CHAPTER I.

BEHIND THE SCENES OF AN OPERA HOUSE. It would be difficult to find anyone who would not like to go behind the curtain of a great opera house to see how realism is given to the performance, and, incidentally, to gain an insight into that mysterious world upon the stage which always has such an attraction to opera-goers. Before describing in detail the commodious stage of the Metropolitan Opera House, New York City,[13] we will consider for a moment a typical English stage which is the predecessor of most stages in America. America is unfortunate in having so few really great opera houses, so that the description of the English stage will answer for most of the theaters and opera houses, with the exception of the Metropolitan Opera House and the Auditorium in Chicago, both of which have features of interest. For our description of the English form of theater stage we are largely indebted to a series of papers by Mr. Edwin O. Sachs, architect, in the London “Engineering,” beginning January 17, 1896, and appearing at irregular intervals for a year and a half. This valuable series is most profusely illustrated, and forms a treatise of great value. Mr. Sachs has written other works on opera houses. In this connection may be mentioned the French work “_Trucs et Décors_,” by M. Georges Moynet, architect. This book is of rather more popular interest than the series of Mr. Sachs. It describes the ordinary equipment of the stage, but includes the obtaining of special effects on a large scale. The modern adjuncts of the theater stage, such as hydraulic platforms and bridges, are not neglected. Many of the illusions which are illustrated in the present work are described in it, and at least one of them appeared first, we believe, in the “Scientific American.” [13] The editor is indebted for courtesies to Mr. William Parry, stage manager of the Metropolitan Opera House; to Mr. C. D. McGiehan, the stage machinist; to Mr. Edward Siedle, the property master; and to Mr. Stewart, the electrician. Before describing the ordinary English stage and that of the Metropolitan Opera House, a few generalities are in order. The audience really sees a very small proportion of the stage, for behind the curtain is an enormous rectangular structure which is usually much higher than the roof of the auditorium. This great height is rendered necessary in order to raise the hanging scenes up bodily without resorting to the necessity of rolling them up. Great space is also needed for the ropes, pulleys, and other mechanism used for working the curtains, drop scenes, and borders. Everything above the arch of the proscenium is termed the “flies.” The stage proper is the rectangular platform upon which the drama is given. Its width is usually regulated by the width of the space devoted to the orchestra. There is considerable space at each side of the stage for working space. It is here that the “wing” or “side” scenes are stored for the various scenes of the opera, and it is here that the singers and the ballet wait before going before the curtain, through the so-called “entrances” into which the depth of the stage is divided, the number of entrances depending upon the number of wings. The floor of the stage runs from the footlights to the rear wall of the building, but usually the last few feet of the stage are not utilized by the performers, as the scenery is usually painted there in what is called the “paint room.” It is here that a platform, called the “paint bridge,” was formerly raised or lowered, giving access to all parts of the canvas which was being painted. But now the paint frames are usually run up and down, while the bridge remains stationary. The stage is divided widthwise into sections, and these sections of the stage floor can be raised or lowered as desired, and it is also arranged so that scenes, or portions of scenes, may be dropped down through the floor. As the scenes raised upwards have to be taken out of sight, the scenes which are lowered below the stage floor have likewise to disappear from the view of the audience. This results in deep cellars under the stage. The cellar should, of course, be as high as the proscenium aperture through which the audience views the scene; but this is often impossible, and various means are employed to give a great depth to the cellar. This is sometimes managed by raising the orchestra, or pit, above the ground, but this is apt to make the theater unpopular with those who patronize the galleries, as it necessitates a greater climb; and if the orchestra is depressed below the street level, it requires that the cellar shall be sunk in so much further. This increases the difficulty of drainage, and the presence of water may be a constant source of annoyance. We will now describe a typical wooden stage of the English type. England is the home of excellent stage management, and an English property master is known all over the world by the excellence of his work. In England large sums are spent on costly productions, and the arrangements which are provided when the stage is built permit of lightning changes, which are so popular there. In this country the question of expense prevents such elaborate fittings as those in England. There are, of course, important exceptions to this rule. In the commoner English and American stages there has been so little progress that Mr. Sachs notes the fact that there is little difference between “the ordinary London stage of 