claimed to be very conservative, as some run as high as $5000. The possibility of a break of the moving machinery tying up the rolling stock will make a second elevator imperative, the annual charges would be, assuming no extra man to be required, $1700; making altogether an annual charge for elevators of $4600, and the total cost of the installment, $15,000. On the other hand it is claimed that when the ramps are constructed with the building the extra cost is slight, being little more than that of the floors which would be necessary to cover their spaces were they not put in. After being put in they are claimed to be superior because there are no moving parts to break down, there is no maintenance expense, no salaried operators, and they provide quicker service, as several machines may be run up or down in the same time it would take to transport one on an elevator. The ramps are said to take up more space than the elevators, but the claim is made that by dividing the garage into two parts and having the floors in one part come approximately half way between those in the other part, much shorter ramps may be used, and the space taken up is not so very much greater than would be required for elevators. The ramps are made about 16 feet wide, and the grade approximately 15 per cent. =Terminal Stations.=--For the purpose of accommodating patrons bus and express terminal stations are being installed. So far these have been established and financed by private companies. Where several bus lines or express lines radiate from a city a union depot may be expected not only to pay, but greatly to convenience the public. Small hotels and out-of-the-way places are ordinarily used when there is no central station. It is difficult to keep these in mind, and as they use the telephones of the hotels, restaurants, shops, etc., that they occupy for headquarters it is difficult for everybody to remember where they are located and find them when needed. Coöperation between the hotel employees and the bus lines for the giving of patrons information relative to schedules, fares, rates, etc., is not always satisfactory. The organization of a stock company with bus lines, express lines, and merchants as stockholders for the purpose of building and operating a terminal depot may be formed. It will be necessary that the merchants be brought to see the financial returns that will come to them from the passengers which will be brought to the city every forenoon, allowed time to shop and return home in the afternoon; and that the number of passengers will be increased if convenient and accommodating terminal facilities are at hand. Experience at Omaha shows that a large percentage, 85, of the passengers carried by the buses are residents along the routes and not commercial travelers, and are therefore potential customers. Many of these people when making their purchases ask that the purchased articles be delivered to the central depot in time to meet a particular bus. The purchaser is given a check upon the surrender of which he receives his package at the depot. Of course the more central the location of the depot may be the better the accommodation to the passengers. On the other hand the rent of the station may and probably will increase as it is brought nearer to the center of the retail district. Anyway it should be within walking distance of the principal retail stores. The main costs of such a station will be rent, light, heat, water, taxes, insurance, upkeep, and the personal service of an agent and janitor. At Omaha seven bus lines and eighteen merchants entered into an arrangement whereby the merchants were to guarantee the rent while the bus operators were to furnish, maintain, and operate the terminal. The rent was $200 per month. For current expenses each member pays $2 a month dues and a service charge of $15 a month in advance for each scheduled in-and-out daily trip. Thus the Omaha-Weeping Water line with one in-and-out bus would pay about 50 cents a day; Omaha-Lincoln line with two buses each way, $1 a day; and the Omaha-Fremont line with four buses in-and-out every day, $2. A small additional income is received from a cigar, candy, and miscellaneous sales concession, it being 12¹⁄₂ per cent of the gross sales less $7 a week which the association pays toward the salary of the clerk who acts as their information and ticket agent. A limited free checking service is maintained for the accommodation of passengers and shoppers. A colored porter presides over a shoe-shine stand and calls the departure of buses and assists the passengers with their baggage. He also serves as janitor. Special courtesy to patrons is maintained as a means of increasing business. The depot has 36x80 feet space and is divided into a general waiting room and office, a ladies’ rest-room, a smoking room, and space for baggage. Here is a joint terminal for a few bus lines running out of one of the smaller large cities of the country into an agricultural community with unpaved but excellent earth roads. The operators feel that even though small it has proven its worth, as they have a definite business center where patrons can get information about schedules and buses and find comfort while waiting. It also makes for an _esprit de corps_ among the several bus companies which very frequently loan buses to each other in cases of emergency. The compensation in such cases is 15 cents per mile if the borrower furnishes gasoline, oil and driver, or 22 cents a mile if these are furnished by the owner. In case one line does any work for another the basis of pay is cost plus 10 per cent. It is considered that the bus lines are themselves a convenience to the public as their schedules and routes are planned to give service where the railroads do not. For example, a resident of Wahoo wishing to go to Omaha by train leaves at 11:15 A.M., there being only one train a day, arrives at Omaha at 1:15 P.M.; but must wait until the next day to return, as the only train leaves Omaha at 12:41 P.M.; arriving at Wahoo at 2:31 P.M. The citizen has, therefore, spent practically two days to make the trip. By bus he can make the round trip the same day--leave Wahoo 9:10 A.M.; arrive Omaha 11:30 A.M.; leave Omaha 2:00 P.M. and arrive back home at 4:20 P.M.; or he can have still more time in the city by leaving at 5:10 and arriving home at 7:30 P.M. A number of instances like the above could be cited. On the contrary one of the bus lines runs between Omaha and Lincoln, passing through the same towns that are already well served by several trains per day. The time of making the trip from Omaha to Lincoln by bus is about one hour longer than by train. There seems little use for such a bus line except to pick up passengers between train stations. Much more elaborate terminal stations have been established in other cities, for example Indianapolis, Indiana, and Portland, Oregon. A Minneapolis terminal to accommodate 100 buses a day has been opened and the company expects ultimately to spend $100,000 to create an adequate terminal. At Poughkeepsie, New York, a city of 40,000 people, the Chamber of Commerce learning that an ordinance had been introduced in the Common Council prohibiting the parking of motor buses on the streets, evolved the idea of a central waiting room for the convenience of all passengers from the rural districts, the establishment of a definite bus schedule and the installation of a checking department.[228] After a year’s operation the merchants were extremely well pleased with results. The bus drivers were invited to use the accommodations provided at the entire expense of the merchants, of a little less than $1500 a year. Rental is at the rate of $50 and janitor service $12 a month. The room is steam heated and made as comfortable and cozy as possible, so that women and children find it a pleasure to wait there. From 150 to 300 persons use the bus terminal daily. The bus drivers have formed an association and taken over the care of the building, as they believe this one of the best things ever put forward for the development of their own business. As an example of how it works this is given: A lady in Red Hook desires one of the Poughkeepsie merchants to send her certain goods, she simply telephones her order to the Poughkeepsie merchant, who then consults his time table regarding buses operating in that direction. He next selects the merchandise; makes up his package and his boy takes it to the motor bus terminal, where the attendant in charge receipts for the package. This bundle is then put by the attendant in the proper bin and the right driver takes it just previous to leaving the station. The driver delivers the package the same as the parcel post man would, with promptness and dispatch. No charge is made by the attendant for taking the package but a charge of 10 to 50 cents is put on the parcel by the bus driver, which he collects from the recipient of the package, or it is prepaid as the merchant prefers. It is said there has been no loss by theft. The drivers each carry a key to the Bus Terminal Station which is opened by the first driver to arrive about 6:30 A.M. and closed by the last to leave about 11:00 o’clock at night. This is not a freight-trucking depot, only packages being handled. From the customers which the buses have brought it is estimated the trade in the first year was over a half million dollars, a large part of which is partly traceable to the courtesy and convenience rendered to out-of-town patrons by the establishment of the depot. =Gas, Air, and Water Stations.=--Another business of great importance that has followed the increased use of motor cars is that of the sale of gasoline and oil. Of course there are the large manufacturing and wholesale companies; of those it is not the intention here to speak, but of the retailer who is endeavoring to accommodate the motoring public. There is no city of any size now but what is supplied with one or more filling stations. Much money is being spent on the stations to make them convenient and attractive to the motorist. The modern filling station consists of the necessary storage tanks, usually placed under ground, for gasoline and oil, and the pumps for measuring and forcing the “gas” into the tank of the motor, with other pumps or facilities for care of oil. Then there is the building containing an office, a storeroom for oil and supplies, rest and toilet rooms for women, and possibly also for men. There is usually a marquise extending out over the place where automobiles stop for filling, to keep off rain and sun from the pumps and also from driver or passenger in case he or they desire to get out of the car for any purpose. Water and air are available at these stations and are looked after by attendants if desired. There are also pits where crank cases may be rapidly drained and refilled. While these accommodations are for the purpose of attracting trade, the very fact that they do, shows them to be real conveniences. Of course, there are also those things which the automobile dealer calls “service.” That is places where may be purchased and repaired broken parts, where batteries may be filled with distilled water, and so on. Usually water, either fresh or distilled, is free, but in some places in the “deserts” out West it has to be hauled miles and a cost charge is made. =Named and Numbered Roads.