1806. The Servian and Greek insurrections quickened the patriotic

sentiments of the Bulgarian refugees and merchants in Rumania, Bessarabia and southern Russia, and Bucharest became the centre of their political and literary activity. A modest _bukvar_, or primer, published at Kronstadt by Berovitch in 1824, was the first product of the new movement. Translations of the Gospels, school reading-books, short histories and various elementary treatises now appeared. With the multiplication of books came the movement for establishing Bulgarian schools, in which the monk Neophyt Rilski (1793-1881) played a leading part. He was the author of the first Bulgarian grammar (1835) and other educational works, and translated the New Testament into the modern language. Among the writers of the literary renaissance were George Rakovski (1818-1867), a fantastic writer of the patriotic type, whose works did much to stimulate the national zeal, Liuben Karaveloff (1837-1879), journalist and novelist, Christo Boteff (1847-1876), lyric poet, whose ode on the death of his friend Haji Dimitr, an insurgent leader, is one of the best in the language, and Petko Slaveikoff (died 1895), whose poems, patriotic, satirical and erotic, moulded the modern poetical language and exercised a great influence over the people. Gavril Krstovitch, formerly governor-general of eastern Rumelia, and Marin Drinoff, a Slavist of high repute, have written historical works. Stamboloff, the statesman, was the author of revolutionary and satirical ballads; his friend Zacharia Stoyanoff (d. 1889), who began life as a shepherd, has left some interesting memoirs. The most distinguished Bulgarian man of letters is Ivan Vazoff (b. 1850), whose epic and lyric poems and prose works form the best specimens of the modern literary language. His novel _Pod Igoto_ (Under the Yoke) has been translated into several European languages. The best dramatic work is _Ivanko_, a historical play by Archbishop Clement, who also wrote some novels. With the exception of Zlatarski's and Boncheff's geological treatises and contributions by Georgieff, Petkoff, Tosheff and Urumoff to Velnovski's _Flora Bulgarica_, no original works on natural science have as yet been produced; a like dearth is apparent in the fields of philosophy, criticism and fine art, but it must be remembered that the literature is still in its infancy. The ancient folk-songs have been preserved in several valuable collections; though inferior to the Servian in poetic merit, they deserve scientific attention. Several periodicals and reviews have been founded in modern times. Of these the most important are the _Perioditchesko Spisanie_, issued since 1869 by the Bulgarian Literary Society, and the _Sbornik_, a literary and scientific miscellany, formerly edited by Dr Shishmanoff, latterly by the Literary Society, and published by the government at irregular intervals. AUTHORITIES.--C.J. Jire[vc]ek, _Das Furstenthum Bulgarien_ (Prague, 1891), and _Cesty po Bulharsku_ (Travels in Bulgaria), (Prague, 1888), both works of the first importance; Léon Lamouche, _La Bulgarie dans le passé et le présent_ (Paris, 1892); Prince Francis Joseph of Battenberg, _Die Volkswirthschaftliche Entwicklung Bulgarians_ (Leipzig, 1891); F. Kanitz, _Donau-Bulgarien und der Balkan_ (Leipzig, 1882); A.G. Drander, _Événements politiques en Bulgarie_ (Paris, 1896); and _Le Prince Alexandre de Battenberg_ (Paris, 1884); A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipzig, 1898); A. Tuma, _Die östliche Balkanhalbinsel_ (Vienna, 1886); A. de Gubernatis, _La Bulgarie et les Bulgares_ (Florence, 1899); E. Blech, _Consular Report on Bulgaria in 1889_ (London, 1890); _La Bulgarie contemporaine_ (issued by the Bulgarian Ministry of Commerce and Agriculture), (Brussels, 1905). Geology: F. Toula, _Reisen und geologische Untersuchungen in Bulgarien_ (Vienna, 1890); J. Cviji['c], "Die Tektonik der Balkanhalbinsel," in _C.R. IX. Cong. géol. intern. de Vienne_, pp. 348-370, with map, 1904. History: C.J. Jire[vc]ek, _Geschichte der Bulgaren_ (Prague, 1876); (a summary in _The Balkans_, by William Miller, London, 1896); Sokolov, _Iz drevneì istorii Bolgar_ (Petersburg, 1879); Uspenski, _Obrazovanïe vtorago Bolgarskago tsarstva_ (Odessa, 1879); _Acta Bulgariae ecclesiastica_, published by the South Slavonic Academy (Agram, 1887). Language: F. Miklosich, _Vergleichende