33. This section would not be complete even in outline without some

1. Chapter 1 2. 1. Influence of Montaigne and Charron. Gui Patin. Naudé. La 3. 4. Vogue of freethinking. Malherbe. Joan Fontanier. Théophile 4. 15. Developments in France. The polemic of Abbadie. Persecution 5. 16. St. Evremond. Regnard. La Bruyère. Spread of 6. 1. Boulainvilliers. Strifes in the Church. Fénelon and Ramsay. 7. 11. Progress of tolerance. Marie Huber. Resistance of bigotry. 8. 13. New politics. The less famous freethinkers: Burigny; 9. 14. N.-A. Boulanger. Dumarsais. Prémontval. Solidity of much 10. 18. Freethought in the Académie. Beginnings in classical 11. 22. Study of Nature. Fontenelle. Lenglet du Fresnoy. De 12. 27. The conventional myth and the facts. Necker. Abbé Grégoire. 13. 28. Religious and political forces of revolt. The polemic 14. 30. The polemic of Mallet du Pan. Saner views of Barante. 15. 33. Napoleon 292 16. 1. Moral Decline under Lutheranism. Freethought before the 17. 12. English and French influences. The scientific movement. 18. 14. Mauvillon. Nicolai. Riem. Schade. Basedow. Eberhard. 19. 18. Vogue of deism. Wieland. Cases of Isenbiehl and Steinbuhler. 20. 22. Influence of Kant. The sequel. Hamann. Chr. A. Crusius. 21. 25. Austria. Jahn. Joseph II. Beethoven 351 22. 1. Course of the Reformation. Subsequent wars. 23. 5. Upper-class indifference. Gustavus III. Kjellgren and 24. 6. Revival of thought in Denmark. Struensee. Mary 25. 2. Russia. Nikon. Peter the Great. Kantemir. Catherine 363 26. 3. Subsequent scientific thought. General revival of 27. 4. Beccaria. Algarotti. Filangieri. Galiani. Genovesi. 28. 9. Portugal. Pombal 377 29. 6. Palmer. Houston. Deism and Unitarianism 385 30. 3. Pietist persecution. Richard Carlile. John Clarke. 31. 7. Charles Bradlaugh and Secularism. Imprisonment of 32. 8. New literary developments. Lecky. Conway. Winwood 33. 9. Freethought in France. Social schemes. Fourier. 34. 10. Bigotry in Spain. Popular freethought in Catholic 35. 11. Fluctuations in Germany. Persistence of religious 36. 15. Clerical rationalism in Protestant countries. 37. 17. The United States. Ingersoll. Lincoln. Stephen 38. 1. Rationalism in Germany. The Schleiermacher reaction: 39. 7. Strauss's second Life of Jesus. His politics. His 40. 8. Fluctuating progress of criticism. Important issues 41. 10. Falling-off in German candidates for the ministry as in 42. 11. Attack and defence in England. The Tractarian reaction. 43. 12. New Testament criticism in France. Renan and Havet 439 44. 3. Béranger. De Musset. Victor Hugo. Leconte de Lisle. The 45. 4. Poetry in England. Shelley. Coleridge. The romantic 46. 7. Orthodoxy and conformity. Bain's view of Carlyle, 47. 8. The literary influence. Ruskin. Arnold. Intellectual 48. 9. English fiction from Miss Edgeworth to the present 49. 15. The Scandinavian States 457 50. 1. Progress in cosmology. Laplace and modern astronomy. 51. 8. Triumph of evolutionism. Spencer. Clifford. Huxley 466 52. 1. Eighteenth-century sociology. Salverte. Charles 53. 2. Progress in England. Orthodoxy of Hallam. Carlyle. 54. 4. Mythology and anthropology. Tylor. Spencer. Avebury. 55. 9. Philosophy in Britain. Bentham. James Mill. Grote. 56. 12. J. S. Mill 489 57. CHAPTER XIII 58. 1638. Kepler's indecisive Mysterium Cosmographicum appeared only in 59. 1. The Latin letter of Gaspar Schopp (Scioppius), dated February 60. 2. There are preserved two extracts from Roman news-letters 61. 3. There has been found, by a Catholic investigator, a double entry 62. episode is well vouched; and the argument from the silence of 63. 1649. As M. Desdouits staked his case on the absence of allusion to 64. CHAPTER XIV 65. 1662. [376] Under the Commonwealth (1656) James Naylor, the Quaker, 66. 1683. Dr. Rust, Discourse on the Use of Reason in ... Religion, 67. 1685. Duke of Buckingham, A Short Discourse upon the Reasonableness 68. 1691. John Ray, Wisdom of God manifested in the Works of the 69. 1695. John Edwards, B.D., Some Thoughts concerning the Several Causes 70. 1696. Sir C. Wolseley, The Unreasonableness of Atheism Demonstrated. 71. 