1895 and the stages of 1750.” One reason that the theaters on the continent of Europe have such excellent stages--stages in which the ability of the architect and engineer are taxed to the utmost--is that they are very largely assisted by subventions from either the government or the municipalities; so it is little wonder, then, that we have so many splendid examples of the most modern stages in Europe. In the present chapter the word “theater” may be considered to mean either a theater for the spoken drama or an opera house. [Illustration: TOP OF THE GRIDIRON.] The top of the stage is known as the “rigging-loft,” or “gridiron,” and consists of a wooden or iron stage composed of an open floor laid upon the tie-beams of the principal roof trusses. A considerable weight has to be supported upon this gridiron, for from it depend all the “cloths” (drops), “borders,” and “gas battens.” The strength of the roof is, therefore, calculated so as to sustain this great weight. In some continental theaters there are two gridirons. The gridiron is also called the rigging-loft on account of the fact that the scenes are “rigged up” by ropes from this floor. The scenes are raised and lowered from this level by means of ropes passing through the spaces in the floor, over blocks with wheels in them, on to the drum, and thence down to the “fly floors” below. Our engravings show the upper and the under side of the gridiron of the Castle Square Theater, in Boston, Mass. This gridiron has some interesting features not possessed by the stage of the Metropolitan Opera House, which will be described a little further on, as at the Metropolitan Opera House there are no windlasses on the gridiron. The windlasses are used to raise heavy weights suspended from the gridiron, and are of the greatest possible use in aërial ballets and other theatrical performances. It will be seen that the gridiron is in reality nothing but a slatted floor supported by iron girders. The ropes will be seen passing over the pulleys to where they descend, at regular intervals, to raise the drops. Our second engraving shows the under side of the gridiron, and the drops and borders which are suspended from it. It gives an excellent idea of the maze of ropes which hang from the gridiron. [Illustration: THE GRIDIRON FROM UNDERNEATH, SHOWING DROP AND BORDERS.] The flies consist of galleries, on both sides of the stage, running from the proscenium wall to the back wall. The “fly rail” consists of a girder made especially strong, to take the weight and pull of the ropes and scenes which are brought down from the gridiron. Each cloth or gas batten hung from the gridiron has four or five ropes by which it hangs, and these are all brought over the pulleys in the gridiron floor down to the flies, where they are made fast on belaying-pins or cleats fixed to the fly rail. The “fly floor” is supported by joists running from the fly-rail girder into the wall of the stage. On the fly floor are often placed windlasses used to raise the heavy weights which are suspended from the gridiron. The load is usually relieved by counterweights which are placed against the wall. The counterweights are usually encased, to minimize the danger of accident in case the rope breaks. The “fly galleries” are usually two tiers in number, but in very large theaters there are often three tiers of fly galleries, one above the other. Nearly all the working of the flies is done from one side of the stage. The flies are often connected by a bridge against the back wall of the stage, and sometimes there are intermediate narrow bridges among the scenery. These enable the “fly men” to cross the stage quickly without necessitating their coming down to the level of the stage. In modern stages of the better class, iron and steel construction is very largely used for the gridiron, flies, etc., and, of course, tends to decrease the danger from fire. Nearly all of the older stage floors fall three-eighths to one-half inch in a foot, from the back to the front, in order to enable the audience to see the actor or singer as he retires “up” the stage; but in modern stages the floors are usually level, as then the scenery can be set plumb. The divisions of the stage are numerous, and include the imaginary divisions called for by the stage directions, and the actual divisions of the stage into “traps,” “sliders,” and “bridges.” The imaginary divisions need not concern us here. In the front and center of the stage is a trap called the “grave trap,” on account of its use in the grave scene of “Hamlet.” It is a small wooden platform made to rise up and down in grooves between four uprights. The stage may have other traps. The trap as an aid in stage illusions is referred to in Chapter IV. of Book III. of the present work. In ordinary stages the traps are floored over, and before they can be used a portion of the floor of the stage has to be removed. This is done by releasing a lever and letting the section of the floor drop into a groove and slide under the immovable parts at the side of the stage. The opening left in the stage is filled by the floor of the ascending trap. Back of the grave trap there are three narrow strips of openings which are technically called “sliders,” then a wider opening which is known as the “bridge.” The rest of the stage is taken up by alternate bridges and sliders. The sliders consist of narrow strips of wood which are made to slide horizontally, right and left, under