=--For a number of years road enthusiasts, automobile clubs, and chambers of commerce have been selecting and marking main lines of road across the country or through their particular cities. Some of these roads such as the Lincoln Highway, the Santa Fé and the Yellowstone Trails extend across the continent from coast to coast; or north to south as the Dixie, the Jefferson, and the Jackson Highway. There are very many of these volunteer organizations; they attempt to secure the improvement of highways, ranging in length from transcontinental routes to short county lines, by bringing influence to bear on road officials and creating in the minds of the public generally an interest for better roads. Some states like Iowa and Nebraska passed laws enabling an association promoting any route to register it together with the marker that is to be used, providing penalties for injuring or defacing any sign board, and making it unlawful for others to use the name or marker design on any other road. It is said over a hundred routes were marked in Iowa, fifty in Illinois, and other states somewhat proportionately. Opposition has been offered on the theory that it is the State’s business to mark and maintain signs along roads. It has been suggested that since the General Government has selected a system of national roads and since these must be by law continuous, that they be numbered continuously by the same number. For example the transcontinental road farthest north should be numbered 1, the next continental road, 3, the next, 5, and so on. That the roads running north and south beginning on the east be numbered with even numbers. Several of the New England states have already agreed to a common number or name for roads running through them. The point is that when a road has been marked a tourist may travel clear across the continent on the same number and would not have to look up a new number or name when he crossed a state line. Also when once made public a map of the roads would be good next year or the year after, and the traveler need not fear its having been changed. It might be possible that places would be located by certain roads as they were once by rivers. In the practical work of drafting, numbers are more easily placed on the map than are names. [Illustration: Fig. 2.--“Road Closed” Sign as Furnished by Department. The Engineer in Charge Inserts Routing of Detour and Mileage in the Space Under the Words “Follow Marked Detour.” ROAD CLOSED BY ORDER OF-- CLIFFORD OLDER, CHIEF HIGHWAY ENGINEER VIOLATORS SUBJECT TO ARREST PENALTY: FINE, IMPRISONMENT OR BOTH OPEN ONLY TO RESIDENT AND CONTRACTOR’S TRAFFIC FOLLOW MARKED DETOUR Engineer in Charge Will Indicate Exact Routing of Detour Giving Mileage and Direction Fig. 1. Standard Warning Sign for Barricades. SLOW BARRICADE -- 400FT Fig. 3.--Standard Detour Sign as Furnished by Department. The Engineer in Charge Prints on the Sign the Route Number, Name of Trail, its Emblem if the Road has a Name and Emblem, the Next Town and County Seat or Main City On the Road. DETOUR FOR ROUTE Fig. 4.--Map Showing Position of Barricade and Detour Signs. WARNING AND DIRECTION SIGNS USED IN THE STATE OF ILLINOIS] =Marks, Signs and Guides.=--Whether or not the Government will take over the numbering of through roads the states and volunteer associations will no doubt continue marking. The marks are very comforting to a person traveling on an unknown road, and few there are who do not at sometime travel unknown paths. Not only does it keep him going along the right way but signs giving mileage to the next town are always watched for anxiously. One of the most common and most effective methods of marking a road is to paint a band of distinguishing color around the telephone poles along the way. In addition to the color band a letter or insignia may be used. The Lincoln Highway uses a red strip at the top and bottom of the white band and a blue L. The Detroit, Lincoln, Denver route uses black strips at the top and bottom of the white band and black monogram made up of the letters D. L. D. The state of Nebraska erects markers showing the number of the road in its state system and the number of the mile on the road. This is partly for the convenience of travelers and partly to assist in systematic filing of records in the office. In case it is necessary to make a special report the patrolman can give the location almost exactly, for example, “Road 14, mile 32, north quarter, washout,” or more simply, “14, 32, N Q, washout.” This is very definite. The state of Wisconsin uses a triangle as an insignia in which is placed the legend “State Trunk Highway,” the number of the highway and the abbreviation Wis. Several of the states have adopted the method of setting quite large signs alongside the roadway and forbid the placing of advertising signs, even though they give road information, or signs by local volunteer associations. This would seem to be going a little too far for volunteer associations have done much for better road construction in this country as well as to give publicity to the advantages of traveling over the particular road in which they are interested. The influences which they have been able to bring upon local road officers by various means has had a wonderful effect in keeping in good condition the marked road and by emulation other roads joining with it. The most of these associations have contented themselves with marking a route from one terminal to another. They have not asked for a special kind of surfacing. They have aided by advice and perhaps occasionally assisted to put in a sample mile of good road. For example the Lincoln Highway is at the present time interesting itself in financing and constructing an “ideal section” of road in Indiana. (See Chapter XII, p. 413.) On the whole it is the belief of the writer that the good done by these associations inures to the great benefit of the general public and until a comprehensive plan can be agreed upon by all the states they should be allowed to continue their work. =Distance and Direction Signs.=--Direction signs are such as point out the direction which a traveler must take to keep on a particular route. Distance signs also give information as to distances from the sign to particular places. These two classes are often combined. In addition to these there are warning and detour signs which may also be direction signs. Mile posts are not new. It was the custom to plant them along the old Roman roads. It has already been mentioned that board markers are frequently placed along the state numbered highways. It would be better to have well-designed cut stones or concrete posts set at even miles, and, perhaps, also at ¹⁄₂ or ¹⁄₄ mile points as well. The post should bear the number or insignia of the highway and the mile number, measured from some particular terminal. Wisconsin uses a triangle as an insignia; other states use an outline map of the state, which is usually not so simple and requires larger sign boards and hence greater expense, and is not so symmetrical and neat looking. The abbreviation of the state name is sufficient. This is to be placed on the side facing the road. It has been suggested that on the side toward the approaching traveler may be placed the name of the next village, town or city in that direction with the distance in miles. On the other side visible after passing would appear the name of the last village passed. The only difficulty with this scheme would be the size of the post required. To get the name on in readable letters would require a post 16 to 24 inches square. So large a post would run the cost up materially. A hollow circular post with a cap cast on its top could be made of cement. Iron signs have been successfully used. The Automobile Club of Minneapolis used a malleable cast-iron form 30 inches long, ⁵⁄₈ inch thick, and 3 inches wide. The letters are 2 inches high and the letters and a half-inch border are raised about ¹⁄₈ of an inch. The sign is bolted to a 2¹⁄₂ inch galvanized-iron pipe set in concrete. The sign is galvanized, the background painted white and the raised border and letters finished in black. The cost was approximately $7 per sign. Steel signs with letters spot welded to them are on the market. Concrete posts with board signs are common and if occasionally repainted make a durable comparatively cheap sign. One of the chief objections to the advertising signs placed along some highways is that the information relative to the highway occupies a very small portion of the space and is not easily read while the advertisement stands out very prominently. If the road authorities put the signs up at public expense they could be much smaller and would desecrate the landscape correspondingly less. =Uniformity of Signs.=--It would be well if simple standards could be adopted for the entire United States, or at least for each state, and that all signs be set with uniformity. If placed consistently at the same distance and height from the roadway the eye of the traveler will naturally seek them and they will be more easily read. Evans and Batchelder[229] recommend that double-distance board signs be 36 inches long by 17 inches deep when they carry three rows of names and a fourth row for the authority responsible for the sign. If the fourth row is not on the sign 15 inches deep will be sufficient. They recommend that the size of the plain block letters be graduated according to the importance of the places mentioned. The top line for the most important places 4-inch letters; the second row, less important, 3-inch letters, and the third, least important, 2-inch letters. Single direction signs to be 20 inches long and the same depth. All signs on posts are recommended to be placed an average height of 6 feet above the roadway, on houses 9 feet. If the double direction names are placed below each other the board will not need to be so long. [Illustration: A New Jersey distance and direction sign.] =Letters and Colors.=--The letters should be clear and distinct; the style known as block letter is good. The colors should be highly contrasting. Black and white is as good as any; however, Eno[230] thinks that black with yellow and red with white are the best combinations; yellow on black being better than black on yellow. Eno would classify signs as: Primary, those for warning and directing moving vehicles, vivid yellow letters, arrows or graphics, on a black background. Secondary, those for stationary vehicles, designating public parking spaces, cabstands, car and bus stops, etc., black on yellow background. Tertiary, those for the control of pedestrians, designating crosswalks, safety zones, etc., red on white background. =Warning Signs.=--The name indicates their purpose, that they are intended to warn against danger or to indicate that extra precautionary measures should be exercised. They give notice of sharp turns, bad bridges and culverts, railroad crossings, cross-roads, and so on. Frequently the word “danger” is printed followed by a descriptive word indicating the kind of danger; for example, “Danger--sharp curve,” “Danger--bad bridge,” “Danger--railroad crossing.” Or there are used such words as “Slow” or more simply “Slo,” with a graphic or descriptive word following, as, “Slow--school,” “Slo--drawbridge.” The International Road Congress suggested a standard graphical sign, 24 by 16 inches, with white symbols on a black background. Some American roads use a modification of these, p. 440. =Map Signs.