1696. Dr. Nichols' Conference with a Theist. Pt. I. (Answer to 72. 1696. J. Edwards, D.D., A Demonstration of the Evidence and 73. 1696. E. Pelling, Discourse ... on the Existence of God. (Pt. II in 74. 1697. Stephen Eye, A Discourse concerning Natural and Revealed 75. 1697. Bishop Gastrell, The Certainty and Necessity of Religion. 76. 1698. Dr. J. Harris, A Refutation of Atheistical Objections. (Boyle 77. 1698. Thos. Emes, The Atheist turned Deist, and the Deist turned 78. 1699. J. Bradley, An Impartial View of the Truth of Christianity. 79. 1700. Bishop Bradford, The Credibility of the Christian Revelation. 80. 1702. Dr. Stanhope, The Truth and Excellency of the Christian 81. 1705. Ed. Pelling, Discourse concerning the existence of God. Part 82. 1705. Dr. Samuel Clarke, A Demonstration of the Being and Attributes 83. 1706. Th. Wise, B.D., A Confutation of the Reason and Philosophy of 84. 1706. T. Oldfield, Mille Testes; against the Atheists, Deists, and 85. 1707. Dr. J. Hancock, Arguments to prove the Being of a God. (Boyle 86. CHAPTER XV 87. 1. We have seen France, in the first quarter of the seventeenth 88. 2. On the other hand, the resort on the part of the Catholics to a 89. 3. Between the negative development of the doctrine of Montaigne and 90. 4. The general tendency is revealed on the one hand by the series 91. 5. Equally freethinking was his brilliant predecessor and early 92. 6. Even in the apologetic reasoning of the greatest French prose 93. 7. A similar fatality attended the labours of the learned Huet, Bishop 94. 8. Meanwhile the philosophy of Descartes, if less strictly propitious 95. 9. Yet another philosophic figure of the reign of Louis XIV, the Jesuit 96. 10. Yet another new departure was made in the France of Louis XIV 97. 11. Such an evolution could not occur in France without affecting the 98. 12. As Meyer was one of the most intimate friends of Spinoza, being 99. 13. The appearance in 1678 of a Dutch treatise "against all sorts of 100. 14. No greater service was rendered in that age to the spread of 101. 15. Meantime, Spinoza had reinforced the critical movement in France, 102. 16. Of the new Epicureans, the most famous in his day was 103. CHAPTER XVI 104. 405. It is noteworthy that a volume of controversial sermons 105. 1752. The Pillars of Priestcraft and Orthodoxy Shaken. Four vols. 106. 1765. W. Dudgeon, Philosophical Works (reprints of those of 1732, 107. 1772. E. Evanson, The Doctrines of a Trinity and the 108. 1773. ---- Three Discourses (1. Upon the Man after God's own 109. 1781. W. Nicholson, The Doubts of the Infidels. (Rep. by R. 110. 1782. W. Turner, Answer to Dr. Priestley's Letters to a 111. 1785. Dr. G. Hoggart Toulmin, The Antiquity and Duration of the 112. 1792. E. Evanson, The Dissonance of the Four Evangelists. 113. 1795. Dr. J. A. O'Keefe, On the Progress of the Human 114. 1797. John C. Davies, The Scripturian's Creed. Prosecuted and 115. 1797. The latter writer states (2nd ed. p. 126) that "infidelity is 116. CHAPTER XVII 117. 1. The fruits of the intellectual movement of the seventeenth 118. 2. At the same time the continuous output of apologetics testified 119. 3. There was thus no adaptation on the side of the Church to the forces 120. 4. As the new intellectual movement began to find expression, then, it 121. 5. A continuous development may be traced throughout the 122. 6. One of the most comprehensive freethinking works of the century, the 123. 7. Apart from this direct influence, too, others of the cloth bore 124. 8. With the ground prepared as we have seen, freethought was bound 125. 9. It is thus a complete mistake on the part of Buckle to affirm 126. 10. The rest of Voltaire's long life was a sleepless and dexterous 127. 11. It is difficult to realize how far the mere demand for 128. 12. A new era of propaganda and struggle had visibly begun. In 129. 1700. Lettre d'Hypocrate à Damagète, attributed to the Comte de 130. 1700. [Claude Gilbert.] Histoire de Calejava, ou de l'isle des hommes 131. 1704. [Gueudeville.] Dialogues de M. le Baron de la Houtan et d'un 132. 