the stage. They slide in grooves cut in the joists, and are moved backwards and forwards by means of ropes which wind around windlasses which are operated from the mezzanine floor underneath the stage. When both sliders are slid away right and left, the open space in the floor and the space underneath is known as the “cut,” and it is in the “cut” that the scenery is placed which is to be raised up from below. Scenes are raised up the “slider cuts” by means of lengths of wood sliding up and down in grooves forming very wide and narrow elevators. The scene is attached to the lower bar. The floor of the bridge is like the slider floor in construction; the only difference is in the width of the opening left in the stage when the section of the floor has been removed. To fill this space a platform of the same dimensions as the opening which is left in the stage where the bridge is removed is used. The bridge is used to raise bodily any heavy scene, furniture, or a group of figures, but it only raises its load level with the stage, while some of the new hydraulic bridges, or the counterbalanced rising bridge, which we will shortly describe, permit of lifting the part of the scene to any height. There have recently been many reforms in this part of stage management. The level underneath the stage floor is known as the mezzanine floor. This is the working level for all the traps, sliders, and bridges, and it is on this level that all the windlasses are placed which work the ropes to remove the sliders, bridges, etc. The mezzanine takes the same position regarding the manipulation of the stage machinery below as does the fly gallery above. In some cases the mezzanine floors are multiplied so that there are three or four. The lowest level of the stage is known as the “cellar,” or “well.” From the cellar spring the uprights which support the joists of the stage floor. At the bottom of the cellar are placed the drums and shafts used for lifting the bridges. In many theaters there is what is known as the “back stage.” It has no movable portion, no gridiron, flies, or cellar. This space is most useful for distant scenes. In the finest stages, as that of the Vienna Court Theater, the entire cellar is constructed of iron and steel, and everything is worked by hydraulic power. Scenes are not only raised up from the cellar and let down from the gridiron, but are also “built up” on the stage. Such scenes may be only small “profile strips,” or they may be large constructions like a throne, in which the heavy foundations called “rostrums” run in on wheels. Where the run of the opera is to be long, sometimes they are built at great expense and are very ingenious; but they always take up considerable room, and require time to adjust. In continental theaters what is called the “chariot and pole” is largely used. Narrow slits in the stage permit of an upright pole passing through it, the scene being fastened to it. The truck, or “chariot,” which supports the pole runs on the floor of the mezzanine on rails. This manner of shifting the scenes is sometimes very useful. The chariots can be worked singly or in gangs, and they can be worked simultaneously with the borders and the drops, as the ropes which manipulate them can all be brought under the control of one drum or windlass. Having now described a stage of the ordinary variety, we will take up a large stage built on conservative lines. The stage of the Metropolitan Opera House is one hundred and one feet wide, and the depth is eighty-four feet. The height from the stage to the gridiron is ninety feet, to the first fly gallery thirty-six feet, and the depth of the cellar is twenty-eight feet. The stage is divided widthwise into four bridges which run entirely across the stage. Each bridge is divided into four parts, so there are really sixteen working bridges. The wings, or side scenes, are held in place by means of sliding scene posts. The general method of securing the side scenes by scene frames and extension braces will be understood by reference to the engravings in the chapter entitled “Fireworks with Dramatic Accessories,” in the present work. When not in use, the wings for the opera are temporarily piled against the side of the house. At each side of the stage are huge scene-rooms. The stage proper is supported upon an iron framework, and there are three mezzanine floors, though one only is used. When it is desired to raise any part of the stage above the level in order to represent broken ground, or for what is called a “runway,” or for any other purpose, a narrow trap door is lifted and a man at each end of the bridge raises it up to the desired height. The bridges can be raised to a height of twenty-three feet. They are counterweighted, so that it requires very little effort to raise them. It is considered that with this system the stage can be worked about as well and quickly as in the far more elaborate hydraulic stages, as those of Buda-Pesth and Chicago; certainly the simplicity of arrangement is a point in its favor, and, being purely mechanical, it is not liable to break down at a critical moment. The simple bridges are not favored by all stage machinists, however. The wing posts slide up and down through the floor and drop down flush into it. They are at the ends of the bridges. [Illustration: PLAN OF STAGE OF METROPOLITAN OPERA HOUSE.] [Illustration: STAGE SHOWING BRIDGES.] [Illustration: STORING SCENES IN THE CELLAR.] In the Metropolitan