=--There seems to be a tendency toward map signs and the necessary large boards which they entail. It is the opinion of the writer that it would be better except for exceptional places to keep to as small a marker as can be seen readily. The sizes recommended by the International Road Congress are plenty large enough and probably could be decreased without impairing their utility. An ordinary sign is itself an unsightly thing, and after the campaigns that have been made against the advertising bill boards it seems hardly consistent for the state to put up almost equally unsightly disfigurements of the landscape. In Maryland the direction signs between towns are 30 inches wide by 20 inches high and display in white letters on a black background the name of the road, the distance to and from important points, and all principal connections. Evidently “the wayfaring men though fools shall not err therein.” Other states are putting up similar signs. Illinois is using about the same size boards setting them for each turn in the road, each entering road, whether or not it comes in from one or both sides, each school and other places where special care should be taken. On a map attached to some of these signs is a point or star indicating the position of the sign on the road. [Illustration: CROSS ROADS TURN TO RIGHT TURN TO LEFT DANGEROUS DESCENT RAILROAD CROSSING INTERNATIONAL ROAD CONGRESS WARNING SIGNS WHITE ON BLACK BACKGROUND GO STRAIGHT AHEAD TURN TO RIGHT TURN TO LEFT STOP SIGN RAILROAD CROSSING WARNING SIGNS AS USED ON SOME AMERICAN ROADS BLACK ON WHITE BACKGROUND] In addition to direction and distance signs Maryland erects large, 10 feet square, map signs at the limits of each of the larger towns. Upon this map is delineated the main routes through the town in white and the secondary routes in gray, the names of the streets and well-established landmarks, so that a person can make a decision of the route he wishes to take and follow it without difficulty. The color scheme is white letters on black background. They are oriented to read in the direction of travel so that if the signboard were pushed over ahead on its back the road would point in the direction of travel. On the map in red is a star with the words, “You are now at this point.” On the top of mountain grades Maryland erects boards similar in size to the map boards, which state the number of miles down the mountain, indicate curves and give concise instructions how to drive down so as to avoid accident and personal injury. This is to assist inexperienced drivers and those unacquainted with the region by telling how to brake their cars by putting them into “high,” “intermediate,” and “low” at certain places, which, of course, will be very helpful, and may save an accident. Where the state roads cross from Maryland into neighboring states a large sign 15 to 25 feet is erected on which is displayed the salient features of the state motor vehicle law. No one, therefore, need be ignorant of the law and thus unpleasantly encounter the state police. The contract price of these signs range from $12 for a single face direction sign to $347.50 for a state-line motor vehicle law sign. They are kept in repair by the contractor at prices ranging from $3.50 to $20 each per year.[231] =Detour Signs.=--Perhaps nothing is more exasperating to the tourist than to come to a barricade with the word “Detour,” and then find the detour road practically impassable. In many states the contractor on a piece of construction work is obligated to care for detour roads and detour signs during the time the road is closed. Finding the obligation not well fulfilled several of the states are taking over that work in order that it might be done in a manner to satisfy the traveling public. Wisconsin[232] considers the proper marking and maintaining of detours more important than similar work of the regular trunk routes, for well-marked detours are necessary to keep enthusiasm for good road construction alive. Minnesota, North Carolina, and other states have adopted similar plans. Before a road is closed a detour is selected and marked and thus automatically becomes a part of the state trunk line system. A map sign is placed at the ends of long detours showing the road under construction, the detour, the location of railways, cities, and prominent natural features. The traveler thus gets a definite idea of the way he must go to return to the main highway. Ordinary markers are placed along the line of detour. In Connecticut and some other states a half width of the roadway is paved at a time, allowing the other half to be used while the first half is under construction. This is possible where the detour is not too long, or if there is passing room in the one-half way. Concrete is well adapted for this sort of construction. The joint down the center is a benefit rather than a detriment to this type of road surface; it acts as an expansion joint and allows a certain amount of flexibility under the warping action of heat, and furnishes a mid-line mark to keep passenger traffic in proper lanes. [Illustration: Yellow on Black. Yellow on Black. Yellow on Black. White on Blue. An improved form is given below: Yellow on Black. TRAFFIC GUIDES (From Eno’s “The Science of Highway Traffic Regulation.”)] Widening the roadway before reconstruction has begun will also furnish room for the passage of vehicles. Of course under either of these two last methods the passing vehicles are more or less of a nuisance to the constructor and if a reasonably direct detour entirely away from the work under construction can be maintained in satisfactory condition so much the better. While the traffic must be inconvenienced to some degree by detours the fact that an effort is being made by the road authorities to make the substitute as pleasant as possible will leave a “good taste in the mouth” of the traveling public which is worth while whether that traffic is local or from a distance. =Location of Detour Markers.=--The location or arrangement of detour markers in reference to the traveled way has received considerable attention. Of course the first signs are the barricade warning and at the barricade. In Illinois the State Department of Highways requires the barricade warning to be placed about 400 feet from the barricade. The map signs of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and North Carolina are used also as barricade signs. Any driver, not authorized, passing a barricade is by the laws of some states subject to arrest and fine. Detour arrows are placed at road intersections in such a manner that traffic going in either direction may follow the arrow. Illinois uses a black arrow on a white background. Iowa has somewhat similar signs except that the color scheme is a white arrow on a black background. The word “detour” is printed above and below the arrow and the one painted out that is not needed after the sign is erected. In Iowa upon primary (State) roads the district engineer, and upon county roads the county engineer, is held responsible for the following: First.--He shall determine whether or not a detour is needed. Second.--He shall coöperate with the local officials in choosing a detour. Third.--He shall provide for the proper marking of the detour. Fourth.--He shall provide for the maintenance of the detour and report such provision in the central office. =Speed Signs.=--Most cities and towns have speed limits lower than that allowed in the open country. Some of them even divide the city into zones and make a different limit for each zone. On the outer edge of these zones and the outer edge of the city are often placed signs of warning such as “Speed Limit, 15 miles per hour.” In one city was facetiously added “Go slow and see our city, go fast and see our jail.” On the backs of these signs, the side seen by the traveler as he leaves, are sometimes painted the words “You’re Welcome--Come Again.” All of which is to give the traveler a good impression and thus advertise the community. =Traffic Guides.=--Before leaving the subject perhaps something more should be said about traffic guides in the cities as most of what precedes has been written with a view to country roads, although many of these signs are applicable to city streets. Lines upon the pavement should be used to define crosswalks, parking spaces, and restricted and reserved zones. Curbstones may be painted white or yellow to indicate no parking against them. In parking spaces the stall lines are painted, as this will keep vehicles close together and more will be able to park. If they are allowed to drive in promiscuously there will often be half and three-quarter spaces which cannot be used. Painted lines should be about 4 inches wide. If well put on with good paint they will wear for a considerable period. A painted line down the center of a roadway, especially on curves, is a great convenience and safety device for passing vehicles. Eno tells us that the earliest traffic regulation signs in New York were worded “Slow moving Vehicles, Keep Near Curb.” These were followed gradually by many others. It is not necessary to place on signs the name of the department authorizing them as, “Police Department,” “Department of Streets and Alleys,” as these take up room and make the signs no more impressive. The simpler and shorter the wording the better. I have been told, I did not see it, that in Boston instead of having a sign read “One-way Traffic,” it is made to say, “Vehicles Using This Street Will Follow in the Direction of the Arrow Only.” This may be merely a slam at the Bostonese but it illustrates the point. [Illustration: Yellow on Black. Yellow on Black. Improperly worded signs. Properly worded Black on Yellow. Black on Yellow. Yellow on Black. Yellow on Black. Yellow on Black. NEW YORK CITY TRAFFIC GUIDES “In November, 1903, one hundred blue and white enameled signs, directing slow-moving vehicles to keep near the right-hand curb, were put in use in New York. These were probably the first traffic regulation signs ever used.” (From Eno’s “The Science of Highway Traffic Regulation.”)] There are several types of signs in use. Most of them are made of enameled metal and may be placed on stationary or portable standards. The stationary standards may be made of iron pipe set in cement with the sign attached to its top. The sign should be just above a tall man’s head, say 6 feet 6 inches from the walk. Portable standards are frequently used, having an elongated (nearly elliptical) iron base, sufficiently heavy to hold them upright, and a pipe extending from a hole in the center vertically about 4 feet high, to bear the sign. These signs are placed on sidewalks to designate parking and no parking places, safety zones, etc. =Dummy Cop.=--A post, column, or monument designed to stand at the intersection of streets in place of a traffic officer has been called a dummy cop. Mushrooms or cement bumps are sometimes utilized in the same manner. Bumpers are used, too, to indicate restricted and safety zones, isles of safety, etc. A dummy cop at night ought to carry a lantern or be illuminated from some outside source. =Semaphores.=--A traffic officer sometimes uses a Go-Stop sign so arranged at the top of a standard that by turning a handle he can present one or the other of these two words to the traffic. Some of them carry a light at night, and an umbrella to shade the officer during the day. They are objected to on the ground that there is no neutral position, they always say either “Go” or “Stop.” If by a change in plan they could be designed so as to show neither word when the officer was not at his post they could act as dummy cops. Crow’s-nest, or traffic tower, is a term given to a lookout or sentry box supported about 7 feet 6 inches above the street by a strong post. The crow’s-nest has a roof for shade and shelter and may carry a semaphore above it, and another lower down to attract the eye of nearby persons. As used in New York the arms have electrical control, and at night carry red lights. The semaphore is for the block system and may be made superfluous when rotary traffic methods are in vogue. Mr. Eno, who is given credit for the suggestion of the crow’s-nest, does not believe that they should be installed at every intersection, as a “continuous block system wastes too much of the traffic capacity of the street because between the time the signal is given to stop and the time the signal is given to go the vehicles (just ahead of the break) have gone ahead a long distance.... This leaves a large proportion of the street surface unoccupied by vehicles.”[233] The rotary system is advocated as one which will distribute the traffic uniformly over the whole surface of the street, and also equalize the speed of vehicles to a safe mean. Crow’s-nests may be used where there are street cars by making them high enough to clear the top of the cars. =Signal Lights and Colors.