1709. Lettre sur l'enthousiasme (Fr. tr. of Shaftesbury, by Samson). 133. 1710. [Tyssot de Patot, Symon.] Voyages et Avantures de Jaques Massé. 134. 1710. Essai sur l'usage de la raillerie (Fr. tr. of Shaftesbury, by 135. 1712. [Deslandes, A. F. B.] Reflexions sur les grands hommes qui sont 136. 1714. Discours sur la liberté de penser [French tr. of Collins's 137. 1720. Same work rep. under the double title: De tribus impostoribus: 138. 1724. [Lévesque de Burigny.] Histoire de la philosophie payenne. La 139. 1730. [Bernard, J.-F.] Dialogues critiques et philosophiques. "Par 140. 1731. Réfutation des erreurs de Benoît de Spinoza, par Fénelon, le P. 141. 1734. [Voltaire.] Lettres philosophiques. 4 edd. within the year. 142. 1734. [Longue, Louis-Pierre de.] Les Princesses Malabares, ou le 143. 1737. Marquis D'Argens. La Philosophie du Bon Sens. (Berlin: 8th 144. 1738. [Marie Huber.] Lettres sur la religion essentielle à l'homme, 145. 1739. ----, Suite to the foregoing, "servant de réponse aux 146. 1741. [Deslandes.] Pigmalion, ou la Statue animée. [Condemned to be 147. 1741. ----, De la Certitude des connaissances humaines ... traduit de 148. 1743. Nouvelles libertés de penser. Amsterdam. [Edited by Dumarsais. 149. 1745. [Lieut. De la Serre.] La vraie religion traduite de l'Ecriture 150. 1745. [La Mettrie.] Histoire naturelle de l'âme. [Condemned to be 151. 1748. [P. Estève.] L'Origine de l'Univers expliquée par un principe 152. 1748. [Benoît de Maillet.] Telliamed, ou Entretiens d'un philosophe 153. 1751. [Mirabaud, J. B. de.] Le Monde, son origine et son antiquité. 154. 1752. [Gouvest, J. H. Maubert de.] Lettres Iroquoises. "Irocopolis, 155. 1752. [Génard, F.] L'École de l'homme, ou Parallèle des Portraits du 156. 1753. [Baume-Desdossat, Canon of Avignon.] La Christiade. [Book 157. 1753. Astruc, Jean. Conjectures sur les mémoires originaux dont il 158. 1754. Prémontval, A. I. le Guay de. Le Diogène de d'Alembert, ou 159. 1754. Burigny, J. L. Théologie payenne. 2 tom. (New ed. of his 160. 1754. Beausobre, L. de (the younger). Pyrrhonisme du Sage. Berlin. 161. 1755. Recherches philosophiques sur la liberté de l'homme. Trans. of 162. 1755. Analyse raisonnée de Bayle. 4 tom. [By the Abbé de Marsy. 163. 1755. [Deleyre.] Analyse de la philosophie de Bacon. (Largely an 164. 1757. Prémontval. Vues Philosophiques. (Amsterdam.) 165. 1759. Translation of Hume's Natural History of Religion and 166. 1761. [N.-A. Boulanger. [1020]] Recherches sur l'origine du 167. 1761. Rep. of De la Serre's La vraie religion as Examen de la 168. 1761. [D'Holbach.] Le Christianisme dévoilé. [Imprint: "Londres, 169. 1762. Rousseau. Émile. [Publicly burned at Paris and at Geneva. 170. 1762. Robinet, J. B. De la nature. Vol. i. (Vol. ii in 1764; iii and 171. 1764. [Voltaire.] Dictionnaire philosophique portatif. [1021] [First 172. 1764. Lettres secrètes de M. de Voltaire. [Holland. Collection of 173. 1764. L'Évangile de la Raison. Ouvrage posthume de M. D. M----y. [Ed. 174. 1765. Recueil Nécessaire, avec L'Évangile de la Raison, 2 tom. 175. 1766. Boulanger, N. A. L'Antiquité dévoilée. [1023] 3 tom. [Recast by 176. 1766. Voyage de Robertson aux terres australes. Traduit sur le 177. 1766. De Prades. Abrégé de l'histoire ecclésiastique de Fleury. 178. 1766. [Burigny.] Examen critique des Apologistes de la religion 179. 1766. [Abbé Millot.] Histoire philosophique de l'homme. [Naturalistic 180. 1767. Doutes sur la religion (attributed to Gueroult de Pival), suivi 181. 1767. Lettre de Thrasybule à Leucippe. [Published under the name of 182. 1767. [D'Holbach.] L'Imposture sacerdotale, ou Recueil de pièces sur 183. 1767. Reprint of Le Christianisme dévoilé. [Condemned to be burnt, 184. 1768. Meister, J. H. De l'origine des principes religieux. 185. 1768. Catalogue raisonné des esprits forts, depuis le curé 186. 1768. [D'Holbach.] La Contagion sacrée, ou histoire naturelle de 187. 1768. ---- Lettres philosophiques sur l'origine des préjugés, 188. 1768. ---- Lettres à Eugénie, ou preservatif contre les 189. 1768. ---- Théologie Portative. "Par l'abbé Bernier." [Also 190. 