Opera House no use is made of the cellar for raising up the scenes, as they find it more satisfactory to operate the scenes from overhead, and nothing of the London pantomime order is done. The cellar is valuable, however, for storage purposes. Going up several flights of stone stairs, the visitor arrives at the first fly gallery. Here, as in the other parts of the house, every precaution is taken to guard against fire. The floor is of cement resting upon iron girders, and the visitor is at once struck with the solidity of everything. On each side of the fly gallery is a large iron pipe through which passes at frequent intervals a series of belaying-pins to which are secured the ropes. All of the drops and borders, as well as the curtain, are worked from the left fly gallery. In theatrical parlance, a scene which is lowered to the stage is called a “drop,” while the scenes which represent the sky are called “borders.” The drops at the Metropolitan measure forty-five by seventy feet. The painted canvases, whether drops or borders, are secured at the top. The canvas is hemmed so as to permit of a wooden pole, or batten, being thrust through it. This bar is secured by means of clamps to the ropes which are to raise the scenes or drops. At the very top of the building, underneath the roof, is what is called the gridiron. It is an iron framework which supports the pulleys over which the ropes run to raise the drops, borders, and the border lights. Each scene-drop is supported by five ropes, and most of the borders are also supported by five ropes, though three are sometimes used. These ropes are attached at equal intervals along the length of the scene or border. [Illustration: WORKING FLY GALLERY.] Each of the five ropes passes over a pulley on the gridiron, or rigging-loft. The ropes are then assembled and pass down on the left of the stage to the first fly gallery, where the fly men are located. In raising or lowering a scene, the five ropes are pulled at the same time, and are secured to the fly rail by means of the belaying-pins. In all theaters the arrangement is not the same as in the Metropolitan; in some cases there are two or three fly rails, each provided with belaying-pins. Usually one rail will be in front, as shown in our engraving, and the others back and at a slightly higher level. The ropes for the drops, etc., which are not in immediate use, are fastened to the belaying-pins on this rail. The fly men climb up to the second and third fly galleries when heavy scenes are to be raised, and, catching hold of the ropes, descend to the first fly gallery on the ropes. There were one hundred and eighty coils of rope used in the stage machinery of the Metropolitan Opera House, each containing one thousand one hundred feet, and one thousand feet of wire rope was required to hang each border light, they being, of course, very heavy. Twelve thousand feet of wire rope was needed for the curtains and border lights. The curtain is raised by hand, by means of a winch using wire ropes. An asbestos curtain is also provided, and may be dropped instantly from the level of the stage in case of fire, so that the conflagration can be confined to the “back of the house.” [Illustration: ELECTRIC SWITCHBOARD.] We present an engraving of a corner of the stage, showing the great switchboard and the prompter’s desk, though, of course, in Grand Opera the prompter takes up his position under a hood directly in front of the conductor, just beyond the footlights. This hood can be dropped down under the stage when not in use. Just before the conclusion of the act the conductor of the orchestra rings an electric bell in the working fly gallery. This is a signal to the fly man to get ready to lower the curtain, for the conductor knows the exact bar in the music at which the curtain should descend. At the proper moment the conductor rings again, and the curtain descends. When the men in the fly gallery receive the first signal--that is, the signal to get ready--they turn a switch which lights a colored electric lamp directly over the small prompt desk shown in our engraving, where the stage manager or his assistant takes up his position. When the conductor rings the curtain down, another colored electric lamp is lighted on turning on a switch by the men in the fly gallery. Of course, audible signals would not answer. The stage manager or his assistant stands in front of the little desk and orders the curtain up and down, depending upon the applause of the audience, which governs the appearance of the artists. This little corner very much resembles the interior of the conning tower of a ship. Here are speaking tubes and electric bells which connect with all parts of the house, from the box office to the cellar. The inscriptions under the bells are as follows: “Prompter,” “Stage,” “Office,” “Carpenter,” “Music-Room,” “Wardrobe,” “Engineer,” “Orchestra,” “Gas Table,” “Thunder,” “Trap,” “Fly,” “Property Artist,” “Box Office.” This means of communication for giving orders and “cues” is very useful; for instance, when the proper moment for thunder has arrived, the stage manager pushes the button and it thunders. Here is also a book upon which is inscribed the exact time of beginning and finishing the various acts. A door at the right of the desk gives access to the stage in front of the curtain; there is a corresponding door on the other side of the house. These doors are very useful, as they enable the