=--The railroads in all these years have not come to a common usage of colors in signaling. All roads use red for stop, danger. Some use white and some green to proceed with caution; white and green are both used for clear, proceed. Here white is the same as yellow, because lanterns using oil burn with a yellow light which railroad men call white. Electric signals may be white in reality. There now seems to be a demand for standardization and at a meeting of the American Association of State Highway Officers (1922, at Raleigh, N. C.) a color scheme was recommended that may become a standard for both motorists and railroads. One of the difficulties is that red and danger are no longer properly associated because of the common use of the red for tail lights of automobiles, for sandpiles or other street obstructions, for the tops of semaphores, and for various other purposes. The story is told that not long ago a bridge was being repaired and a red light was placed at one side. The signal was intended as a warning that the autoist slow down and proceed with caution. The driver of an approaching car took the lantern to be the tail light of an automobile. He swung to the left to clear the obstruction and plunged down an embankment. [Illustration: © _Underwood and Underwood_ TRAFFIC TOWER ON FIFTH AVENUE, NEW YORK CITY] It would be better if red should never be used as a precaution signal but only as a stop signal, but at the present time that cannot be done because automobiles now carry, and most states require it by law, a red light behind. The color once considered a sign of danger has become almost meaningless. Red lanterns are placed on roads, or at bridges, or in the street where the road is not impassable but merely hazardous and the light in reality means proceed carefully. If colors are to be signals to tell whether or not to stop on account of danger, to proceed cautiously or to go ahead without fear, they should be standardized and their proper use protected. The code of colors as recommended by the Association of State Highway Officials is: Color Green to mean proceed, the way is clear. Color Yellow to mean that caution shall be exercised. Color Red to mean stop. The Association urges abolishment of the red for automobile tail lights and the substitution of yellow (white). There are other reasons why this should be done; one of them, a white light will illuminate the number tag much better than a red light. In fact Ohio requires a red light shining out behind and a white light to illuminate the tag. On the other hand by the different colored lights one can distinguish whether one is going toward the front or back of an automobile, a thing of importance, sometimes. This may be far enough to go at the present time, but later the standardization of other signal and guide lights would be well. The red light on street obstructions should be abolished. Better a bright white light for with good illumination the danger will often disappear. =Road and Street Lighting.=--While road and street lighting are primarily for the purpose of promoting safety, they, as signs and guides, are here treated under the heading of comfort and convenience to the user. Like other things pertaining to roads, lighting has during the past few years seen wonderful development. Open-arc lights have all but passed out of use. Even in the field of incandescent lighting many improvements have and are still being made. Efforts have been made to cater to the esthetic sense and create beauty by artistic shapes and sizes of lamps and by harmonious groupings. Safety, comfort, and esthetic design cannot always be combined, then one or the other must give way. Silhouette vision, that is, where the object appears dark against a lighter background, requires a much less illumination intensity than direct or detail vision. In the first case the object is between the observer and the light while in the second case the light is reflected from the object to the observer. Then there are spot lights and flood lights where the light is thrown directly upon the object and as little as possible allowed to disperse into surrounding space. Dean Ferguson[234] has pointed out that safety lighting is secured by any illumination that will reveal clearly the presence and nature of a danger, and also that low illumination intensities used in silhouette effect may serve for safety at a greatly reduced expense. Much of street lighting is of the silhouette type, depending on the relative positions of the observer, the illuminant, and the object to be seen. As we approach a post or sand pile on the street it appears first as a black object in silhouette, as we come nearer the reflected light becomes more intense and the object is seen in detail. There seems to be a sort of twilight zone between these two conditions where the visibility is least. The silhouette vision appears to be best when the intensity of the reflected light is least, and _vice versa_ for the detail or direct vision. The indeterminate place between the two where visibility is least is, of course, where the light behind is equal in intensity to the reflected light in front. One object of the illuminating engineer is so to arrange the lights as to avoid as far as possible points of low visibility. This he does by the size and spacing of the light units, their height of suspension and the shape and setting of the reflectors. These same elements enter into the avoidance of glare. In city and street lighting it is nearly always desirable to illuminate the buildings as well as the road surface, so that the type of lamp used is entirely different from that desirable on country roads where only the surface of the roadway needs to be lighted. Ornamental lights of the luminous arc and the incandescent types are used. The former where a large amount of intense light is wanted, and the latter where smaller units will answer the purpose. The latest road lighting is, perhaps, that developed for the “Ideal Section” mentioned heretofore.[235] Here it was important to concentrate the light on the roadway instead of diffusing it upward and over the adjoining fields, to have a flexibility of arrangement that would keep the light in line with the surface of the roadway, and that the cost should be reasonable. The scheme developed contemplates placing the lighting units on adjustable brackets 35 feet above the surface of the road, spaced 250 feet, staggered. They can be set for varying grades, for curves, or for the lighting of a portion of the roadside if thought necessary. The unit consists of a nest of three reflectors, one within another, and with an opening in each one side of the lamp. These collect and reflect the light to the surface as shown in the figure. The detailed article should be consulted by those who are further interested. =City Traffic.=--Projectors suspended above a traffic officer illuminates him and his semaphore much as spot lights are used in theaters and flood lights to illuminate statuary and buildings. Many of the busy cities are installing color lenses in the towers (crow’s-nests) to regulate the traffic. The colors which are used both day and night are standardized as follows: Red, to indicate “Stop”; amber, to indicate “Change of traffic”; and green, to indicate “Go.” =Touring.=--Stand for a few minutes on any one of the transcontinental highways and note the tourists who have their bedding and baggage piled in and tied to the sides of their cars. Note the brown and healthy faces of the brown-clad travelers. Dust has no horrors to them; they expect it; they are prepared for it. Their khaki clothing cost little when purchased and wears well, and even if thrown away at the end of the journey has more than paid its way. The author of “Let me live by the side of the road and be a friend to man” could certainly enjoy himself during these mid-summer gypsying days. For one has the world brought to his own dooryard. Wait and there will come to you Maine, and California, and Texas, and Oregon, Michigan, Canada, Mexico. A man drove on my driveway a few days ago and used my hose to wash Texas soil from his fenders, and now that yellow dirt is nourishing a spirea bush in Nebraska. Come around in the evening just after the supper, not dinner, utensils have been cleared away, and from these roadside campers in the course of the summer you may hear the Vermonter drop the “r” from “qua’teh” and put it into “idear,” the Georgian with his delightful Southern drawl, a Minnesotan with high-pitched voice and Scandanavian accent, or a musically soft Spanish from the Rio Grande regions. All the world’s make of automobiles may be inspected, their good and bad features discussed. Outing outfits of all characters and descriptions from the small compact bundle scarcely big enough for a flea, to the cumbersome behemoth mountain of canvas, boxes, and poles. There is the man who believes Detroit is destined to be the largest city in the world, and the man who is certain nothing can compare with Los Angeles. Truly the man who lives beside the road may have, if he is endowed with gumption, a joyful time as the perennial reel runs on. But if such things come to the man who sits in his house beside the road and watches the race of men go by, what must be the feelings of the man of gypsying instinct as he climbs into his car, caring not for time or place, who has not painstakingly scheduled his route and must perforce make a certain hotel every night, who is no “speed lizard” but expects to take in as he journeys along all the scenic beauties and interesting features along the way. His only care is to head-about at the proper time to bring him home again at the end of his vacation. It is estimated that more than a million persons are following some such nomadic life each year in the United States. The term “motor-gypsy,” has been quite definitely applied by the people to those who tour leisurely and camp more or less as they go. A part of the people set aside six months or a year to a long tour, seeking the north, south, coast or mountain as fancy, heat and cold dictate, a greater number travel from two to four months, going one year to the Michigan forests, another to the lakes of Wisconsin and Minnesota, passing through the great granaries of the world to the cooling breezes of Colorado, ambling along the coast to Georgia and Florida, following the windings of the Mississippi to the old Creole districts of Louisiana, up the Platte or through the Black Hills, to trout fishing in Wyoming, or stopping at the borders for walking trips over the wildernesses in the Yellowstone and Glacier National parks. The entire expanse of a most wonderful nation is open to the motor-gypsy. =Camping Grounds.=--So important has this sort of travel become that it is estimated that about 3000 cities and towns over the country, beginning in the Middle West and now spread to both coasts, have public automobile camping grounds for the traveling visitors. These are provided and kept up by the cities themselves or by chambers of commerce or automobile clubs; sometimes by combinations of these organizations. The question often arises, “Does it pay?” From a financial standpoint it probably pays the community as a whole even if every individual who subscribes does not receive reimbursement. In the first place the tourist’s impression of a city is influenced by the treatment he receives. If an effort is made to furnish him with a safe and comfortable camping site and with facilities for cooking and cleaning he returns home with praises for that city. He tells other tourists that he meets on the way, he tells his neighbors after he gets home, and other and still other tourists come. On the contrary if no provision is made for the tourist, if he is not met with a glad hand he naturally warns others to keep away or plan to pass through in the daytime, spending what spare time they have farther on in more hospitable centers. Secondly, tourists always spend some money for food and supplies, for gasoline, tires, accessories, repairs, and with increasing frequency for hotels. Clothing and dry-goods stores profit to some extent. Since thousands of dollars are brought to those towns lying on the main thoroughfares having good camping facilities, and since this money will be respent by those receiving it directly, the entire community in the long run benefits by the touring traffic. Denver possibly averages 400 to 500 campers per day during the summer season. Omaha, Kansas City, Lincoln, Deadwood and all the smaller places to the Rocky Mountains entertain from 25 to 100 per day. The actual tourists are many more, for not nearly all camp along the way. The Omaha Auto Club registered cars in 1921 carrying over 40,000 tourists. Other gateways passed fully as many, and not nearly all took the trouble to look up the club office to register. During the winter season the gypsying traffic turns south and Georgia, Florida, and on west to California, benefit by it. A traffic census made simultaneously on eighteen Nebraska roads, distributed widely over the state, of vehicles passing in one week (August 20-26, 1922), showed a total of 88,958 divided as follows: ----------------------+------+------+------+------+-------------- | | | | | Percentage | |Inter-|Inter-| +---+----+----- |County|County|State |Total |Co.