1768. Traité des trois Imposteurs. (See 1719 and 1720.) Rep. 191. 1768. Naigeon, J. A. Le militaire philosophe. [Adaptation of a 192. 1768. Examen des prophéties qui servent de fondement à la 193. 1768. Robinet. Considérations philosophiques. 194. 1769. [Diderot. Also ascribed to Castillon.] Histoire générale 195. 1769. [Mirabaud.] Opinions des anciens sur les juifs, and 196. 1769. [Isoard-Delisle, otherwise Delisle de Sales.] De la 197. 1769. [Seguier de Saint-Brisson.] Traité des Droits de Génie, 198. 1770. ---- Examen critique de la vie et des ouvrages de Saint 199. 1770. ---- Essai sur les Préjugés. (Not by Dumarsais, whose name 200. 1770. Recueil Philosophique. 2 tom. [Edited by Naigeon. Contains 201. 1770. Analyse de Bayle. Rep. of the four vols. of De Marsy, with 202. 1770. Raynal (with Diderot and others). Histoire philosophique 203. 1772. Le Bon Sens. [Adaptation from Meslier by Diderot and 204. 1773. Helvétius. De l'Homme. Ouvrage posthume. 2 tom. [Condemned to 205. 1774. Abauzit, F. Réflexions impartiales sur les Évangiles, suivies 206. 1774. New edition of Theologie Portative. 2 tom. [Condemned to be 207. 1775. [Voltaire.] Histoire de Jenni, ou Le Sage et l'Athée. [Attack 208. 1777. Examen critique du Nouveau Testament, "par M. Fréret." [Not 209. 1779. Vie d'Apollonius de Tyane par Philostrate, avec les 210. 1780. Clootz, Anacharsis. La Certitude des preuves du Mahométisme. 211. 1780. Second ed. of Raynal's Histoire philosophique, with 212. 1784. Pougens, M. C. J. de. Récréations de philosophie et de 213. 1788. Pastoret. Moïse considéré comme legislateur et comme 214. 1788. Maréchal. Almanach des honnêtes gens. [Author imprisoned; 215. 1789. Cerutti (Jesuit Father). Bréviaire Philosophique, ou Histoire 216. 1795. La Fable de Christ dévoilée; ou Lettre du muphti de 217. 1798. Maréchal. Pensées libres sur les prêtres. A Rome, et se 218. 13. It will be noted that after 1770--coincidently, indeed, with a 219. 14. One of the most remarkable of the company in some respects is 220. 15. Though the bibliographers claim to have traced the authorship in 221. 16. Above the scattered band of minor combatants rises a group of 222. 17. An interlude in the critical campaign, little noticed at the time, 223. 18. In the select Parisian arena of the Académie, the intellectual 224. 19. In 1759 there came a check. The Encyclopédie, which had been 225. 20. Voltaire could not compass, as he for a time schemed, the election 226. 21. Alongside of the more strictly literary or humanist movement, 227. 22. A more general influence, naturally, attached to the 228. 23. But science, like theology, had its schisms, and the rationalizing 229. 24. Over all of these men, and even in some measure over Voltaire, 230. 25. With Diderot were specially associated, in different ways, 231. 26. The death of d'Holbach (1789) brings us to the French 232. 27. No part of the history of freethought has been more distorted 233. 28. The anti-atheistic and anti-philosophic legend was born of the 234. 29. If any careful attempt be made to analyse the situation, the 235. 30. A survey of the work and attitude of the leading French 236. 31. While the true causation of the Revolution is thus kept clear, 237. 32. Among many other illustrations of the passion for persecution in 238. 33. This section would not be complete even in outline without some 239. CHAPTER XVIII 240. 1. When two generations of Protestant strife had turned to naught the 241. 2. While, however, clerical action could drive such a movement under 242. 1662. Th. Gegenbauer. Preservatio wider die Pest der heutigen 243. 1668. J. Musæus. Examen Cherburianismi. Contra E. Herbertum de 244. 1668. Anton Reiser. De origine, progressu, et incremento Antitheismi 245. 1677. Val. Greissing. Corona Transylvani; Exerc. 2, de Atheismo, 246. 1689. Th. Undereyck. Der Närrische Atheist in seiner Thorheit 247. 1697. A. H. Grosse. An Atheismus necessario ducat ad corruptionem 248. 1708. Loescher. Prænotiones Theologicæ contra Naturalistarum et 249. 1708. Rechenberg. Fundamenta veræ religionis Prudentum, adversus 250. 1710. J. C. Wolfius. Dissertatio de Atheismi falso suspectis. 