Grammatik_ (Vienna, 1879); and _Geschichte d. Lautbezeichnung im Bulgarischen_ (Vienna, 1883); A. Leskien, _Handbuch d. altbulgarischen Sprache_ (with a glossary), (Wiemar, 1886); L. Miletich, _Staroblgarska Gramatika_ (Sofia, 1896); _Das Ostbulgarische_ (Vienna, 1903); Labrov, _Obzor zvulkovikh i formalnikh osobenostei Bolgarskago yezika_ (Moscow, 1893); W.R. Morfill, _A Short Grammar of the Bulgarian Language_ (London, 1897); F. Vymazal, _Die Kunst die bulgarische Sprache leicht und schnell zu erlernen_ (Vienna, 1888). Literature: L.A.H. Dozon, _Chansons populaires bulgares inédites_ (with French translations), (Paris, 1875); A. Strausz, _Bulgarische Volksdichtungen_ (translations with a preface and notes), (Vienna and Leipzig, 1895); Lydia Shishmanov, _Légendes religieuses bulgares_ (Paris, 1896); Pypin and Spasovich, _History of the Slavonic Literature_ (in Russian, St Petersburg, 1879), (French translation, Paris, 1881); Vazov and Velitchkov, _Bulgarian Chrestomathy_ (Philippopolis, 1884); Teodorov, _Blgarska Literatura_ (Philippopolis, 1896); Collections of folk-songs, proverbs, &c., by the brothers Miladinov (Agram, 1861), Bezsonov (Moscow, 1855), Kachanovskiy (Petersburg, 1882), Shapkarev (Philippopolis, 1885), Iliev (Sofia, 1889), P. Slaveïkov (Sofia, 1899). See also _The Shade of the Balkans_, by Pencho Slaveïkov, H. Bernard and E.J. Dillon (London, 1904). (J. D. B.) BULGARIA, EASTERN, formerly a powerful kingdom which existed from the 5th to the 15th century on the middle Volga, in the present territory of the provinces of Samara, Simbirsk, Saratov and N. Astrakhan, perhaps extending also into Perm. The village Bolgari near Kanzañ, surrounded by numerous graves in which most interesting archaeological finds have been made, occupies the site of one of the cities--perhaps the capital--of that extinct kingdom. The history, _Tarikh Bulgar_, said to have been written in the 12th century by an Arabian cadi of the city Bolgari, has not yet been discovered; but the Arabian historians, Ibn Foslan, Ibn Haukal, Abul Hamid Andalusi, Abu Abdallah Harnati, and several others, who had visited the kingdom, beginning with the 10th century, have left descriptions of it. The Bulgars of the Volga were of Turkish origin, but may have assimilated Finnish and, later, Slavonian elements. In the 5th century they attacked the Russians in the Black Sea prairies, and afterwards made raids upon the Greeks. In 922, when they were converted to Islam, Ibn Foslan found them not quite nomadic, and already having some permanent settlements and houses in wood. Stone houses were built soon after that by Arabian architects. Ibn Dasta found amongst them agriculture besides cattle breeding. Trade with Persia and India, as also with the Khazars and the Russians, and undoubtedly with Biarmia (Urals), was, however, their chief occupation, their main riches being furs, leather, wool, nuts, wax and so on. After their conversion to Islam they began building forts, several of which are mentioned in Russian annals. Their chief town, Bolgari or Velikij Gorod (Great Town) of the Russian annals, was often raided by the Russians. In the 13th century it was conquered by the Mongols, and became for a time the seat of the khans of the Golden Horde. In the second half of the 15th century Bolgari became part of the Kazañ kingdom, lost its commercial and political importance, and was annexed to Russia after the fall of Kazañ. (P. A. K.) BULGARUS, an Italian jurist of the 12th century, born at Bologna, sometimes erroneously called Bulgarinus, which was properly the name of a jurist of the 15th century. He was the most celebrated of the famous "Four Doctors" of the law school of that university, and was regarded as the Chrysostom of the Gloss-writers, being frequently designated by the title of the "Golden Mouth" (_os aureum_). He died in 1166 A.D., at a very advanced age. Popular tradition represents all the Four Doctors (Bulgarus, Martinus Gosia, Hugo de Porta Ravennate and Jacobus de Boragine) as pupils of Irnerius (_q.v._), but while there is no insuperable difficulty in point of time in accepting this tradition as far as regards Bulgarus, Savigny considers the general tradition inadmissible as regards the others. Martinus Gosia and Bulgarus were the chiefs of two opposite schools at Bologna, corresponding in many respects to the Proculians and Sabinians of Imperial