|I-C.|I-S. ----------------------+------+------+------+------+---+----+----- Automobile |40,598|25,595|13,560|79,753| 51| 32 | 17 Light Truck | 2,465| 886| 242| 3,593| 68| 25 | 7 Heavy Truck | 1,547| 556| 140| 2,243| 69| 25 | 6 Horse-drawn, passenger| 1,303| | | 1,303| | | Horse-drawn, freight | 2,066| | | 2,066| | | +------+------+------+------+ | | Total |47,979|27,037|13,942|88,958| | | ----------------------+------+------+------+------+---+----+----- What is especially interesting in this connection is that nearly one-sixth of all the automobiles or one automobile in six, comes from without the state, and one in three from without the county. Connecticut censuses, Connecticut being a small state between thickly populated states, shows a much higher ratio, 47 per cent without the state. All sorts of cars from the most expensive to the cheapest are found and they seem to be harmonious when on the camping ground; the Pierce-Arrow and the Rolls-Royce do not look disdainfully at the Ford and the Chevrolet, neither do the latter pretend an importance greater than their due. Democracy of cars and democracy of people ought to lead to a better understanding all around. Some very excellent and well-to-do ladies of a western city went to a hotel in one of the national parks for luncheon. They were clad in khaki trousers and blouses which had seen considerable wear. The dining room was full and they were placed at a table where some distinguished looking and well-dressed men were talking stocks and bonds. The ladies in such garb were nonplused, they were embarrassed to the limit; but the men, being also gentlemen, gave their names and became acquainted. So pleasant proved this little dinner participated in by the khaki-clothed ladies and stylishly attired men that at its conclusion they shook hands heartily and bade each other Godspeed for the remaining journey and hoped that, not like ships that pass each other in the night, they would again meet to renew an acquaintance so happily begun. Such is the democracy of touring. On the contrary an editorial writer in the _Saturday Evening Post_, November 18, 1922, expresses incredulity of the offhand opinion “that travel of any kind must rub off the sharp edges of provincialism.” He says the “American tourist in Europe has long been the subject of ridicule,” and that travel in many cases “appears to accentuate narrow-mindedness.” It is further argued that “too much travel means practical disfranchisement and a total lack of interest in local affairs.” There is no doubt but that anything, even touring, can be carried to extremes. The editorial concludes with the statement, however, that travel “can teach no lesson of more value than the knowledge that everywhere, whether the climate be hot or cold, the towns large or small, men of upstanding character are spending their lives to make those communities better places in which to live.” It must be acknowledged that the fact that only about one-half of the persons eligible to the franchise exercise the right of voting at the general elections indicates that not enough interest is taken in affairs of government. Anything which tends to decrease the interest is, therefore, bad. But moderate touring in our own country ought to give a person a wider view, a stronger love of country, and a deeper sense of the importance and benefits of citizenship therein. A majority of the cars are of the type that would cost less than $1500, because there are more cars of that type in use. One of the most elaborate caravans seen on the D. L. D. highway this summer is a Winton six, with a lengthened frame on which is built a square van-like structure, with doors and windows and a rear observation platform. The driver’s seat is completely enclosed. By its side is a door which gives entrance to the interior of the car. Its size may be judged from the fact that the wheel base is 202 inches. In the front part of the car are rattan arm chairs deeply upholstered for all the members of the party. There is an ample aisle. In the rear of the car is a kitchenette, a lavatory, storerooms, cloak rooms and many miscellaneous conveniences. At night the car is run to a convenient place by the side of the road or in a special camping place. The end of the observation platform is let down, a tent is hooked over the rear hood, and there is room in a jiffy for cots for three people. Two double beds are made up in the aisle of the main car, giving plenty of room for seven. In the morning it takes but little time to prepare breakfast in the kitchenette. The car has running water from a tank holding about thirty gallons. It is lighted by electricity and has every convenience that one can think of. This is the fourth car designed by its owner, Dr. E. J. Fithian of Grove City, Pennsylvania. It cost him a little less than $10,000. He believes it possible to plan a shorter car that will serve every purpose for a little more than $5000. The car makes from 150 to 200 miles a day over ordinary roads. It weighs 8200 pounds fully loaded with gas, water, and supplies. It is said to ride as easily as an ordinary automobile. The passengers sit in their chairs and watch the scenery glide by very much as from the window of a Pullman, but with this difference, that they are free to go and pause at will, and can see interesting sights, if they desire, off the main lines of travel. Another caravan built on a Ford car passed through Lincoln last summer. It carried Mr. and Mrs. C. B. Hays of Great Falls, Montana, who have lived in it for two years, winter and summer. Failing health induced Mr. Hays to take to the simple life, and a stroke of paralysis made it impossible for Mrs. Hays to walk. Two years’ outdoor life and roughing it have restored health to both, besides during that time they have saved much on house rent. In their caravan, the windows along the sides could be pushed out like an awning and an oil cloth curtain dropped down. On one side of the car a long cushion served as a seat during the day and by adding other cushions it made a bed at night. A large flat box did duty as a linen closet while fastened around the sides were numerous bags or pockets for taking care of articles which at home are kept in bureau drawers. In one corner was a small oil stove with a tiny oven upon which was cooked wholesome meals well relished by the outdoor wanderers. When dinner was ready, the door of the china cupboard swung down on its hinges and a table large enough for two was soon dispensing nourishment for the hungry nomads. They dine, too, in the restful atmosphere of delightful music. No, not a phonograph. From the beamed ceiling of this unique house swings a yellow canary in his gilded cage. Can you imagine any music more alluring to perfect joy and rest or more alarming to the dread monster indigestion? Even the crumbs are not wasted, for they are relished by the pug, who likes to sleep curled up on his bed on top of the fender. At the side of the car Mr. Hays has apparently solved the hand signal problem for closed cars. A stuffed glove attached to a broad arm may be raised partially for a left-hand turn, fully for a right-hand turn, straight out to stop, and dropped to the side of the car when not in use. A white enamel water cooler was an attractive accessory to the dining room. A wash-board and a small tub told the story of how wearing apparel was laundered. Mrs. Hays wants a sewing machine, and although space is very much limited she says she will find the room. Is there any wonder that health and youth return with this sort of “play” housekeeping. “Can you beat it?” =Something More Moderate.=--While there are many persons of means, the owners of expensive cars, pitching their tents in shady nooks, enjoying the sociability of glowing camp fires, and sleeping to the music of gurgling trout streams, there are also those who drive cheaper cars who are enjoying the same starry nights, the hum of bees and the flash of birds, who take the gamy trout to help out their daily rations, who stop to regale themselves with wild berries and chokecherries, who relish the chuck-chuck of the red squirrel, and the flirt of the saucy chipmunk’s tail as he scurries to a hiding place. Wealth has no monopoly on the enjoyment of nature, and most any one who is able to own a car of any kind is able to take a more or less lengthy gypsying tour. Mr. Elon Jessup[236] says “Motor camping is the only way in which many people can afford to travel at all.” He tells of meeting in Banff, Canada, a farmer, his wife and five children, who were enjoying the wondrous sights in that region, and while their car was somewhat rickety, nevertheless it had drawn them there. The farmer’s explanation was to the effect that he had wanted for years to take his family to that country but had never been able to stand the expense until he got the flivver. Then going did not cost much more than staying at home. There will be all sorts of conveyances ranging from the simple touring car with no modifications whatsoever to the elaborate caravan described. There are also on the market all sorts of special accessories. A pantograph luggage-holder clamps on the running board. Tents that cover the car at night and extend out sidewise, or endwise, to shelter cots, beds, or cooking and eating equipment. Beds that attach to the running board and fold up during the day; beds that fit on top of the seats. Sets of dishes and cooking utensils are now made to nest into each other in such a manner as to take up very little space. Mr. Jessup in “The Motor Camping Book,” already referred to, elaborates considerably on equipping the camping outfit but intimates that it is a matter for individual judgment. No two persons can agree. This is right, as it gives flexibility and zest. Summed up there are two fundamentals: Only necessities should be taken and these should be selected for compactness. But what are necessities? blankets to roll up in on the ground? or should a cot or bed be included? Would a folding table and a chair help to make one more comfortable. It is a compromise between what one would like and what one has room for. Mrs. Nina Wilcox Putnam[237] thinks that for a transcontinental trip a touring car of medium size with good under clearance to avoid hitting the high centers in some of the western roads is best. As she patronized hotels exclusively no camping equipage was necessary. For clothing for women she says that east of the Mississippi she and her husband found it practical to wear just such motor clothes as one would wear at home, but they should be “dirt-colored.” West of the Mississippi “khaki for all hands becomes positively _de rigueur_.” West of Kansas City, both men and women wear trousers. She assures ladies they can “walk into the best hotels through the Far West in the aforesaid garments without the slightest embarrassment.” A complete list of the clothing carried by Mr. and Mrs. Putnam is given in the article above referred to and those who expect to take the trip might do well to look it up. Heavy as well as light clothing will be needed when traveling through the Rocky Mountain region. The nights and mornings are always cool, but under the direct action of the sun the valleys often become extremely hot. The only rule is, carry as little as you can and still be comfortable. =Camp Sites.=--A gentleman, who with his wife and a Chevrolet coupé, the rear of which was modified into a large box about 5 feet square and 2 feet deep, who has “gypsied” across the United States several times from east to west and from north to south, says the problem of a camping ground for an average town is simple. Only a small tract is needed, and if it is properly looked after he thinks the tourists will not complain of a modest charge that will make it self sustaining. The average tourist would prefer the small charge and clean surroundings.