251. 1713. Anon. Widerlegung der Atheisten, Deisten, und neuen Zweifeler. 252. 3. For a community in which the reading class was mainly clerical and 253. 4. Other culture-conditions concurred to set up a spirit of rationalism 254. 5. After the collapse of the popular movement of Matthias Knutzen, 255. 6. A personality of a very different kind emerges in the same period 256. 7. Among the pupils of Thomasius at Halle was Theodore Louis Lau, 257. 8. While Thomasius was still at work, a new force arose of a more 258. 9. Even before the generation of active pressure from English and 259. 10. To the same period belong the first activities of Johann Christian 260. 11. Even from decorous and official exponents of religion, however, 261. 12. Alongside of home-made heresy there had come into play a new 262. 13. Frederick, though reputed a Voltairean freethinker par excellence, 263. 14. The social vogue of deistic thought could now be traced in much of 264. 15. If it be true that even the rationalizing defenders of Christianity 265. 16. Much more notorious than any other German deist of his time was 266. 17. Alongside of these propagators of popular rationalism stood 267. 18. Deism was now as prevalent in educated Germany as in France or 268. 19. Meanwhile, the drift of the age of Aufklärung was apparent in 269. 20. No less certain is the unbelief of Schiller (1759-1805), whom 270. 21. The critical philosophy of Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) may be said 271. 22. The total performance of Kant thus left Germany with a powerful 272. 23. Some philosophic opposition there was to Kant, alike on 273. 24. It is true that the progressive work was not all done by the 274. 25. The emancipation, too, was limited in area in the German-speaking 275. CHAPTER XIX 276. 1. Traces of new rationalistic life are to be seen in the Scandinavian 277. 2. For long, the only personality making powerfully for culture was 278. 3. In Sweden, meantime, there had occurred some reflex of the 279. 4. That there was, however, in eighteenth-century Sweden a considerable 280. 5. According to one of Swedenborg's biographers, the worldliness of 281. 6. In Denmark, on the other hand, the stagnation of nearly a hundred 282. 1. In Poland, where, as we saw, Unitarian heresy had spread 283. 2. In Russia the possibilities of modern freethought emerge only in 284. 1. Returning to Italy, no longer the leader of European thought, but 285. 2. First came the great work of Vico, the Principles of a New Science 286. 3. It is noteworthy, indeed, that the "New Science," as Vico boasted, 287. 1763. Thenceforth for many years there raged, "under the eyes of Pope 288. 4. Between 1737 and 1798 may be counted twenty-eight Italian writers 289. 1. For the rest of Europe during the eighteenth century, we have 290. 2. Still all freethinking in Spain ran immense risks, even under 291. 3. Another grandee, Don Christophe Ximenez de Gongora, Duke of 292. 4. In another case, a freethinking priest skilfully anticipated 293. 5. Out of a long series of other men of letters persecuted by the 294. 6. Another savant of the same period, Don Joseph de Clavijo y Faxardo, 295. 7. Still in the same reign, the Jesuit Francisco de Ista, author of an 296. 8. It is plain that the combined power of the Church, the orders, 297. 9. Portugal in the same period, despite the anti-clerical policy 298. CHAPTER XX 299. 1. Perhaps the most signal of all the proofs of the change wrought 300. 2. The rise of rationalism in the colonies must be traced in the main 301. 3. Similarly prudent was Jefferson, who, like Franklin and Paine, 302. 4. Nothing in American culture-history more clearly proves the last 303. 5. Its immediate effect was much greater in Britain, where his Rights 304. 6. The habit of reticence or dissimulation among American public men 305. CHAPTER XXI 306. 1. In Great Britain and America, the new movements of popular 307. 2. In France and elsewhere, the reverberation of the attack 308. 3. German "rationalism," proceeding from English deism, moving 309. 4. The literary compromise of Lessing, claiming for all religions 310. 