book i. by William, abbot of St Thierry near Reims; book ii. by

Ernald, or Arnald, abbot of Bonnevalle; books iii., iv. and v. by Geoffrey (Gaufrid), monk of Clairvaux and Bernard's secretary; book vi., on Bernard's miracles, by Geoffrey and Philip, another monk of Clairvaux, &c. A MS. is preserved, _int. al._, in the library of Lambeth Palace (S xiv. No. 163). The _Vita_ was first published in _Bernardi op. omn._ by Mabillon (Paris, 1690), ii. pp. 1061 ff.; it was included in Migne, _Patrolog. lat._ clxxxv. pp. 225-416, which also contains the abridgments or amplifications, by later hands, of the _Vita Prima_, known as the _Vita Secunda_, _Tertia_ and _Quarta_. For a critical study of these sources see G. Huffer, _Der heilige Bernhard von Clairvaux_ (2 vols., Munster, 1886), and E. Vacandard, _Vie de Saint Bernard_ (2 vols., Paris, 1895). Among the numerous modern works on St Bernard may be mentioned, besides the above, J.C. Morison, _The Life and Times of St Bernard_ (London, 1863); G. Chevallier, _Histoire de Saint Bernard_ (2 vols., Lille, 1888); S.J. Eales, _St Bernard, abbot of Clairvaux_ (London, 1890, "Fathers for English Readers" series); ib. _Life and Works of St Bernard_ (London, 1889); R.S. Storrs, _Bernard of Clairvaux: the Times, the Man and His Work_ (New York, 1893); Comte d'Haussonville, _Saint Bernard_ (Paris, 1906). See also the article by Vacandart in A. Vacant's _Dictionnaire de theologie_ (with full bibliography), and that by S.M. Deutsch in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (3rd ed.), vol. ii. (bibliography). Further works, monographs, &c., are given s. "Vita S. Bernardi" in Potthast. _Bibliotheca Historica Medii Aevi_ (Berlin, 1896). (W. A. P.) FOOTNOTE: [1] The Cistercians of this branch of the order were commonly known as Bernardines. BERNARD OF CHARTRES (1080?-1167), surnamed SYLVESTRIS, scholastic philosopher, described by John of Salisbury as _perfectissimus inter Platonicos nostri saeculi_. He and his brother Theodore were among the chief members of the school of Chartres (France), founded in the early part of the 11th century by Fulbert, the great disciple of Gerbert. This school flourished at a time when medieval thought was directed to the ancient philosophy of Plato and Aristotle, and had perversely come to regard Aristotle as merely the founder of abstract logic and formal intellectualism, as opposed to Plato whose doctrine of Ideas seemed to tend in a naturalistic direction. Thus Bernard is a Platonist and yet the representative of a "return to Nature" which curiously anticipates the humanism of the early Renaissance. John of Salisbury (_Metalogicus_, iv. 35) attributes to him two treatises, of which one contrasts the eternity of ideas with the finite nature of things, and the other is an attempt to reconcile Plato and Aristotle. The only extant fragments of Bernard's writings are from a treatise _Megacosmus and Microcosmus_ (edited by C.S. Barach at Innsbruck, 1876). The source of Bernard's inspiration was Plato's _Timaeus_. He maintained that ideas are really existent and are laid up for ever in the mind of God. He further attempted to build up a symbolism of numbers with the view of elaborating the doctrine of the Trinity, and explaining the meaning of unity, plurality and likeness. See SCHOLASTICISM; also V. Cousin, _Oeuvres inedites_ of Abelard (Paris, 1836); Haureau, _Philosophie scolastique_, i. 396 foll. BERNARD, CHARLES DE, whose full name was PIERRE MARIE CHARLES DE BERNARD DU GRAIL DE LA VILLETTE (1804-1850), French writer, was born at Besancon on the 25th of February 1804. After studying for the law, and then taking to journalism, he was encouraged by Balzac (whose _Peau de chagrin_ he had reviewed) to settle in Paris and devote himself to authorship; and the result was a series of volumes of fiction, remarkable for their picture of provincial society and the Parisian _bourgeoisie_. The best of these are _Le Noeud gordien_ (1838), containing among other short stories _Une Aventure de magistrat_, from which Sardou drew his comedy of the _Pommes du voisin; Gerfaut_ (1838), considered his masterpiece; _Les Ailes d'Icare_ (1840), _La Peau du lion_ (1841) and _Le Gentilhomme campagnard_ (1847). His _Oeuvres completes_ (12 vols.), which appeared after his death on the 6th of March 1850, include also his poetry and two comedies written in collaboration with "Leonce" (C.H.L. Laurencot, 1805-1862). A flattering appreciation by Armand de Pontmartin is prefixed to _Un Beau-pere_ in this collection. In W.M. Thackeray's _Paris Sketch-book_ ("On some fashionable French novels") there is an admirable criticism of Bernard. See also an essay by Henry James in _French Poets and Novelists_ (1884). BERNARD, CLAUDE (1813-1878), French physiologist, was born on the 12th of July 1813 in the village of Saint-Julien near Villefranche. He received his early education in the Jesuit school of that town, and then proceeded to the college at Lyons, which, however, he soon left to become assistant in a druggist's shop. His leisure hours were devoted to the composition of a vaudeville comedy, _La Rose du Rhone_, and the success it achieved moved him to attempt a prose drama in five acts, _Arthur de Bretagne_. At the age