artists to appear in response to _encores_, without raising the curtain, which means loss of time which is much needed in changing the scene. It is a wonderful sight to look through the little peep-hole in the door at the audience. Tier upon tier of splendidly clothed humanity rises up to the family circle at a dizzy height above. The whole is bright and gay, and is very different from the practical world behind the stage, where stand the stalwart stage hands ready for their duties; but, after all, the world behind the stage has a charm which even the casual visitor willingly admits. The electric lighting of the Opera House is very interesting, the switchboard especially. It is believed to be the finest theater switchboard in the world, and cost a good-sized fortune. It is known as the Kelly-Cushing switchboard. From the switchboard every light in the house is controlled both in front of and behind the curtain. Of course, the necessity of arranging all the lights used upon the stage so that the colors may be changed, greatly complicates the switchboard. It is arranged so that the operator can move all the rheostats at once, if desired, thus producing a gradual brightening or dimming of the lights. This is done by the large lever at the right of the switchboard. Underneath will be seen the fuses. At the right will be noticed a number of small switches. These control the pilot lights which are fastened at the top of the switchboard. These pilot lights show the exact condition of every light both in the house and on the stage; and the electrician, who has absolute control over all the lights from the great switchboard, can see at a glance what lights he has on, whether red, blue, yellow, or white, and their brightness. The footlights, which are between the conductor and the curtain, are provided with fifty candle-power lamps. The drop scenes, and especially the borders, are lighted by means of what are called border lights. The border lights consist of a batten which runs clear across the stage and which is suspended from the gridiron by means of wire ropes. The batten is backed with a tin reflector. There are two hundred and thirty-four lamps in each of the border lights, which are eight in number. The electric lamps are of thirty-two candle-power, and are arranged alternately in colors of red, white, blue, and yellow. It is, of course, possible for two of the colors to be turned on at once if desired. Any degree of brightness may be obtained by manipulating the rheostats on the switchboard. The cables for furnishing the electricity for the border lights are attached at the level of the first fly gallery on the right side, or the side opposite to the working fly gallery. The border lights are usually maintained at a height just above the first fly gallery. In case of any breakdown in the electrical system, gas is provided for the borders and the footlights, the burners being secured to the battens of the border lights the same as the electric lights. Rubber tubes which furnish the supply of gas are attached on the same side as the electric cable. At the sides of the proscenium opening are what are called “side lights.” They are one hundred in number, and are of sixteen candle-power. They are provided in the four colors already mentioned. Up in the first fly gallery, at the side of the border lights, are eighteen arc-light projectors, nine to the side, seven of which are what are called “open boxes,” that is, they have a ground-glass front, and two of them are provided with lenses and are called “lens boxes.” These arc lights take the place of the old calcium lights, and are better and more economical. The wings are lighted by what are called “bunch lights,” several incandescent lights being placed in front of a reflector. They are supported by a standard. The electric light can be obtained at nearly all parts of the stage from boxes which are provided with an iron cover. Gas may also be had for use in various effects. In some operas, as many as a thousand incandescent lights maybe going on the stage at one time, in addition to the arc-light projectors already referred to. There is little wonder that under this intense light the ordinary complexion is paled, and artifice is required to come to the aid of nature. There are about nine thousand incandescent lights in the entire house, although they are not all used at one time. Every part of the house is beautifully lighted, even to the cellars. When the Opera House is used for balls, splendid chandeliers are used, which are stored in the cellar when not in use. The whole stage and orchestra are boarded over, making a superb ballroom. The Opera House does not have its own plant for generating electricity. It is all obtained from the street circuit. It is believed that there is less risk of a breakdown or from fire than if an isolated plant was provided. Electricity is used in many of the effects and for running the ventilating fans and the elevators. When the house was rebuilt after the fire, the gas table made way for the switchboard. The complicated gas plot is not used at the present time at the Opera House, the electrician carrying the lighting in his mind, the effects being determined upon at the rehearsal. Much of the lighting depends on “cues;” thus, in the first act of “Siegfried,” when Wotan appears in the mouth of the cave, this is the signal for light being turned on him with a projector; and further on, when he strikes the stage