Rome, Martinus being at the head of a school which accommodated the law to what his opponents styled the equity of "the purse" (_aequitas bursalis_), whilst Bulgarus adhered more closely to the letter of the law. The school of Bulgarus ultimately prevailed, and it numbered amongst its adherents Joannes Bassianus, Azo and Accursius, each of whom in his turn exercised a commanding influence over the course of legal studies at Bologna. Bulgarus took the leading part amongst the Four Doctors at the diet of Roncaglia in 1158, and was one of the most trusted advisers of the emperor Frederick I. His most celebrated work is his commentary _De Regulis Juris_, which was at one time printed amongst the writings of Placentius, but has been properly reassigned to its true author by Cujacius, upon the internal evidence contained in the additions annexed to it, which are undoubtedly from the pen of Placentinus. This [v.04 p.0787] _Commentary_, which is the earliest extant work of its kind emanating from the school of the Gloss-writers, is, according to Savigny, a model specimen of the excellence of the method introduced by Irnerius, and a striking example of the brilliant results which had been obtained in a short space of time by a constant and exclusive study of the sources of law. BULL, GEORGE (1634-1710), English divine, was born at Wells on the 25th of March 1634, and educated at Tiverton school, Devonshire. He entered Exeter College, Oxford, in 1647, but had to leave in 1649 in consequence of his refusal to take the oath of allegiance to the Commonwealth. He was ordained privately by Bishop Skinner in 1655. His first benefice held was that of St George's near Bristol, from which he rose successively to be rector of Suddington in Gloucestershire (1658), prebendary of Gloucester (1678), archdeacon of Llandaff (1686), and in 1705 bishop of St David's. He died on the 17th of February 1710. During the time of the Commonwealth he adhered to the forms of the Church of England, and under James II. preached strenuously against Roman Catholicism. His works display great erudition and powerful thinking. The _Harmonia Apostolica_ (1670) is an attempt to show the fundamental agreement between the doctrines of Paul and James with regard to justification. The _Defensio Fidei Nicenae_ (1685), his greatest work, tries to show that the doctrine of the Trinity was held by the ante-Nicene fathers of the church, and retains its value as a thorough-going examination of all the pertinent passages in early church literature. The _Judicium Ecclesiae Catholicae_ (1694) and _Primitiva et Apostolica Traditio_ (1710) won high praise from Bossuet and other French divines. Following on Bossuet's criticisms of the _Judicium_, Bull wrote a treatise on _The Corruptions of the Church of Rome_, which became very popular. The best edition of Bull's works is that in 7 vols., published at Oxford by the Clarendon Press, under the superintendence of E. Burton, in 1827. This edition contains the _Life_ by Robert Nelson. The _Harmonia, Defensio_ and _Judicium_ are translated in the Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology (Oxford, 1842-1855). BULL, JOHN (c. 1562-1628), English composer and organist, was born in Somersetshire about 1562. After being organist in Hereford cathedral, he joined the Chapel Royal in 1585, and in the next year became a Mus. Bac. of Oxford. In 1591 he was appointed organist in Queen Elizabeth's chapel in succession to Blitheman, from whom he had received his musical education. In 1592 he received the degree of doctor of music at Cambridge University; and in 1596 he was made music professor at Gresham College, London. As he was unable to lecture in Latin according to the foundation-rules of that college, the executors of Sir Thomas Gresham made a dispensation in his favour by permitting him to lecture in English. He gave his first lecture on the 6th of October 1597. In 1601 Bull went abroad. He visited France and Germany, and was everywhere received with the respect due to his talents. Anthony Wood tells an impossible story of how at St Omer Dr Bull performed the feat of adding, within a few hours, forty parts to a composition already written in forty parts. Honourable employments were offered to him by various continental princes; but he declined them, and returned to England, where he was given the freedom of the Merchant Taylors' Company in