of twenty-one he went to Paris, armed with this play and an introduction to Saint-Marc Girardin, but the critic dissuaded him from adopting literature as a profession, and urged him rather to take up the study of medicine. This advice he followed, and in due course became interne at the Hotel Dieu. In this way he was brought into contact with the great physiologist, F. Magendie, who was physician to the hospital, and whose official _preparateur_ at the College de France he became in 1841. Six years afterwards he was appointed his deputy-professor at the college, and in 1855 he succeeded him as full professor. Some time previously he had been chosen the first occupant of the newly-instituted chair of physiology at the Sorbonne. There no laboratory was provided for his use, but Louis Napoleon, after an interview with him in 1864, supplied the deficiency, at the same time building a laboratory at the natural history museum in the Jardin des Plantes, and establishing a professorship, which Bernard left the Sorbonne to accept in 1868--the year in which he was admitted a member of the Institute. He died in Paris on the 10th of February 1878 and was accorded a public funeral--an honour which had never before been bestowed by France on a man of science. Claude Bernard's first important work was on the functions of the pancreas gland, the juice of which he proved to be of great significance in the process of digestion; this achievement won him the prize for experimental physiology from the Academy of Sciences. A second investigation--perhaps his most famous--was on the glycogenic function of the liver; in the course of this he was led to the conclusion, which throws light on the causation of diabetes, that the liver, in addition to secreting bile, is the seat of an "internal secretion," by which it prepares sugar at the expense of the elements of the blood passing through it. A third research resulted in the discovery of the vaso-motor system. While engaged, about 1851, in examining the effects produced in the temperature of various parts of the body by section of the nerve or nerves belonging to them, he noticed that division of the cervical sympathetic gave rise to more active circulation and more forcible pulsation of the arteries in certain parts of the head, and a few months afterwards he observed that electrical excitation of the upper portion of the divided nerve had the contrary effect. In this way he established the existence of vaso-motor nerves--both vaso-dilatator and vaso-constrictor. The study of the physiological action of poisons was also a favourite one with him, his attention being devoted in particular to curare and carbon monoxide gas. The earliest announcements of his results, the most striking of which were obtained in the ten years from about 1850 to 1860, were generally made in the recognized scientific publications; but the full exposition of his views, and even the statement of some of the original facts, can only be found in his published lectures. The various series of these _Lecons_ fill seventeen octavo volumes. He also published _Introduction a la medecine experimentale_ (1865), and _Physiologie generale_ (1872). An English _Life of Bernard_, by Sir Michael Foster, was published in London in 1899. BERNARD, JACQUES (1658-1718), French theologian and publicist, was born at Nions in Dauphine on the 1st of September 1658. Having studied at Geneva, he returned to France in 1679, and was chosen minister of Venterol in Dauphine, whence he afterwards removed to the church of Vinsobres. As he continued to preach the reformed doctrines in opposition to the royal ordinance, he was obliged to leave the country and retired to Holland, where he was well received and appointed one of the pensionary ministers of Gouda. In July 1686 he commenced his _Histoire abregee de l'Europe_, which he continued monthly till December 1688. In 1692 he began his _Lettres historiques_, containing an account of the most important transactions in Europe; he carried on this work till the end of 1698, after which it was continued by others. When Le Clerc discontinued his _Bibliotheque universelle_ in 1691. Bernard wrote the greater part of the twentieth volume and the five following volumes. In 1698 he collected and published _Actes et negotiations de la paix de Ryswic_, in four volumes 12mo. In 1699 he began a continuation of Bayle's _Nouvelles de la republique des lettres_, which continued till December 1710. In 1705 he was unanimously elected one of the ministers of the Walloon church at Leiden; and about the same time he succeeded M. de Valder in the chair of philosophy and mathematics at Leiden. In 1716 he published a supplement to Moreri's dictionary, in two volumes folio. The same year he resumed his _Nouvelles de la republique des lettres_, and continued it till his death, on the 27th of April 1718. Besides the works above mentioned, he was the author of two practical treatises, one on late repentance (1712), the other on the excellence of religion (1714). BERNARD, MOUNTAGUE (1820-1882), English international lawyer, the third son of Charles Bernard of Jamaica, the descendant of a Huguenot family, was born at Tibberton Court, Gloucestershire, on the 28th of January