with his spear, white light is thrown on him. The electrical organ at the Metropolitan Opera House is interesting. The organ itself is fixed in the first fly gallery on the right, but it may be played from any part of the stage. At the extreme right of the stage is the organ trap. When it is wished to use the organ either for rehearsal or for a performance, the keyboard is raised by the trap and carried to any part of the stage, a large cable carrying the wire which runs up to the organ. This arrangement gives great satisfaction. Every precaution is taken to guard against fire, which once played such havoc with the Opera House. Lines of hose are on every floor, and automatic sprinklers are in all of the rooms. Axes and fire-hooks are disposed at frequent intervals. A fireman is on the stage at all the performances, and the men are carefully trained in a fire drill. The asbestos curtain affords absolute protection to the audience, as even a fire of the most serious character in the “back of the house” would give the most ample time for all of the audience to get out comfortably. It may be dropped either from the flies or the stage. It is lowered at night as a precaution. [Illustration: PAINTING SCENERY FROM THE PAINT BRIDGE.] The paint bridge is a wide platform at the level of the first fly gallery, and furnishes a means of communication between the two fly galleries. The canvas which is to be painted is run up the side of the paint bridge. The scenic artist thus has access to all parts of the canvas. On the paint bridge are long tables covered with large earthenware dishes in which the paint is kept. The visitor will probably be surprised to see the enormous quantity of color which is used in painting scenery; the color is mixed with a size. At the Metropolitan the scenery is painted by daylight, but it can also be lighted artificially by incandescent lights. The production of a new opera necessitates the making of large quantities of scenery. The property-rooms are most interesting. Here you may see Siegfried’s anvil, his forge, Wotan’s spear, the Lohengrin swan, or the “Rheingold;” while under the second fly gallery will be seen the parts of “Fafner,” the dragon in “Siegfried,” which will be described in another chapter. The armory is a room containing a vast collection of helmets, casques, breastplates, swords, spears, lanterns, daggers, etc.; while in a case lighted by electricity are the splendid jewels, crowns, etc., which make such an effective appearance when seen on the stage. Here will also be found a model of the old dragon which was burned up in the fire. Hung up on one side of the wall is an elephant’s head with a trunk which is freely flexible, and in the next room will be found the head of a camel which winks his eyes. In here are also stored the shields and weapons which the great artists use when they impersonate Northern gods and warriors. Under the property master’s charge are modeling-rooms and carpenter shops. The day on which the opera is to be performed the property master gets out all of the things which will be needed in the production. They are carefully stowed away convenient to the stage, or upon it, so that they may be brought to their proper place without a moment’s delay. When it is considered that the size of the objects varies from the dragon to a pack of cards, it will be seen that there is a great chance of forgetting something; but should this occur, everything is arranged so that the error can be remedied with the smallest loss of time. With properties, as with stage carpentry, everything depends upon invention, and for every new opera the property master is obliged to devise new properties and new effects for which he has often no precedent. When the curtain falls for good after the _encores_, the stage machinist blows a sharp blast on his whistle, and as if by magic all the singers and the chorus who have not gone already, leave the stage, and their places are taken by a swarm of stage hands. The fly men raise the drops and the borders out of the way, while the men on the stage take away the movables and the set scenes. The wing scenes are unfastened and are placed at the sides of the stage temporarily, while the new set scenes are brought out and take their place. If rising ground is to be made, the men raise the trap doors and, reaching underneath the bridges, haul them up to the proper height and secure them with pins. Then canvas to represent the ground is placed over the front of the stage and up over the broken ground. Rocks and trees of _papier maché_ and canvas are brought in and placed in position. If any things like chandeliers are used, ropes are dropped from the gridiron to secure them at the proper height. The stage machinist stands in the middle of the stage and gives an order now and then to some of the men, the scenes and the drops and borders are raised or lowered, or the set scenes straightened until all are in order and able to pass the critical eyes of the machinist and the stage manager. All of this is done without confusion, so carefully is every man trained in his duties. Then calls are sent to the various dressing-rooms, and the chorus or “supers” are brought out and placed in position. When everything is in readiness, and the proper time has arrived, according to the music, the prompter, from his little box under the stage, gives a signal which is transmitted to the fly men, who wind away on the windlasses and raise