5. In England, the neo-Christianity of the school of Coleridge, 311. 6. The utilitarianism of the school of Bentham, carried into 312. 7. Comtism, making little direct impression on the "constructive" 313. 8. German philosophy, Kantian and post-Kantian, in particular 314. 9. German atheism and scientific "materialism"--represented 315. 10. Revived English deism, involving destructive criticism 316. 12. Colenso's preliminary attack on the narrative of the 317. 13. The later or scientific "higher criticism" of the Old 318. 14. New historical criticism of Christian origins, in particular 319. 15. Exhibition of rationalism within the churches, as in Germany, 320. 16. Association of rationalistic doctrine with the Socialist 321. 17. Communication of doubt and moral questioning through poetry and 322. 4. The comprehension of all science in the Evolution Theory, 323. 7. Sociology, as outlined by Comte, Buckle, Spencer, Winwood Reade, 324. 8. Comparative Hierology; the methodical application of principles 325. 9. Above all, the later development of Anthropology (in the wide 326. 1. Penal laws, still operative in Britain and Germany against 327. 2. Class interests, involving in the first half of the century 328. 3. Commercial pressure thus set up, and always involved in the 329. 4. In England, identification of orthodox Dissent with political 330. 5. Concessions by the clergy, especially in England and the United 331. 6. Above all, the production of new masses of popular ignorance 332. 7. On this basis, business-like and in large part secular-minded 333. 1. If any one circumstance more than another differentiates the life 334. 2. Meantime, new writers arose to carry into fuller detail the attacks 335. 3. As the years went on, the persecution in England grew still fiercer; 336. 4. In this evolution political activities played an important 337. 5. Holyoake had been a missionary and martyr in the movement 338. 6. This date broadly coincides with the maximum domination of 339. 7. In 1858 there was elected to the presidency of the London Secular 340. 8. The special energy of the English secularist movement in the ninth 341. 9. In the first half of the century popular forms of freethought 342. 10. In other Catholic countries the course of popular culture in 343. 11. In Germany, as we have seen, the relative selectness of culture, 344. 12. Under the widely-different political conditions in Russia and 345. 13. "Free-religious" societies, such as have been noted in Germany, 346. 14. Alongside of the lines of movement before sketched, there has 347. 15. A partly similar evolution has taken place among the Protestant 348. 16. The history of popular freethought in Sweden yields a good 349. 17. Only in the United States has the public lecture platform been 350. 1. At the beginning of the century, educated men in general 351. 2. Gradually that had developed a greater precision of method, 352. 3. No less remarkable was the check to the few attempts which had 353. 4. But as regards the gospel history in general, the first Leben 354. 5. For a time there was undoubtedly "reaction," engineered with the 355. 6. Another expert of Baur's school, Albrecht Schwegler, author of 356. 7. In 1864, after an abstention of twenty years from discussion of 357. 1870. In what is now recognized as the national manner, he wrote two 358. 8. And it was long before even Strauss's early method of scientific 359. 9. In New Testament criticism, though the strict critical method of 360. 10. The movement of Biblical and other criticism in Germany has had 361. 11. On a less extensive scale than in Germany, critical study of the 362. 12. In France systematic criticism of the sacred books recommenced 363. 1. The whole imaginative literature of Europe, in the generation 364. 2. The literary history of France since his death decides the question, 365. 3. In French poetry the case is hardly otherwise. Béranger, who 366. 4. In England it was due above all to Shelley that the very age of 367. 5. One of the best-beloved names in English literature, Charles Lamb, 368. 