[238] “A block is enough space, if the affair is in the hands of a competent caretaker, who will see that cars and tents are properly placed and guarded. People who tour in ordinary cars like to be close together. They are not aristocrats. They are folks. They like to visit around and talk roads, and examine outfits and discuss their plans. The best camps are divided into small plots by wooden palings on three sides. The caretaker shows you your place and it is your home for 25 cents a day. This money pays the caretaker and gives you the use of shower baths and lavatory. The best camps have city gas for cooking, bought through a slot meter. Some of them have ovens, but gas is better. The stoves are in a shed, which becomes the club house of the women. They meet there and cook and wash and complain about the reckless driving of their husbands, and tell where their married children live and have a glorious time. [Illustration: CAMPING GROUND AND CARAVAN] [Illustration: A GIPSYING TOURING CARAVAN] “The men spend their spare hours buying supplies and talking and smoking, chewing, and pitching horseshoes. They also have the best time in the world. If the auto camp is next door to a good garage so much the better. Between here and the coast the common thing is the private auto park.” Camps, in Mr. Harrison’s opinion, should not only be near a garage, for convenience and information, but also as near the business center as possible “because the tourists like to go up town to get a restaurant meal, buy soda water and postal cards, and take a squint at the movies.” As the car is usually a part of the tent and usually more or less cluttered up with baggage the camp site should preferably be in walking distance of the center of town. Too many towns have the camp sites away out where more land is obtainable, and possible natural shade. They should be near the main lines of travel and as stated the nearer a garage and grocery store the better. The time will no doubt come when garage men with business acumen will establish camping facilities, though the space be small, in connection with their garages and charge a small fee the same as they do now for stabling the car overnight. Possibly the Denver public camp ground is the most liberally patronized of any in the United States. El Paso, Texas, has a small park not more than 200 feet square that tourists claim to be the best cared for of any in the west. Olympia, Washington, is praised by tourists for her camping facilities. Only very recently has the camp idea reached the eastern coast, but the newspaper accounts indicate that it is taking hold. =Hotels.=--For those persons who do not care to camp there are always hotels. During the busy season, however, those in the larger towns which have gained a reputation with the traveling public are usually full to overflowing. Many tourists telegraph ahead, from one to two days, for accommodations. Rooms can be obtained in all the towns but not always bath in connection, or even running water. Throughout the well-settled communities meals and luncheons may be obtained at most any hour. In the sparsely settled regions lunches are put up by the hotels which can be carried in the car for the noonday refreshment, care being taken to reach the next settlement for dinner in the evening. The evening scene in a popular tourist hotel reminds one of the old wayside inns. There the tourists, usually spruced up for the evening, with the travelers’ camaraderie, are talking, smoking, and enjoying each others’ company. =Parks.=--The great National parks are being used more each year by automobile tourists. Good hotel and camping facilities are available. These parks are set aside by the Government for the preservation of marvelous natural beauty and grandeur, and the government desires that they be used to the utmost by the citizenry. Perhaps 100,000 people will visit the Yellowstone National Park this (1922) season, of which 75 per cent will come by private automobile. Naturally the larger number come from the nearby states, but last year practically all states were represented. Montana sending 2892 and Maine 1. The patronage is likely to continue and grow. Other National parks and the United States Forest Reserves will also receive their share. Several states are beginning to recognize the need for play and recreational grounds. New York has built a magnificent automobile road up the Bronx River Parkway Drive and through the Adirondacks, and the State Conservation Commission has built along these highways many stone fireplaces for the special use of motorists. Colorado is building an automobile road up Mount Evans, thus heading off private parties who wished Government permission to build a toll road. Michigan will develop tourist roads to attract the summer traveler. The field secretary of the State Good Roads Association maintains that such roads will bring an annual revenue to Michigan of $75,000,000 to $100,000,000 annually through the resort trade. Scarcely a state but has some attraction to the tourist; it would be well to make its advantages known to the public that they might be enjoyed to their fullest extent. =Information.=--The last sentence brings us to an important topic. The tourist at the present time inquires at the nearest garage or hotel for information relative to routes and condition of roads, detours, accommodations, etc. This is well, but all these people do not have at hand a knowledge of the information sought, so the traveler must pass on and trust to luck that he may get through. Chambers of Commerce and automobile clubs have endeavored to fill the want, and in the Middle West these places are sought by hundreds of people daily. Some of the large newspapers have drawn on their advantageous news-gathering facilities and publish each morning a statement of road conditions and detours. The _Minneapolis Journal_ says that when it established its bureau of travel and resort information, “the new agency was overwhelmed from the start with eager inquirers for facts and advice.” Information is the one thing that a tourist fairly yearns for, even more than for food, gas, and oil; he knows where to go to satisfy these wants. The manager of the _Journal_, Perry S. Williams, who is also vice-president of the Associated Advertising Clubs of the World, has in mind a plan for “dotting the whole countryside with little information bureaus, where the traveler can learn what’s what and feel easy in relying on what he learns. Every community under this plan is to have its own bureau and to make it easily accessible to the wanderer.” But the state of Wisconsin which has long been among the foremost in the development of new road ideas, has beaten them to it, for already the Commission conducts a department of “Highway Information Service.” A blueprint map of the state trunk highway system is furnished weekly to all subscribers. The map shows the type of road on every mile of the system, the location of all construction jobs and of all detours and the condition of the detours. The map is revised weekly. Information up to Tuesday is mapped and in the hands of subscribers by Thursday, in time to supply information for week-end motor trips. This information is sold by the state to hotels, commercial associations, automobile clubs, garages, and other places where touring information is sought. The map is 54 by 60 inches in size and mounted on a frame or bulletin board to be placed in a conspicuous place. A charge of ten dollars is made for this service for the season from June 1 to September 15. The charge barely covers the cost of blueprinting. While it may be the duty of the state to furnish the roads and do all possible to promote transportation, local bureaus will be able to supplement the State’s information in a very acceptable manner. SELECTED REFERENCES BELL, H. H., “Improved Lighting System to be Installed on the Lincoln Highway,” _Electrical World_, Vol. LXXIX, pp. 731-732. BLANCHARD, HAROLD F., “A Comparison of Ramp and Elevator Types of Garages,” _Bus Transportation_, June, 1922. BROOK, MARK, “Highway Signs,” American Highway Engineers’ Handbook, pp. 1390-1394. CAPPER, ARTHUR, “The Midwest Farm Market for Motor Trucks,” National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, New York. ENO, WILLIAM PHELPS, “Science of Highway Traffic,” Published by himself and distributed by Brentano’s, New York. EVANS, P. AND BATCHELDER, A. G., “Direction and Distance Signs,” _Engineering and Contracting_, July 30, 1913. FERGUSON, O. J., “Electric Lighting,” Chap. XXI, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Firestone Ship by Truck Bureau, Akron, Bulletin No. 7, “The Motor Truck Terminal.” HARRISON, J. L., “Color Schemes for Highway Signs,” _Engineering and Contracting_, Oct. 13, 1915, p. 280. ISABELLA, N. M., “The Wisconsin Idea as Applied to Detours a Source of Satisfaction to Motorists,” _Concrete Highway Magazine_, April, 1922, Chicago. JENKINS, ALFRED, “A Motorized City,” National Automobile Chamber of Commerce. JESSUP, ELON, “The Motor Camping Book,” G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York. LEWIS, NELSON P., “The Planning of the Modern City,” pp. 240-246, John Wiley & Sons. “Omaha Union Stage Depot,” _Bus Transportation_, Vol. 1, p. 45. PUTNAM, NINA WILCOX, “A Jitney Guide to the Santa Fé Trail,” _Saturday Evening Post_, June 10, 1922. HALVORSON, C. A. B., JR. AND HUSSEY, R. B., “Illumination of Highways,” _Engineering and Contracting_, Vol. LVI, pp. 535-536. UNDERWOOD, W. E., “The Trend of Modern Practice in Street Lighting,” _Engineering World_, Vol. XVII, pp. 348-351. WILLIAR, HARRY D., JR., Articles on Road Signs, _Public Roads_, August, 1921, and _Engineering and Contracting_, October 5, 1921. FOOTNOTES [222] Senator Arthur Capper in an address delivered before the Highway Transport Conference, New York, 1920, said: “A recent investigation showed over 75 per cent of the Middle Western farmers bought their cars not for pleasure, but for business.” But he did not say how they use them. He did, in the same address, say, “A good road, plus a good motor truck, begets almost six motor trucks in any community and in any locality.” Emulation and rivalry are great selling agents. [223] After the above was written there appeared in the _New York Herald_ this statement: “This country consumed in May (1922), more than 13,000,000 barrels of gasoline. This is a matter of some 700,000,000 gallons.” The article goes on to calculate that in the use of this gasoline there was a travel of 10,000,000,000 car miles, and “at an average of four persons to the car, 1,600,000 individual motor trips around the world (in distance) in May.” The United States Bureau of Mines gives the domestic consumption of gasoline in the United States for 1921 as 4,516,012,979 gallons, an average of only about 7,000,000 barrels per month. [224] See also “Science of Highway Traffic,” by William Phelps Eno. Published by himself and distributed by Brentano’s, New York City. A very valuable contribution to the literature of road regulation. [225] Eno, op. cit. [226] See Eno, op. cit., p. 53. [227] “A Comparison of Ramp and Elevator Type Garages,” by Harold F. Blanchard, _Bus Transportation_, June, 1922. [228] “A Motorized City,” by Alfred Jenkins, Secretary of, and published by, the National Automobile Chamber of Commerce, 7 East 42d Street, New York. [229] “Direction and Distance Signs,” by P. Evans and A. G. Batchelder, _Engineering and Contracting_, July 30, 1913. [230] Op. cit., p. 11. [231] The information about Maryland’s signs is taken from articles by Harry D. Williar, Jr., Assistant Chief Engineer of the Maryland State Highway Road Commission, in _Public Roads_, August, 1921, and _Engineering and Contracting_, October 5, 1921. [232] “The ‘Wisconsin Idea,’ as Applied to Detours a Source of Satisfaction to Motorists,” by N. M. Isabella, Assistant Maintenance Engineer, in _Concrete Highway Magazine_, April, 1922. [233] An article entitled “Prevent the Proposed Permanent Traffic Towers on Fifth Avenue,” by Wm. P. Eno. [234] “Electric Lighting,” by O. J. Ferguson; McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. [235] “Improved