the curtain. It might naturally be supposed that all is now quiet at the back and sides of the stage, but this is not always the case; the wings and the stage back of the last drop are filled with those who are to go on next, and one may encounter Sicilian bandits, peasants, Northern gods, or the _première danseuse_ nervously practicing her steps with the master of the ballet. The favored visitor is allowed to walk around in this new world without being molested, and the opera as seen from the floor of the stage or from the “flies” is a sight never to be forgotten. After any one has viewed the production of an elaborate opera from behind the scenes he will never again be in the slightest degree annoyed by the length of the _entr’acte_. The only wonder is that the elaborate scenes can be gotten ready in the fifteen or twenty minutes which elapse between the falling of the curtain at the close of one act and the raising of the curtain at the beginning of the next act; and it must be remembered that the artists are frequently the cause of the delay. The dressing-rooms at the Metropolitan are not luxurious, but often the artists fix them up attractively. The dressing-rooms for the supers, chorus, and ballet are, of course, large. Few of those who hear the first production of a new opera realize that the successful performance is the result not only of the singing of celebrities and perfect orchestration, but also of the patient care which has been bestowed upon the opera for months by the stage manager and those who have helped him. When the director of the opera company decides to produce a new opera the libretto is given to those who are charged with the construction of scenery, costumes, and properties. The first thing to be avoided is the gross anachronisms which are so often seen upon even the stages of first-class theaters. The examples of chronological errors which might be cited are almost endless, and for interesting examples the reader is referred to “Pictorial Art on the Stage,” by E. W. and E. H. Blashfield, in the “Century,” vol. xxxv. At the present time celebrated artists are often engaged to make drawings of the scenes and costumes. The results obtained for spoken dramas by Mr. Frank Millet and Mr. Hamilton Bell are noteworthy. If artists are not engaged to do the work it is entrusted to carefully trained specialists. They first consult books of costume and works bearing upon the period which is to be illustrated. These matters are discussed by the director, and the designs are modified if necessary. The scenic artist is then called in to sketch and model the scenery. He has a miniature stage on the scale of half an inch to a foot. Little scenes are made for it of pasteboard, and carefully painted. They are placed in position, and are modified from time to time, as required. It is really wonderful to the layman to see how many things have to be taken into consideration in modeling a scene. The number of persons upon the stage, the properties, the music, and the difficulties of setting the scenes, all have to be most carefully considered, as well as arrangements for traveling on the road. Finally the miniature stage with all its properties is fully equipped, then the whole force at the disposal of the stage manager is set to work to prepare costumes, properties, and scenery. All possible care must be taken to insure the proper effects of color when the costumes and scenery are brought into juxtaposition. Frequently over two hundred and fifty costumes must be made for a single opera, so that the costume-rooms of an opera house resemble a mammoth dressmaking and tailoring establishment. It is no small task to preserve the thousands of costumes from dust and moths. Before each performance all the costumes required must be gotten out, brushed, and placed in the proper dressing-rooms. All repairs are made to the garments before putting them away again. The number of properties which are required for an opera is frequently several hundred, and they are of all sizes, from finger rings to immense constructions which require the united efforts of a dozen men to move them. It is naturally to be supposed that _papier maché_ and plaster of paris are two of the most valuable adjuncts of the property master’s art. Probably nothing in the way of an opera requires such Yankee ingenuity as does the office of property master. We have not space to go into the subject of rehearsals and how the final production of the opera is accomplished, but we shall endeavor to give a few examples in the next chapter of how some of the effects are produced. Before taking up the minor stage effects, as well as those which might be called “theater secrets,” we will first describe some interesting old stages, then stage effects in which the entire stage is required for the production of a certain effect. In leaving the subject of opera it is only fair to say that the enormous expense attending the maintenance of the opera house itself, the cost of properties, lighting, etc., to say nothing of the remarkable salaries of the singers, really warrants the exaction of what are seemingly high prices. Opera is such an education to music lovers that it is unfortunate that it cannot receive such financial aid from the state that its success under good management will be assured. On the Continent every care is taken to foster the opera. In Paris, we believe, the government allots an annual subvention of 800,000 francs.