6. While a semi-Bohemian like Lamb could thus dare to challenge the 369. 7. This attitude of orthodoxy, threatening ostracism to any avowed 370. 8. Thus for a whole generation honest and narrow-minded believers were 371. 9. In English fiction, the beginning of the end of genuine faith 372. 10. Among the most artistically gifted of the English story-writers and 373. 11. Though Shelley was anathema to English Christians in his own 374. 12. Of the imaginative literature of the United States, as of that of 375. 13. Of the vast modern output of belles lettres in continental Europe, 376. 1850. "If I could only go out on crutches!" he exclaimed; adding: 377. 14. But perhaps the most considerable evidence, in belles lettres, 378. 15. In the Scandinavian States, again, there are hardly any 379. 1. The power of intellectual habit and tradition had preserved 380. 2. From France came likewise the impulse to a naturalistic handling 381. 3. In England the influence of the French stimulus in physiology 382. 4. A more general effect, however, was probably wrought by the science 383. 5. Still more rousing, finally, was the effect of the science of 384. 6. Other anticipations of Darwin's doctrine in England and elsewhere 385. 7. "Contempt and abhorrence" had in fact at all times constituted 386. 8. Thus the idea of a specific creation of all forms of life by an 387. 1. A rationalistic treatment of human history had been explicit or 388. 2. In England the anti-revolution reaction was visible in this as 389. 3. All study of economics and of political history fostered such 390. 4. Two lines of scientific study, it would appear, must be thoroughly 391. 1. The philosophy of Kant, while giving the theological class a new 392. 2. In respect of his formal championship of Christianity Hegel's 393. 3. From the collisions of philosophic systems in Germany there 394. 4. Arnold Ruge (1802-1880), who was of the same philosophical school, 395. 5. On Feuerbach's Essence of Religion followed the resounding explosion 396. 6. In France the course of thought had been hardly less 397. 7. On retrospect, the whole official French philosophy of the period, 398. 8. The most energetic and characteristic philosophy produced in the new 399. 9. In Britain, where abstract philosophy after Berkeley had been mainly 400. 10. When English metaphysical philosophy revived with Sir William 401. 11. The effect of the ethical pressure of the deistic attack on 402. 12. A powerful and wholesome stimulus was given to English thought 403. 1598. Chapman spells the name Harriots. 404. 1587. Reprinted in 1592, 1604, and 1617. 405. 128. Cp. Bayle, art. Vorstius, Note N. By his theological opponents and 406. 1573. Ritter, Geschichte der deutschen Union, i, 19. Cp. Menzel, 407. 1646. (Gangræna, p. 151.) The Hanserd Knollys collection, above 408. 1614. Epist. Ded. 409. 1705. (Pref. to pt. i, ed. 1725.) 410. 1876. See citations in Land's note to his lecture in Spinoza: Four 411. 1663. From the withholding of court favour it proceeded to subsidies 412. 169. Most of the Guardian papers cited are by Berkeley. They are 413. 1903. pp. 36-37. 414. 1750. Forbes in his youth had been famed as one of the hardest drinkers 415. Introduction to the History of the Jews; a Vindication of Biblical 416. 1764. It was no fewer than four times ordered to be destroyed in the 417. 19. Jahrhunderts, 2te Aufl. 1848, i, 218-20. 418. 1768. Tn the latter entry, Yvon is described as "poursuivi comme 419. 193. Mrs. Dunlop, the friend of Burns, recommending its perusal to 420. 1841. Many of the utterances here set forth are irreconcilable with 421. 282. The Concordat was bitterly resented by the freethinkers in the 422. 1686. Other German and French periodicals soon followed that of 423. 24. "Before Thomasius," writes Bielfeld, "an old woman could not have 424. 1785. The Letters purport to be written by one of the Moroccan embassy 425. 1684. After a youth of poverty and struggle he settled at Copenhagen in 426. 139. Cp. Rambaud, Hist. de Russie, 2e édit. pp. 249, 259, 427. 32. Ripley, who was one of the American transcendentalist group and