Lighting System to be Installed on the Lincoln Highway,” by H. H. Bell, _Electrical World_, April 15, 1922. [236] “The Motor Camping Book,” G. P. Putnam’s Sons, New York. [237] “A Jitney Guide to the Santa Fé Trail,” by Nina Wilcox Putnam, in _Saturday Evening Post_, June 10, 1922. [238] Interview with Frank A. Harrison in _Nebraska State Journal_, July 12, 1921. INDEX Accidents, highway, and their mitigation, 351-380 Agriculture, stage of, in development of civilization, 4-6. _See_ Farms Amos log loader, working of, 299 Anderson, A. P., tables from “Modern Road Building and Maintenance” by, 269 Appian Way, famous highway, 23-24 Ashley, Wm. H., founder of Rocky Mountain Fur Company, 54 Asia, early highways in western, 19-21 Asphalt and asphalt block roads, good qualities of, 265-266 Assessments for highway improvement, 311-321 Astor, John Jacob, exploring expedition organized by, 55 Automobiles, railway passenger earnings affected by, 163; effects of, on street-car lines, 164-166; great use of, for pleasure passenger traffic, 187-189; estimate of cost per mile of riding in, 189 n.; changes in society produced by, 203-208; effects on health, 211-213; and crime, 213-214; percentage of accidents due to, 351-352; responsibility of the driver for accidents and their avoidance, 352-355; horns for, 356-357; stopping on grades, backing, etc., 357-358; miscellaneous causes of accidents, 358 ff.; ranking and parking of, 420-425; ramp and elevator garages for, 427-429; gas, air, and water stations, 433-434 Automotive transportation, analysis and discussion of, 181-218 Auto trucks, effects of, on railroads, 163-164. _See_ Trucking by motor Babson, Roger W., quoted on relations between railways and auto trucks, 163-164 Backing of cars, accidents due to, 357-358 Baldwin Locomotive Works, origins of, 102 Beautification of roads, discussion of, 382-416 Bible, references in, to highways, 19-20 Bicycles, influence of, on roads, 127-136; highway accidents due to, 378 Bodies, removable, a device for loading and unloading freight, 191-192 Bonds, issuing of, for highway financing, 322-323; kinds of, 323-327; total cost of a loan, by the three kinds, 327-328; the term of, 328-331 Boone, Daniel, “Autobiography” quoted, 40-42 Boone’s Trace, account of, 39-43 Boston, early railroads centering at, 105 Brakes, parts played by, in automobile accidents, 359-360 Brick roads, good qualities of, 264 Bridger Pass, discovery of, 54 Bridges, road accidents caused by, 368 Buses. _See_ Motor-buses Cabot, Philip, article by, on New England railways, cited, 162; calculations and figures by, 171-172 Calk, William, “Diary” of, quoted, 43-46 Camden & Amboy R.R., chartering of, 104 Camping grounds for motor tourists, 451-456 Canals, era of, in England, 14-15; in America, 70-75; passenger traffic on, 75-76; inability of, to compete with railways, and results, 76-77; ship, 77; Sault Ste. Marie, Welland, and Cape Cod, 77; Panama Canal, 77-88 Canoes, travel and transportation by, 34-35 Cape Cod, ship canal across, 77 Cattle. _See_ Stock raising Census. _See_ Traffic census Central Pacific Ry., building of, 112 Charleston & Hamburg R.R., building of, 103 Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, building of, 73 Civilization, transportation a measure of, 1 ff.; five stages in, 1-2; stage of Direct Appropriation, 2-4; Pastoral Stage, 4; Agricultural Stage, 4-5; Handicraft Stage, 6-12; Industrial Stage, 14-18 Clark, William. _See_ Lewis and Clark Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, terms of, 83 _Clermont_, Robert Fulton’s steamboat, 89 Clinton, De Witt, efforts of, in behalf of canal-building, 71 Coaches. _See_ Stagecoaches Colonial days, transportation in, 34-46 Concrete roads, good and poor qualities of, 264 Consolidated Rural Schools, importance of motor transportation to, 208-210 Container, the demountable, 176, 192-193 Cooper, Peter, locomotive built and operated by, 100-101 Coöperative marketing, advantages of, 277-282 Corporations, financing of highway transportation by, 345 Crédit Mobilier, notorious railway-construction scandal, 115-116 Crime, the automobile and, 213-214 “Cross Crossings Cautiously” campaign, 380 Culverts, road accidents caused by, 368 Cumberland Road, building of, 62-64; extension of, 64-66 Curves, dangers of, 367 Dairying, use of motor truck in, 293-294 De Lesseps, Ferdinand, and Panama Canal, 80-84 Des Moines, Iowa, good roads, movement at, 132-133 Destruction of highways, factors in, 245-248 Detour signs, 442-443; location of, 443 Distance and direction signs for motorists, 436-437 Driver, responsibility of the, for automobile accidents, 352-355 Dunlop, J. B., inventor of pneumatic tire, 128 Du Pont Road, example of private financing of highway, 307-308 Durability, an important factor in road building, 254 Earth roads, good and poor qualities of, 263 Efficiency outline of motor transport, 225-227 Electric-light poles along highways, 412-413 Electric traction, operation of street cars by, 122-124 Elevator garages, 427-428 Engine. _See_ Steam engine Eno, William Phelps, development of traffic regulation due to efforts of, 378-379; cited on width of parking spaces, 423; cited on opera house traffic, 426, 427 Eno Foundation for Highway Traffic Regulation, Inc., 379-380 Erie Canal, building of, 70-72; small profit from, 75 Esthetics, highway, 382-416 Express rates, reduction of, due to short-haul motor trucking, 174-175 Express terminal stations, 429-433 Factory products, transportation of, by motor truck, 301-303 Farms, meaning of the automobile to, 177; motor trucking to and from, 196-201; Rural Mail Delivery one of many modern advantages, 210-211 Federal aid, financing of highways and transportation lines by, 332-334; present state of, 334-335; plan of local matching of Federal Aid dollars, 335-342 Federal Aid Road Act, passage of, 152-153; provisions of, 153-154; rules and regulations for carrying out, 154-156; marked success of, 156 Feudal system, government under the, 5-6 Financing, highway, 343-349 Forestry, use of motor truck in, 295-298 France, traffic censuses in, 236-237, 240-242 Garages, public, 427-429 Gardening, road, 382-387 Gasoline, stations for selling, 433 Gila Trail, 55; route of, 58 “Good roads” movement, growth of, 128-129 Government, U. S., attitude toward river improvement, 94-97; ownership of railways by, 112; aid of state and Federal, for better roads, 147-156 Grain exchanges, account of, 275-277 Gravel roads, good and poor qualities of, 263-264 Greece, effects on ancient, of lack of roads, 21-22 Greeley, Horace, quoted on canals, 76 Guides, highway, for motorists, 435-445 Guilds, medieval, 6-8; destruction or lapsing of, 9-10; functions taken over by government, 10 Handicrafts, stage of, in growth of civilization, 6-12 Harding, President, discussion of transportation problem by, 217-218 Harriman interests, railway lines held by, 117 Haulage. _See_ Trucking by motor Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, terms of, 84 Health, the automobile and, 211-213 Henderson, James, early American pioneer, 39-43 Highway, distinction between road and, 222 Highways, important early, 19-22; of ancient Rome, 22-27; classification of, 222; planning systems of, 222 ff.; units of systems, 227-229; principles of esthetic construction applied to, 382-416. _See also_ Roads Hogs. _See_ Stock raising Hoover, Secretary, quoted on farm motor trucks, 197 Horine, M. C., “Economics of Motor Transport” by, quoted, 225-227 Horns for automobiles, 356-357 Hotels, accommodations for tourists in, 460 Humboldt River route, discovery of, 54 Husband, Joseph, “Story of the Pullman Car” by, 120-121 Individual financing of highway transportation, 343-344 Information, supplying of, to automobile tourists, 461-462 Interurban railways, effects of motor competition on, 164 Intra-city traffic, calculations concerning, 170 Inventions, industrial stage of civilization brought about by, 14-15 Iron, invention of new methods of smelting, 15 Italy, traffic censuses in, 242 Jay walking, as a cause of accidents, 377 Jefferson, Thomas, Louisiana Purchase arranged by, 48 Jerusalem, effects upon, of strategic position, 20 Jitneys, earnings of street-car lines diminished by, 165; importance of business done by, 183 _John Bull_, locomotive, 102 Joliet, Louis, early explorer, 46 Kay, John, inventor of fly shuttle, 16 Kentucky, Boone’s path into, 42; early railroads in, 106 Knight, Jonathan, coning of engine wheels invented by, 101 n. Lancaster turnpike, building of, 60-61 Land, grants of, to railways, 110; grants to Pacific roads, 111-114 Later California Trail, route of, 57 Lauck, W. J., quoted on avoidable railway wastes, 175 n. League of American Wheelmen, organization of, 128; good roads movement sponsored by, 129-136 Lewis and Clark Expedition, account of, 48-53 Lighting of roads and streets, 447-449 Lights, on cars, as sources of danger, 361-362; for non-motorized traffic, 378 Loading and unloading freight, devices for, 191-194 Locomotive, invention and early development of, 18; the first, 99-103; progress in mechanical development of, 119-120 Louisiana Territory, purchase of, 48 Lumbering, improved methods in, due to motor truck, 295-300 Macadam, J. L., road construction by, 60 Macadam roads, good and poor qualities of, 264 MacDonald, T. H., classification of highways by, 222 Manse, W. H., cited on waste by railways, 176 Map signs, sizes of, 439-441 Marketing, effect of ease and cost of transportation on production and, 273-304 Marks, highway, for motorists, 435-445 Marquette, Jacques, explorations of, 46-48 Massachusetts, state aid for highways in, 150-151 Merger, railway consolidation by, 117 Michigan Central R.R., beginnings of, 106 Mining, use of motor trucks in connection with, 300-301 Mississippi River, steamboat transportation on, 90-91 Mohawk & Hudson Company, chartering of, 103 Moore, W. H., “good roads booster,” 139 Morgan interests, railway lines held by, 117 Motor-buses, relations between street-car lines and, 165-166; character of business done by, 184-187; extent of suburban and interurban, 196; terminal stations for, 429-433 Motor transport efficiency outline, 225-227 National Good Roads Association, activities of, 139 National Road. _See_ Cumberland Road National system of highways, arguments for, 227-229 _Nebraska State Journal_, editorial from, 204-205 New England, early railways in, 105 New Orleans, importance of, due to river traffic, 90-91 New York Central & Hudson River R.R., beginnings of, 103-104 New York City, Governor Clinton’s prophecy concerning, 71-72 New York State, canal-building in, 70-74; automobile roads in, 460-461 Nicaragua, canal route across, 84 “No Accident” campaigns, 380 _Novelty_, Ericsson’s locomotive, 100 n. Nye, Bill, quoted on roads, 130-131 Office of Public Roads Inquiry, instituted, 136-137; duties and scope of, widened, 143-144 O’Hanlon, J., “Irish Emigrant’s Guide to United States,” quoted, 93 Ohio, first railway in, 105-106 Ohio Valley, early lines of travel to, 37-38 _Old Ironsides_, first Baldwin locomotive, 102 Opera house traffic, special arrangement for, 426-427 Oregon Trail, traffic over, 54-55; origin of the, 55-57; final route of, 57 Pacific railways, building of and land grants to, 111-114 Packing of goods on turnpikes, 58-60 Page, L. W., worker for good roads, 142, 144 Palestine, roads and highways of, 19-20 Panama Canal, history of, 77-88 Parking of automobiles, 421-422; spaces for, a convenience to motorists, 422-425 Parks, National, visited by automobile tourists, 460-461 Partnership, financing of highway transportation by, 344-345 Pedestrians, contributory negligence of, toward accidents, 376-377; rule for, on country roads, 377-378 Pennsylvania, turnpikes in, 61 Pennsylvania R.R., railways held by same interests, 118 Peru, roads in ancient, 27-31 _Pioneer_, Illinois Central locomotive, 108 Pittsburgh, Pa., growth of, 72 Plants, climbing, for use in road gardening, 411-412 Pleasure passenger traffic, use of automobiles for, 187-189 Poles, telephone and other, along highways, 412-415 Pope, Albert A., worker for good roads, 133, 136 Portages, importance of, in early American period, 36-37 Potter, I. B., good roads advocate, 129 Poughkeepsie, Bus Terminal Station at, 431-433 Poultry business, efficiency of motor truck in, 294-295 Prescott, W. H., “Conquest of Peru,” quoted, 28-31 Production and marketing, relation between ease and cost of transportation and, 273 ff. Public ownership, as a method of financing transportation lines, 347-349 Pullman cars, development of, 120-122 Railway crossings, accidents at, 368-370; increase in accidents due to automobiles, 370-372; means of diminishing fatalities, 372-376 Railways, early development of, in England, 17-18; effects of, on canals, 76-77; account of growth and development of, 99-116; consolidation of, 116-118; mechanical development of, 119-120; street, 122; relation between transportation on, and on highways, 159-168 Ramp and elevator type garages, 427-429 Ranking of cars, 421-425 Regulations, road and traffic, 378-380 Resistance of road surfaces, 255-257; due to grade, 257-261 Richmond, Va., first electric railway operated for profit in, 123 River and Harbor Improvement Bills, 96-97 Rivers, government’s attitude toward improvement of, 94-97 Road, distinction between highway and, 222 Roads, prehistoric American, 27-31; early, in North America, 35-36; evolution of modern wagon, 126 ff.; influence of bicycle on, 127-136; building of object-lesson, 142-144; state and Federal aid for, 147-156; good, as agencies for health, 212-213; selection of suitable type, 252-254; types of, and their qualities, 263; comparison of types of, 266-270; bad, as causes of accidents, 363-364; naming and numbering of, 434-435. _See also_ Highways Robbery, automobiles used in, 213-214 _Rocket_, George Stephenson’s locomotive, 100 n. Rome, roads of ancient, 22-27 Roosevelt, Theodore, and the Panama Canal, 85-86 Rotary scheme for traffic, 424-426 Rural Free Delivery, an agency for better roads, 144-147; effects of, on farmer’s life, 210-211 “Safety First” campaign, 380 St. Louis, Mo., as a fur center, 53-54 Salt Lake Trail, route of, 57 Sand-clay roads, good and poor qualities of, 263 San Francisco, cable cars in, 122 Sanitariness of roads, 262 Santa Fé Trail, traffic over, 54-55; route of, 58 _Saturday Evening Post_, quoted on vandalism, 215 Sault Ste. Marie, ship canal and locks at, 77 Schools, motor transportation and the consolidation of, 208-210 Semaphores, use of, by traffic officers, 445-446 Service stations for automobiles, 433-434 Shrubs, for planting along roads, 403-411 Signal lights and colors, 446-447 Signs, highway, for motorists, 435-445 Skidding, accidents due to, 359 Sleeping car, evolution of the, 120-122 Slipperiness of road surfaces, 261-262 Smith, Jedediah, discoveries of, 54 South Pass, discovery of, 54 Spanish Trail, traffic over, 54-55; route of, 58 Speedometer, as an essential, 363 Speed signs for motorists, 444 Spooning in automobiles, 215 Stagecoaches, era of, in England, 11-12; on Cumberland Road, 64-65 State aid, 147-152; financing highways and transportation lines by, 334 State system of highways, arguments for, 229-230 Steamboats, the first, 89-90; on Mississippi River, 90-91; increasing luxuriance of, 91-93; dangers connected with early, 93; fares on, 94 Steam engine, Watt’s improvements on early, 15-16; attempts to use, in locomotives, 99-100 Stephenson, George, improvement of locomotive by, 18; first locomotive put out by, 100 Stevens, John, called father of American railroads, 100 Stock raising, effect of marketing facilities and road transportation on, 284-293 Stock subscriptions for highway financing, 331 Stockton & Darlington R.R., completion of, 101 Stock watering, meaning of, 116 Stopping cars on grades, streets, etc., 357 Street-car service, progress in, 122; effect of motor transportation on, 164; effects of taxicabs, jitneys, and buses, 165-167; competition between motor-buses and, 185-186 Superelevation of outer side of curved roadway, 364-366 Systems of highways, planning of, 222-270 Taxes for road construction, 309-321 Taxicabs, character and importance of business done by, 183-184 Telephone poles, highways disfigured by, 412-413; location of, 414-415 Telford, Thomas, road construction by, 60 Terminals, waste at railway, 176; transferring between, by motor-bus, 187; improvement of facilities at, caused by motor transportation, 201-203; for buses and express service, 429-433 _Tom Thumb_, Peter Cooper’s locomotive, 101 Touring by motor, amount of, 450-451; camping grounds for use in, 451-456; camp sites, 458-460 Towns, truck and bus lines between, 194-196 Traffic, one way and rotary, 425-426; taking care of opera house, 426-427; guides for, in cities, 444-445 Traffic census, taking a, for planning of highway, 234-236; methods of taking, 236-238; classification of traffic in, 239-245 Transcontinental railway lines, land grants to and construction of, 111-115 Transportation, a measure of civilization, 1-32; classified as primary and secondary, 159; interrelation between highway and other kinds of, 159 ff.; legitimate fields of agencies of, 168-170; analysis and discussion of automotive, 181-202; social aspect of motor, 203-208; effect of ease and cost of, on production and marketing, 273-304; financing of lines of, 306-343; financing highway, 343-349 Transylvania Republic, early settlement called, 43 Trees, for planting along roads, 385-403 Tresaguet, French highway engineer, 60 Trucking by motor, effects of, on railway earnings, 163-164; length of haul for economical, 170-174; reduction of express rates due to short-haul, 174-175; freight traffic cost under system of, 190-194; traffic between towns, 194-196; general effect of ease and cost of, on production and marketing, 273-304 Turnpikes, era of, in America, 58-60; construction of, 60-61; effects of railways on, 61-62 Types of roadway, comparison of, 266-270 Uniformity in distance and direction signs for motorists, 437-438 Union Pacific Ry., building of, 112-114 United States, transportation development in, 34-67 Units, of highway systems, 227-229; of traffic, 240-242 Vandalism by visitors to country, 215 Vanderbilt interests, railway lines held by, 117 Vehicles, unlighted, as sources of danger, 362-363 Vincent, C., “Letters on Grain Marketing Problems,” quoted, 276-277, 280 Virginia, transportation improvements in early, 61; first railroads in, 107 Vision, clear, as a means of safety, 366-367; obstacles that obscure, a cause of accidents to pedestrians, 377 Wagon road, the modern, 126-156 Walker, American filibuster in Nicaragua, 80 Warning signs for motorists, 439 Washington Turnpike Company bill, 67 Waste, methods of avoiding, by railways, 175-177 Waterways, settlement near, in early American period, 36-37. _See_ Canals _and_ Rivers Watkins, Albert, quoted on Oregon Trail, 56-57 Welland Canal, traffic through, 77 Wilderness Road, the, 39-43 Williams, Perry S., plan of, for information bureaus for travelers, 461 Wood block roads, qualities of, 265 Text of Chart of the Organization of the U. S. Bureau of Public Roads and Rural Engineering, 1917 DIRECTOR MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMICS Chief of Management MANAGEMENT Correspondence and Files Cooperation with Solicitor Accounts Editorial & Library Quarters & Stock ENGINEERING ECONOMICS Economic Investigations and Advice Statistical Investigations Legislative Investigations and Advice Lectures & Exhibits Illustrations and Models GENERAL INSPECTION General Inspectors ENGINEERING Chief Engineer ROAD MATERIALS TESTS AND RESEARCH Chemical and Physical Tests Microscopic Examination and Classification of Rocks Standardization of Methods of Testing Investigations of Non-Bituminous Materials Research on Dust Preventives and Road Binders Concrete Investigations Field Experiments Inspection & Advice HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION AND MAINTENANCE Post Road Construction Forest Road Construction and Maintenance Object Lesson Roads Cooperative and Experimental Maintenance Bridges & Culverts Inspection & Advice 1st. District Wash. Ore., Idaho 2nd District Berkely, Cal. Cal., Nev. Ariz., N. M. 3rd. District Denver, Colo. Mont., Wyo. Utah, Colo. 4th. District N.D., S.D. Minn., Wis. 5th. District Nebr., Iowa Kan., Mo. 6th. District Texas., Okla. Ark., La. 7th. District So. Chicago, Ill. Mich., Ill. Ind., Ky. 8th. District Tenn. Miss., Ala. Ga., S.C., Fla. 9th. District Me., N.H., Vt., N.Y. Mass., Conn., R.I. N.J., Del. 10th. District Washington, D.C. Ohio., Penn., Md. W.Va., Va., N.C. IRRIGATION Utilization of Water Power and Appliance Equipment Flow of Water in Ditches, Pipes, etc. Duty, Apportionment and Measurement of Water Customs, Regulations and Laws Drainage of Irrigated Lands Inspection & Advice DRAINAGE Farm Drainage Drainage of Swamps and Wet Lands Removal of Surplus Water Field Experiments Investigating and Developing Equipment Inspection & Advice RURAL ENGINEERING Farm Water Supply Drainage Disposal Construction of Farm Buildings Rural Engineering Problems Involving Mechanical Principles Traction Tests Instrument Making and Repairing Inspection & Advice Transcriber’s Notes Archaic, unusual, erroneous and inconsistent spelling, capitalisation, punctuation and hyphenation have been retained, except as mentioned below. Accents on non-English words have not been added or corrected, except as mentioned below. Quoted and possibly deliberately misspelled words and phrases have been kept unaltered. Depending on the hard- and software used to read this text, not all elements may display as intended. Page 19: “leather from Cordavan”: possibly an error for “leather from Cordova”. Page 245, Suggested Form: the row 11 a. m. to 12 noon is not present in the source document. Page 280, paragraph starting “When grain or other food commodities have been stored”: either the final closing quote mark is erroneous, or the starting quote mark is missing. Page 320, table: The entire table was printed in hand-written italics; the italics mark-up has been removed for better readability. Page 387 ff.: the (almost) alphabetical order of description of trees and shrubs has not been corrected. Changes made: Footnotes have been moved to the end of each chapter, illustrations and tables have been moved out of text paragraphs. Some of the larger tables, forms, etc. have been split or otherwise re-arranged. The text version of the organisational chart has been created for this text and is placed in the public domain. In the source document, the List of Inserts in several cases contains more detailed descriptions than the captions with the actual illustrations. Where relevant, these descriptions, as well as text from the illustrations, have been transcribed underneath the illustrations. Some obvious minor typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected silently. Page xvii: Insert numbers have been added. Page xx: opening quote marks inserted before In November, 1903, .... Page 8: “the workmen performs” changed to “the workman performs”. Page 64: closing quote mark inserted after ... trade along its highway. Page 97: “enchanced his chances” changed to “enhanced his chances”. Page 117-118 (table): minor (cosmetic) adjustments made for consistency. Page 134: “O. H. Platte” changed to “O. H. Platt”. Page 170: “J. C. Thirwall” changed to “J. C. Thirlwall”. Page 175: closing quote mark inserted after ... and low first cost, Page 208, “shown forth” changed to “shone forth”. Page 262 (illustration caption): “TRACTOR DRAWN GRADES” changed to “TRACTOR DRAWN GRADER”. Page 276: “(of their agents the commission men.)” changed to “(or their agents the commission men.)”. Page 332: “surveys, plants, specifications and estimates” changed to “surveys, plans, specifications and estimates”. Page 368: clsoing quote mark added after ... which cannot be immediately available. Page 388: “the genus (_Flagus_)” changed to “the genus (_Fagus_)”. Page 393: “Tsuga conadensis” changed to “Tsuga canadensis”. Page 398: “Q. bicolar” changed to “Q. bicolor”. Page 399: “Liriodendron tulipitera” changed to “Liriodendron tulipifera”. Page 404: “Barberis thunbergii” changed to “Berberis thunbergii”; “Louicera tartarica” changed to “Lonicera tartarica”. Page 406: “D. mezerum” changed to “D. mezereum”; “Sambacus canadensis” changed to “Sambucus canadensis”. 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